Modern didactics
school chemistry

Course curriculum

Newspaper no.	Educational material
17	Lecture No. 1. Main directions of modernization of school chemical education. An experiment on the transition of schools to 12-year education. Pre-vocational training for primary school students and specialized training for high school students. Unified State Exam as the final form of quality control of knowledge in chemistry of high school graduates. Federal component of the state educational standard in chemistry
18	Lecture No. 2. Concentrism and propaedeutics in modern school chemical education. A concentric approach to structuring school chemistry courses. Propaedeutic chemistry courses
19	Lecture No. 3. Analysis of original chemistry courses from the federal list of textbooks on the subject. Basic school chemistry courses and pre-professional preparation of students. Chemistry courses at the senior level of general education and specialized training in the academic discipline. Linear, linear-concentric and concentric construction of author's courses.
20	Lecture No. 4. The process of teaching chemistry. Essence, goals, motives and stages of teaching chemistry. Principles of teaching chemistry. Student development in the process of learning chemistry. Forms and methods of improving the creative and research abilities of students when studying chemistry
21	Lecture No. 5. Methods of teaching chemistry. Classification of methods of teaching chemistry. Problem-based learning in chemistry. Chemical experiment as a method of teaching the subject. Research methods in teaching chemistry
22	Lecture No. 6 . Monitoring and assessing the quality of students' knowledge as a form of guiding their educational activities. Types of control and their didactic functions. Pedagogical testing in chemistry. Typology of tests. Unified State Exam (USE) in chemistry.
23	Lecture No. 7. Personally oriented technologies for teaching chemistry. Collaborative learning technologies. Project-based learning. Portfolio as a means of monitoring the success of a student’s mastery of an academic subject
24	Lecture No. 8. Forms of organization of chemistry teaching. Chemistry lessons, their structure and typology. Organization of educational activities of students in chemistry lessons. Elective courses, their typology and didactic purpose. Other forms of organizing students’ educational activities (clubs, olympiads, scientific societies, excursions)
Final work. Development of a lesson in accordance with the proposed concept. A brief report on the final work, accompanied by a certificate from the educational institution, must be sent to the Pedagogical University no later than February 28, 2008.

LECTURE No. 5
Chemistry teaching methods

Classification of chemistry teaching methods

The word "method" Greek origin and translated into Russian means “the path of research, theory, teaching.” In the learning process, the method acts as an orderly way of interrelated activities between teachers and students to achieve certain educational goals.

The concept of “teaching method” is also widespread in didactics. A teaching method is an integral part or a separate aspect of a teaching method.

Didactics and methodologists failed to create a single universal classification of teaching methods.

The teaching method presupposes, first of all, the teacher’s goal and his activities with the help of the means available to him. As a result, the student’s goal and his activity arise, which is carried out by the means available to him. Under the influence of this activity, the process of assimilation by the student of the studied content occurs, the intended goal, or learning result, is achieved. This result serves as a criterion for the suitability of the method for the purpose. So anyone The teaching method is a system of purposeful actions of the teacher that organizes the cognitive and practical activities of the student, ensuring that he masters the content of education and thereby achieves learning goals.

The content of education to be mastered is heterogeneous. It includes components (knowledge about the world, experience of reproductive activity, experience of creative activity, experience of an emotional-value attitude towards the world), each of which has its own specifics. Numerous studies by psychologists and school experience indicate that Each type of content has a specific way of assimilating it.. Let's look at each of them.

It is known that mastering the first component of educational content – knowledge about the world, including about the world of substances, materials and chemical processes, requires, first of all, active perception, which initially proceeds as sensory perception: visual, tactile, auditory, gustatory, tactile. Perceiving not only real reality, but also symbols and signs that express it in the form of chemical concepts, laws, theories, formulas, equations of chemical reactions, etc., the student correlates them with real objects, recodes them into a language that corresponds to his experience. In other words, the student acquires chemical knowledge through various types of perception, awareness acquired information about the world and memorization her.

The second component of educational content is experience in implementing activities. To ensure this type of assimilation, the teacher organizes the reproductive activities of students according to a model, rule, algorithm (exercises, solving problems, drawing up equations of chemical reactions, performing laboratory work, etc.).

The listed methods of activity, however, cannot ensure the development of the third component of the content of school chemical education - creative experience. To master this experience, the student must independently solve problems that are new to him.

The last component of educational content is experience of emotional and value attitude towards the world - involves the formation of normative attitudes, value judgments, attitudes towards substances, materials and reactions, towards activities for their knowledge and safe use, etc.

Specific ways of nurturing relationships may vary. Thus, you can amaze students with the surprise of new knowledge, the effectiveness of a chemical experiment; attract by the possibility of demonstrating one’s own strengths, independent achievement of unique results, the significance of the objects being studied, the paradoxical nature of thoughts and phenomena. In all these specific ways, one thing is evident common feature– they influence the emotions of students, form an emotionally charged attitude towards the subject of study, and cause feelings. Without taking into account the emotional factor of the student, it is possible to teach knowledge and skills, but it is impossible to arouse interest and a constant positive attitude towards chemistry.

The classification of methods, which is based on the specific content of educational material and the nature of educational and cognitive activity, includes several methods: explanatory-illustrative method, reproductive method, problem presentation method, partial search or heuristic method, research method.

Explanatory and illustrative method

The teacher organizes the transfer of ready-made information and its perception by students using various means:

A) spoken word(explanation, conversation, story, lecture);

b) printed word(textbook, additional manuals, reading books, reference books, electronic sources of information, Internet resources);

V) visual aids(use of multimedia, demonstration of experiments, tables, graphs, diagrams, slide shows, educational films, television, video and filmstrips, natural objects in the classroom and during excursions);

G) practical demonstration of methods of activity(demonstration of samples of drawing up formulas, installation of the device, method problem solving, drawing up a plan, summary, annotations, examples of exercises, design of work, etc.).

Explanation. Explanation should be understood as a verbal interpretation of principles, patterns, essential properties of the object being studied, individual concepts, phenomena, processes. It is used in solving chemical problems, revealing the causes, mechanisms of chemical reactions, and technological processes. Application of this method requires:

– precise and clear formulation of the essence of the problem, task, question;

– argumentation, evidence of consistent disclosure of cause-and-effect relationships;

– use of techniques of comparison, analogy, generalization;

– attracting bright, convincing examples from practice;

– impeccable logic of presentation.

Conversation. Conversation is a dialogic teaching method in which the teacher, by posing a carefully thought-out system of questions, leads students to understand new material or checks their understanding of what has already been learned.

Used to transfer new knowledge informative conversation. If a conversation precedes the study of new material, it is called introductory or introductory The purpose of such a conversation is to update students’ existing knowledge, to evoke positive motivation, a state of readiness to learn new things. Fixing conversation is used after studying new material in order to check the degree of its assimilation, systematization, and consolidation. During the conversation, questions can be addressed to one student ( individual conversation) or students of the whole class ( frontal conversation).

The success of the conversation largely depends on the nature of the questions: they should be short, clear, meaningful, formulated in such a way as to awaken the student’s thoughts. You should not ask double, suggestive questions or questions that force you to guess the answer. It should also not be formulated alternative questions, requiring unambiguous answers like “yes” or “no”.

The advantages of the conversation include the fact that it:

– activates the work of all students;

– allows you to use their experience, knowledge, observations;

– develops attention, speech, memory, thinking;

– is a means of diagnosing the level of training.

Story. The story method involves narrative exposition educational material of a descriptive nature. There are a number of requirements for its use.

The story should:

– have a clear goal setting;

– include a sufficient number of vivid, imaginative, convincing examples, reliable facts;

– be sure to be emotionally charged;

– reflect elements of the teacher’s personal assessment and attitude to the presented facts, events, and actions;

– accompanied by writing on the board the corresponding formulas, reaction equations, as well as a demonstration (using multimedia, etc.) of various diagrams, tables, portraits of chemist scientists;

– illustrated with a corresponding chemical experiment or its virtual analogue, if required by safety regulations or if the school does not have the capacity to conduct it.

Lecture. A lecture is a monologue way of presenting voluminous material, necessary in cases where it is necessary to enrich the content of the textbook with new, additional information. It is used, as a rule, in high school and takes up the entire or almost the entire lesson. The advantage of a lecture is the ability to ensure completeness, integrity, and systematic perception of educational material by schoolchildren using intra- and interdisciplinary connections.

A school lecture on chemistry, just like a story, should be accompanied by a supporting summary and appropriate visual aids, a demonstration experiment, etc.

Lecture (from lat. lectio reading) is characterized by rigor of presentation and involves note-taking. The same requirements apply to it as to the method of explanation, but a number of additional ones are added:

– the lecture has a structure, it consists of an introduction, main part, conclusion;

The effectiveness of the lecture is significantly increased by using elements of discussion, rhetorical and problematic questions, comparing different points of view, expressing one’s own attitude to the problem under discussion or the position of the author.

The explanatory and illustrative method is one of the most economical ways to convey the generalized and systematized experience of mankind.

IN last years The most powerful information reservoir has been added to the sources of information - the Internet, a global telecommunications network covering all countries of the world. Many teachers consider the didactic properties of the Internet not only as a global information system, but also as a channel for transmitting information through multimedia technologies. Multimedia technologies (MMT) – information technologies that provide work with animated computer graphics, text, speech and high-quality audio, still or video images. We can say that multimedia is a synthesis of three elements: digital information (texts, graphics, animation), analog visual information (video, photographs, paintings, etc.) and analog information (speech, music, other sounds). The use of MMT promotes better perception, awareness and memorization of material, while, according to psychologists, the right hemisphere of the brain, responsible for associative thinking, intuition, and the birth of new ideas, is activated.

Reproductive method

For students to acquire skills and abilities, the teacher uses a system of assignments organizes activities of schoolchildren to apply the acquired knowledge. Students perform tasks according to the model shown by the teacher: solve problems, create formulas of substances and equations of reactions, perform laboratory work according to instructions, work with a textbook and other sources of information, reproduce chemical experiments. The number of exercises necessary to develop the skill depends on the complexity of the task and the student’s abilities. It has been established, for example, that mastering new chemical concepts or formulas of substances requires that they be repeated about 20 times over a certain period of time. Reproducing and repeating the method of activity according to the teacher’s assignments is the main feature of the method called reproductive.

Chemical experiment is one of the most important in teaching chemistry. It is divided into demonstration (teacher) experiment, laboratory and practical work(student experiment) and will be discussed below.

Algorithmization plays a major role in the implementation of reproductive methods. The student is given an algorithm, i.e. rules and order of actions, as a result of which he obtains a certain result, while mastering the actions themselves and their order. An algorithmic prescription can be related to the content of an educational subject (how to determine the composition of a chemical compound using a chemical experiment), to the content of educational activity (how to take notes on various sources of chemical knowledge), or to the content of a method of mental activity (how to compare different chemical objects). The use by students of an algorithm known to them on the instructions of the teacher characterizes reception reproductive method.

If students are tasked with finding and creating an algorithm for an activity themselves, this may require creative activity. In this case it is used research method.

Problem-based learning in chemistry

Problem-based learning is a type of developmental education that combines:

Systematic independent search activity of students with their assimilation of ready-made scientific conclusions (at the same time, the system of methods is built taking into account goal setting and the principle problematic);

The process of interaction between teaching and learning is focused on the formation of students’ cognitive independence, stability of learning motives and mental (including creative) abilities in the course of their assimilation of scientific concepts and methods of activity.

The goal of problem-based learning is to assimilate not only the results of scientific knowledge, a system of knowledge, but also the path itself, the process of obtaining these results, the formation of the student’s cognitive independence and the development of his creative abilities.

The developers of the international test PISA-2003 identify six skills necessary for solving cognitive problems. The student must have the skills:

a) analytical reasoning;

b) reasoning by analogy;

c) combinatorial reasoning;

d) distinguish between facts and opinions;

e) distinguish and correlate causes and effects;

e) state your decision logically.

The fundamental concept of problem-based learning is problematic situation. This is a situation in which the subject needs to solve some difficult problems for himself, but he lacks data and must look for it himself.

Conditions for a problem situation to arise

A problematic situation arises when students realize insufficiency of previous knowledge to explain a new fact.

For example, when studying the hydrolysis of salts, the basis for creating a problematic situation can be the study of the solution environment of various types of salts using indicators.

Problematic situations arise when students encounter the need to use previously acquired knowledge in new practical conditions. For example, the qualitative reaction known to students for the presence of a double bond in molecules of alkenes and dienes also turns out to be effective for determining the triple bond in alkynes.

A problematic situation easily arises when there is a contradiction between a theoretically possible way to solve a problem and the practical impracticability of the chosen method. For example, the generalized idea formed among students about the qualitative determination of halide ions using silver nitrate is not observed when this reagent acts on fluoride ions (why?), so the search for a solution to the problem leads to soluble calcium salts as a reagent on fluoride ions.

A problematic situation arises when there is contradiction between practically achieved result completion of an educational task and students’ lack of knowledge for its theoretical justification. For example, the rule known to students from mathematics “the sum does not change if the places of the terms are changed” is not observed in some cases in chemistry. Thus, the production of aluminum hydroxide according to the ionic equation

Al 3+ + 3OH – = Al(OH) 3

depends on which reagent is added to the excess of another reagent. If a few drops of alkali are added to a solution of aluminum salt, a precipitate forms and persists. If a few drops of an aluminum salt solution are added to an excess of alkali, the precipitate that initially forms immediately dissolves. Why? Solving the problem that has arisen will allow us to move on to considering amphotericity.

D.Z. Knebelman names the following features of problem problems , questions.

The task should be of interest to you unusualness, surprise, non-standard. Information is especially attractive to students if it contains inconsistency, at least apparent. The problem task should cause astonishment, create an emotional background. For example, solving a problem that explains the dual position of hydrogen in the periodic table (why does this only element in the periodic table have two cells in two groups of elements that are sharply opposite in properties - alkali metals and halogens?).

Problem tasks must contain feasible cognitive or technical difficulty. It would seem that a solution is visible, but an annoying difficulty “gets in the way,” which inevitably causes a surge in mental activity. For example, the production of ball-and-stick or scale models of molecules of substances, reflecting the true position of their atoms in space.

The problem task provides elements of research, search various ways of performing it, their comparison. For example, the study of various factors that accelerate or slow down the corrosion of metals.

Logic for solving an educational problem:

1) analysis of the problem situation;

2) awareness of the essence of the difficulty - vision of the problem;

3) verbal formulation of the problem;

4) localization (limitation) of the unknown;

5) identification of possible conditions for a successful solution;

6) drawing up a plan to solve the problem (the plan necessarily includes a selection of solution options);

7) putting forward an assumption and substantiating a hypothesis (arises as a result of “mentally running ahead”);

8) proof of the hypothesis (carried out by deriving consequences from the hypothesis that are verified);

9) verification of the solution to the problem (comparison of the goal, the requirements of the task and the result obtained, compliance of theoretical conclusions with practice);

10) repetition and analysis of the solution process.

In problem-based learning, the teacher’s explanation and students’ performance of tasks and assignments that require reproductive activity are not excluded. But the principle of search activity dominates.

Method of problem presentation

The essence of the method is that the teacher, in the process of learning new material, shows an example of scientific research. He creates a problem situation, analyzes it and then carries out all the steps to solve the problem.

Students follow the logic of the solution, control the plausibility of the proposed hypotheses, the correctness of the conclusions, and the persuasiveness of the evidence. The immediate result of a problem presentation is the assimilation of the method and logic of solving a given problem or a given type of problem, but without the ability to apply them independently. Therefore, for problem presentation, the teacher can select problems that are more complex than those that are within the power of students to independently solve. For example, solving the problem of the dual position of hydrogen in the periodic table, identifying the philosophical foundations of the generality of the periodic law of D.I. Mendeleev and the theory of structure of A.M. Butlerov, evidence of the relativity of truth on the typology of chemical bonds, the theory of acids and bases.

Partial search or heuristic method

The method in which the teacher organizes the participation of schoolchildren in performing individual stages of problem solving is called partial search.

Heuristic conversation is an interconnected series of questions, most or less of which are small problems, which together lead to a solution to the problem posed by the teacher.

In order to gradually bring students closer to solving problems independently, they must first be taught how to carry out individual steps of this solution, individual stages of research, which are determined by the teacher.

For example, when studying cycloalkanes, the teacher creates a problematic situation: how can we explain that a substance of the composition C 5 H 10, which should be unsaturated and, therefore, decolorize a solution of bromine water, in practice does not decolorize it? Students suggest that, apparently, this substance is a saturated hydrocarbon. But saturated hydrocarbons must have 2 more hydrogen atoms in their molecule. Therefore, this hydrocarbon must have a structure different from alkanes. Students are asked to output structural formula unusual hydrocarbon.

Let us formulate problematic questions that create appropriate situations when studying D.I. Mendeleev’s periodic law in high school and initiate heuristic conversations.

1) All scientists who searched for a natural classification of elements started from the same premises. Why did the periodic law “obey” only D.I. Mendeleev?

2) In 1906, the Nobel Committee considered two candidates for the Nobel Prize: Henri Moissan (“For what merit?” – the teacher asks an additional question) and D.I. Mendeleev. Who was it given to? Nobel Prize? Why?

3) In 1882, the Royal Society of London awarded D.I. Mendeleev the Devi Medal “for the discovery of periodic relations of atomic weights,” and in 1887 it awarded the same medal to D. Newlands “for the discovery of the periodic law.” How can we explain this illogicality?

4) Philosophers call Mendeleev’s discovery a “scientific feat.” A feat is a mortal risk in the name of great goal. How and what did Mendeleev risk?

Chemical experiment
as a method of teaching the subject

Demonstration experiment sometimes called teacher's, because it is conducted by a teacher in a classroom (office or chemistry laboratory). However, this is not entirely accurate, because the demonstration experiment can also be carried out by a laboratory assistant or 1-3 students under the guidance of a teacher.

For such an experiment, special equipment is used that is not used in student experiments: a demonstration stand with test tubes, an overhead projector (Petri dishes are most commonly used as reactors in this case), a graphic projector (glass cuvettes are most commonly used as reactors in this case), a virtual experiment, which is demonstrated using a multimedia installation, computer, TV and VCR.

Sometimes the school lacks these technical means, and the teacher tries to make up for their lack with his own ingenuity. For example, in the absence of an overhead projector and the ability to demonstrate the interaction of sodium with water in Petri dishes, teachers often demonstrate this reaction effectively and simply. A crystallizer is placed on the demonstration table, into which water is poured, phenolphthalein is added and a small piece of sodium is dropped. The process is demonstrated through a large mirror that the teacher holds in front of him.

Teacher ingenuity will also be required to demonstrate models of technological processes that cannot be replicated in a school setting or demonstrated using multimedia. The teacher can demonstrate the “fluidized bed” model using a simple setup: a pile of semolina is poured onto a frame covered with gauze and placed on the ring of a laboratory stand, and an air flow from a volleyball chamber or a balloon is supplied from below.

Laboratory and practical work or student experiment play a vital role in teaching chemistry.

The difference between laboratory work and practical work lies primarily in their didactic purposes: laboratory work is carried out as an experimental fragment of a lesson when studying new material, and practical work is carried out at the end of studying the topic as a means of monitoring the formation of practical skills. The laboratory experiment got its name from Lat. laborare, which means “to work.” “Chemistry,” emphasized M.V. Lomonosov, “is in no way possible to learn without seeing the practice itself and without taking up chemical operations.” Laboratory work is a teaching method in which students, under the guidance of a teacher and according to a predetermined plan, perform experiments, certain practical tasks, using instruments and instruments, during which they acquire knowledge and experience of the activity.

Conducting laboratory work leads to the formation of skills and abilities that can be combined into three groups: laboratory skills and abilities, general organizational and labor skills, and the ability to record experiments performed.

Laboratory skills and abilities include: the ability to conduct simple chemical experiments in compliance with safety regulations, observe substances and chemical reactions.

Organizational and labor skills include: maintaining cleanliness and order on the desktop, compliance with safety regulations, economical use of funds, time and effort, and the ability to work in a team.

The skills to record experience include: sketching a device, recording observations, reaction equations and conclusions regarding the course and results of a laboratory experiment.

Among Russian chemistry teachers, the following form of recording laboratory and practical work is most common.

For example, when studying theory electrolytic dissociation laboratory work is being carried out to study the properties of strong and weak electrolytes using the example of the dissociation of hydrochloric and acetic acids. Acetic acid has a strong, unpleasant odor, so it is rational to conduct the experiment using the drop method. If special containers are not available, wells cut from tablet plates can be used as reactors. According to the teacher's instructions, students place one drop of solutions of concentrated hydrochloric acid and table vinegar in each of two wells, respectively. The presence of odor from both holes is recorded. Then three or four drops of water are added to each. The presence of odor in a dilute acetic acid solution and its absence in a hydrochloric acid solution are recorded (table).

Table

What did you do (name of experience)	What I observed (drawing and recording observations)	conclusions and reaction equations
Strong and weak electrolytes	Before dilution, both solutions had a pungent odor. After dilution, the odor of the acetic acid solution remained, but the odor of hydrochloric acid disappeared	1. Hydrochloric acid is a strong acid, it dissociates irreversibly: HCl = H + + Cl – . 2. Acetic acid is a weak acid, therefore it dissociates reversibly: CH 3 COOH CH 3 COO – + H + . 3. The properties of ions differ from the properties of the molecules from which they were formed. Therefore, the smell of hydrochloric acid disappeared when it was diluted.

To develop experimental skills, the teacher must perform the following methodological techniques:

– formulate the goals and objectives of laboratory work;

– explain the order of operations, show the most complex techniques, sketch action diagrams;

– warn about possible errors and their consequences;

– observe and control the performance of work;

- summarize the results of the work.

It is necessary to pay attention to improving the ways of instructing students before performing laboratory work. In addition to oral explanations and demonstrations of working methods, written instructions, diagrams, demonstrations of film fragments, and algorithmic instructions are used for this purpose.

Research method in teaching chemistry

This method is most clearly implemented in students’ project activities. A project is a creative (research) final work. The introduction of project activities into school practice has the goal of developing the intellectual abilities of students through mastering the algorithm scientific research and developing experience in carrying out a research project.

Achieving this goal is carried out as a result of solving the following didactic tasks:

– to form motives for abstract and research activities;

– teach the algorithm of scientific research;

– to develop experience in carrying out a research project;

– ensure the participation of schoolchildren in various forms of presentation research work;

– organize pedagogical support research activities and inventive level of student developments.

Such activities are personally oriented in nature, and students’ motives for performing research projects serve: cognitive interest, orientation towards a future profession and higher polytechnic education, satisfaction from the work process, the desire to assert oneself as a person, prestige, the desire to receive an award, the opportunity to enter a university, etc.

The topics of research work in chemistry can be different, in particular:

1) chemical analysis of environmental objects: analysis of acidity of soils, food, natural waters; determination of water hardness from different sources, etc. (for example, “Determination of fat in oilseeds”, “Determination of soap quality by its alkalinity”, “Quality analysis food products»);

2) studying the influence of various factors on chemical composition some biological fluids (skin excrement, saliva, etc.);

3) study of the influence of chemicals on biological objects: germination, growth, development of plants, behavior of lower animals (euglena, ciliates, hydra, etc.).

4) study of the influence of various conditions on the occurrence of chemical reactions (especially enzymatic catalysis).

Literature

Babansky Yu.K.. How to optimize the learning process. M., 1987; Didactics of secondary school. Ed. M.N. Skatkina. M., 1982; Dewey D. Psychology and pedagogy of thinking. M., 1999;
Kalmykova Z.I. Psychological principles of developmental education. M., 1979; Clarin M.V.. Innovations in global pedagogy: learning through inquiry, play and discussion. Riga, 1998; Lerner I.Ya. Didactic foundations of teaching methods. M., 1981; Makhmutov M.I.. Organization of problem-based learning at school. M., 1977; Basics of didactics. Ed. B.P. Esipova, M., 1967; Window B. Fundamentals of problem-based learning. M., 1968; Pedagogy: Textbook for students of pedagogical institutes. Ed. Yu.K. Babansky. M., 1988; Rean A.A., Bordovskaya N.V.,
Rozum S.N.. Psychology and pedagogy. St. Petersburg, 2002; Improving the content of education at school. Ed. I.D. Zvereva, M.P. Kashina. M., 1985; Kharlamov I.F.. Pedagogy. M., 2003; Shelpakova N.A. and etc. Chemical experiment at school and at home. Tyumen: TSU, 2000.

COURSE CURRICULUM

Newspaper no.	Educational material
17	Lecture No. 1. Contents of the school chemistry course and its variability. Propaedeutic chemistry course. Basic school chemistry course. High school chemistry course.(G.M. Chernobelskaya, doctor pedagogical sciences, Professor)
18	Lecture No. 2. Pre-professional preparation of primary school students in chemistry. Essence, goals and objectives. Pre-professional elective courses. Methodological recommendations for their development.(E.Ya. Arshansky, Doctor of Pedagogical Sciences, Associate Professor)
19	Lecture No. 3. Profile training in chemistry at the senior level of general education. A unified methodological approach to structuring content in classes of different profiles. Variable content components.(E.Ya. Arshansky)
20	Lecture No. 4. Individualized technologies for teaching chemistry. Basic requirements for building individualized learning technologies (ITI). Organization of independent work of students at various stages of the lesson in the TIO system. Examples of modern TIOs.(T.A. Borovskikh, candidate of pedagogical sciences, associate professor)
21	Lecture No. 5. Modular teaching technology and its use in chemistry lessons. Fundamentals of modular technology. Methods for constructing modules and modular programs in chemistry. Recommendations for using technology in chemistry lessons.(P.I. Bespalov, candidate of pedagogical sciences, associate professor)
22	Lecture No. 6. Chemical experiment in a modern school. Types of experiment. Functions of a chemical experiment. A problem-based experiment using modern technical teaching aids.(P.I. Bespalov)
23	Lecture No. 7. Ecological component in a school chemistry course. Content selection criteria. Ecologically oriented chemical experiment. Educational and research environmental projects. Problems with environmental content.(V.M. Nazarenko, Doctor of Pedagogical Sciences, Professor)
24	Lecture No. 8. Monitoring the results of chemistry training. Forms, types and methods of control. Test control of knowledge in chemistry.(M.D. Trukhina, candidate of pedagogical sciences, associate professor)
Final work. Development of a lesson in accordance with the proposed concept. A short report on the final work, accompanied by a certificate from the educational institution, must be sent to the Pedagogical University no later than February 28, 2007

T.A.BOROVSKIKH

LECTURE No. 4
Customized Technologies
teaching chemistry

Borovskikh Tatyana Anatolevna– Candidate of Pedagogical Sciences, Associate Professor at Moscow State Pedagogical University, author of teaching aids for chemistry teachers working using various textbooks. Scientific interests – individualization of teaching chemistry to students of primary and secondary schools.

Lecture outline

Basic requirements for individualized learning technologies.

Construction of a lesson system in TIO.

Programmed teaching of chemistry.

Leveled learning technology.

Technology of problem-based modular learning.

Technology of project-based learning.

INTRODUCTION

In modern pedagogy, the idea of ​​student-centered learning is being actively developed. Requirement to take into account individual characteristics child in the learning process is a long-standing tradition. However, traditional pedagogy, with its rigid school system and curriculum, the same for all students, does not have the opportunity to fully implement an individual approach. Hence the weak educational motivation, the passivity of students, the randomness of their choice of profession, etc. In this regard, it is necessary to look for ways to restructure the educational process, directing it towards achieving a basic level of education by all students, and higher results by interested students.

What is “individualized learning”? Often the concepts of “individualization”, “individual approach” and “differentiation” are used interchangeably.

Under individualization of training understand the consideration in the learning process of the individual characteristics of students in all its forms and methods, regardless of what characteristics and to what extent are taken into account.

Differentiation of learning– this is the grouping of students based on certain characteristics; In this case, training takes place according to various curricula and programs.

Individual approach is a principle of learning, and individualization of learning is a way of implementing this principle, which has its own forms and methods.

Individualization of learning is a way of organizing the educational process taking into account the individual characteristics of each student. This method allows students to fully realize their potential, encourages individuality, and also recognizes the existence of individually specific forms of learning material.

In real school practice, individualization is always relative. Due to the large number of classes, students with approximately the same characteristics are combined into groups, and only those characteristics that are important from the point of view of learning are taken into account (for example, mental abilities, giftedness, health, etc.). Most often, individualization is not implemented in the entire scope of educational activities, but in some type of educational work and is integrated with non-individualized work.

To implement effective educational process a modern pedagogical technology of individualized learning (ILE) is needed, within which an individual approach and an individual form of training are a priority.

BASIC REQUIREMENTS FOR TECHNOLOGIES
INDIVIDUALIZED TRAINING

1. The main goal of any educational technology is the development of the child. Education for each student can be developmental only if it is adapted to the level of development of this student, which is achieved through individualization of educational work.

2. To proceed from the achieved level of development, it is necessary to identify this level for each student. The level of development of a student should be understood as learning ability (prerequisites for learning), training (acquired knowledge) and speed of assimilation (an indicator of the rate of memorization and generalization). The criterion for mastering is the number of completed tasks necessary for the emergence of stable skills.

3. Development mental abilities is achieved with the help of special teaching tools - developmental tasks. Tasks of optimal difficulty form rational mental work skills.

4. The effectiveness of learning depends not only on the nature of the tasks presented, but also on the activity of the student. Activity as a student’s state is a prerequisite for all his educational activities, and therefore for general mental development.

5. The most important factor stimulating a student to educational activity is educational motivation, which is defined as the student’s orientation towards various aspects of educational activity.

When creating a TIO system, certain steps should be followed. You should start by presenting your training course as a system, i.e. carry out initial structuring of the content. For this purpose, it is necessary to identify the core lines of the whole course and then, for each line for each class, determine the content that will ensure the development of ideas along the line under consideration.

Let's give two examples.

C o r n e d l i n e - basic chemical concepts. Contents: 8th grade - simple and complex substances, valency, basic classes organic compounds; 9th grade – electrolyte, oxidation state, groups of similar elements.

The core line is chemical reactions. Contents: 8th grade – signs and conditions of chemical reactions, types of reactions, drawing up reaction equations based on the valence of atoms of chemical elements, reactivity of substances; 9th grade – drawing up reaction equations based on the theory of electrolytic dissociation, redox reactions.

A program that takes into account the individual differences of students always consists of a comprehensive didactic goal and a set of differentiated learning activities. Such a program is aimed at mastering new content and developing new skills, as well as consolidating previously formed knowledge and skills.

To create a program in the TIO system, it is necessary to select a major topic, highlight theoretical and practical parts in it, and distribute the time allotted for study. It is advisable to study the theoretical and practical parts separately. This will allow you to master theoretical material topics quickly and create a holistic view of the topic. Practical tasks are performed at a basic level in order to better understand the basic concepts and general laws. Mastering the practical part allows for the development of children’s individual abilities at the applied level.

At the beginning of the work, students should be offered a flowchart that highlights the basis (concepts, laws, formulas, properties, units of quantities, etc.), the student’s basic skills at the first level, and ways to move to higher levels. high levels, laying the foundation for the independent development of each student at his request.

BUILDING A SYSTEM OF LESSONS IN TIO

Elements of individualized learning should be observed in every lesson and at all stages. Lesson on learning new material can be divided into three main parts.

1st part. P r e s e n t i o n o f new materi al. At the first stage, students are given the task of mastering certain knowledge. To enhance the individualization of perception, various techniques can be used. For example, control sheets watching the work of students during the explanation of new material, in which students answer questions posed before the lesson. Students hand in their answer sheets for checking at the end of the lesson. The level of difficulty and the number of questions are determined in accordance with the individual characteristics of the children. As an example, we give a fragment of a sheet for monitoring students’ activities during a lecture when studying the topic “Complex compounds”.

Checklist on the topic "Complex connections" 1. The connection ……..... ............................. is called complex. 2. The complexing agent is called ………... .......................... 3. Ligands are called ……………………… ……………………….. . 4. The internal sphere is …………………………………………………. . 5. The coordination number is ………………… ……………...………. Determine coordination number (CN): 1) + , CC = … ; 2) 0, CN = ... ; 3) 0, CN = ... ; 4) 3– , CN = … . 6. The external sphere is ……………………………… …………………. 7. The ions of the outer and inner spheres are interconnected………. communication; their dissociation occurs……………. . For example, ……………………… . 8. Ligands are connected to the complexing agent by a ………………………… bond. Write down the dissociation equation for the complex salt: K 4 = ………………………………………………………………. 9. Calculate the charges of complex ions formed by chromium(III): 1) ………………….. ; 2) ………………….. . 10. Determine the degree of oxidation of the complexing agent: 1) 4– ………………….. ; 2) + ………………….. ; 3) – ………………….. .

Another example shows the use of so-called “guide cards” in the lesson “Acids as Electrolytes”. While working with cards, students make notes in their notebooks. (The work can be done in groups.)

Guide card

Part 2. ABOUT UNDERSTANDING NEW MATERIAL. Here, students are prepared for independent problem solving through a learning conversation in which students are encouraged to generate hypotheses and demonstrate their knowledge. In the conversation, the student is given the opportunity to freely express his thoughts related to his personal experience and interests. Often the topic of the conversation itself grows out of the students’ thoughts.

3rd part. Summary: At this stage of the lesson, assignments should be exploratory in nature. In the lesson “Acids as Electrolytes,” students can be shown the demonstration experiment “Dissolving copper in nitric acid.” Then consider the problem: do metals that are in the stress series after hydrogen really do not interact with acids? You can have students perform laboratory experiments, for example: “Reaction of magnesium with aluminum chloride solution” and “Relation of magnesium to cold water.” After completing the experiment, in a conversation with the teacher, students learn that solutions of some salts can also have the properties of acids.

The experiments carried out make you think and make it possible to make a smooth transition to the study of subsequent sections. Thus, the third stage of the lesson promotes the creative application of knowledge.

Lesson on systematization of knowledge effective when using the technique of free choice of tasks of different difficulty levels. Here students develop skills and abilities on this topic. Input control precedes the work - small independent work, which allows us to determine whether students have the necessary successful work knowledge and skills. Based on the test results, students are offered (or they select) a certain level of task difficulty. After completing the task, the correctness of its completion should be checked. Testing is carried out either by the teacher or by the student using templates. If the task is completed without errors, then the student moves to a new, higher level. If errors are made during execution, knowledge is corrected under the guidance of a teacher or under the guidance of a stronger student. Thus, in any TIO, a mandatory element is a feedback loop: presentation of knowledge - mastery of knowledge and skills - control of results - correction - additional control of results - presentation of new knowledge.

The lesson of systematizing knowledge ends with an exit control - a small independent work that allows you to determine the level of development of students' skills and knowledge.

Lesson on monitoring the mastery of the material covered– a highly individualized form of training. In this lesson there is freedom of choice, i.e. the student himself chooses tasks of any level according to his abilities, knowledge and skills, interests, etc.

To date, a number of TIOs have been well developed and successfully used in school practice. Let's look at some of them.

PROGRAMMED CHEMISTRY TRAINING

Programmed learning can be characterized as a type of independent work of students, controlled by a teacher with the help of programmed aids.

The methodology for developing a training program consists of several stages.

Stage 1 – selection of educational information.

Stage 2 – construction of a logical sequence of presentation of the material. The material is divided into separate portions. Each portion contains a small piece of information that is complete in meaning. To self-test your assimilation, questions, experimental and computational problems, exercises, etc. are selected for each piece of information.

Stage 3 – establishing feedback. Various types of training program structures are applicable here - linear, branched, combined. Each of these structures has its own instructional step model. One of the linear programs is shown in Diagram 1.

Scheme 1

Linear program step model

IC 1 – the first information frame, contains a piece of information that the student must learn;

OK 1 – first operational frame - tasks, the implementation of which ensures the assimilation of the proposed information;

OC 1 – first feedback frame – instructions with which the student can check himself (this can be a ready-made answer with which the student compares his answer);

KK 1 - control frame, serves to implement the so-called external feedback: between the student and the teacher (this communication can be carried out using a computer or other technical device, as well as without it; in case of difficulties, the student has the opportunity to return to the original information and study it again).

IN linear program the material is presented sequentially. Small pieces of information almost eliminate student errors. Repeated repetition of the material in different forms ensures the strength of its assimilation. However, the linear program does not take into account individual characteristics of assimilation. The difference in the pace of movement through the program arises only due to how quickly students can read and comprehend what they read.

Branched program takes into account the individuality of students. The peculiarity of the branched program is that students do not answer the questions themselves, but choose an answer from a series of proposed ones (O 1a – O 1d, diagram 2).

Scheme 2

Branched program step model

Note. The textbook page with self-test material is indicated in brackets.

Having chosen one answer, they go to the page prescribed by the program, and there they find material for self-testing and further instructions for working with the program. As an example of a ramified program, one can cite the manual “Chemical Simulator” (J. Nentvig, M. Kreuder, K. Morgenstern. M.: Mir, 1986).

The extensive program is also not without its drawbacks. Firstly, when working, the student is forced to constantly flip through pages, moving from one link to another. This distracts attention and contradicts the stereotype of working with a book that has been developed over the years. Secondly, if a student needs to repeat something from such a manual, he will not be able to find the right place and must go all the way through the program again before finding the right page.

Combined program more than the first two, it is convenient and efficient to use. Its peculiarity is that information is presented linearly, and in the feedback frame there are additional explanations and links to other material (elements of a branched program). Such a program is read like an ordinary book, but more often than in a non-programmed textbook, it contains questions that force the reader to think about the text, tasks for the development of educational skills and thinking techniques, as well as for consolidating knowledge. Self-test answers are provided at the end of chapters. In addition, you can work with it using the reading skills of a regular book, which are already firmly established in students. As an example of a combined program, we can consider the textbook “Chemistry” by G.M. Chernobelskaya and I.N. Chertkov (M., 1991).

After receiving introductory instructions, students work with the manual independently. The teacher should not distract students from work and can only conduct individual consultations at their request. The optimal time for working with the programmed manual, as the experiment showed, is 20-25 minutes. Programmed control takes only 5-10 minutes, and testing in the presence of students lasts no more than 3-4 minutes. At the same time, the variants of the assignments remain in the hands of the students so that they can analyze their mistakes. Such control can be carried out in almost every lesson on different topics.

Programmed learning has worked particularly well for students' independent work at home.

TECHNOLOGY OF LEVEL TRAINING

The goal of leveled learning technology is to ensure that each student masters educational material in his zone of proximal development based on the characteristics of his subjective experience. In the structure of level differentiation, three levels are usually distinguished: basic (minimal), program and complicated (advanced). Preparation of educational material involves highlighting several levels in the content and planned learning outcomes and preparing a technological map for students, in which for each element of knowledge the levels of its assimilation are indicated: 1) knowledge (remembered, reproduced, learned); 2) understanding (explained, illustrated); 3) application (based on a model, in a similar or modified situation); 4) generalization, systematization (selected parts from the whole, formed a new whole); 5) assessment (determined the value and significance of the object of study). For each unit of content, the technological map contains indicators of its assimilation, presented in the form of control or test tasks. The first level assignments are designed in such a way that students can complete them using a sample provided either when completing this assignment or in a previous lesson.

Order of execution of operations (algorithm) when drawing up equations for the reactions of alkalis with acid oxides (For the reaction of NaOH with CO 2) 1. Write down the formulas of the starting substances: 2. After the “” sign, write H 2 O +: NaOH + CO 2 H 2 O + . 3. Create a formula for the resulting salt. For this: 1) determine the valency of the metal using the hydroxide formula (based on the number of OH groups): 2) determine the formula of the acid residue using the formula of the oxide: CO 2 H 2 CO 3 CO 3 ; 3) find the least common multiple (LCM) of the valency values: 4) divide the LOC by the valence of the metal, write the resulting index after the metal: 2: 1 = 2, Na 2 CO 3 ; 5) divide the NOC by the valence of the acid residue, write the resulting index after the acid residue (if the acid residue is complex, it is enclosed in brackets, the index is placed outside the brackets): 2: 2 = 1, Na 2 CO 3. 4. Write the formula of the resulting salt on the right side of the reaction diagram: NaOH + CO 2 H 2 O + Na 2 CO 3. 5. Arrange the coefficients in the reaction equation: 2NaOH + CO 2 = H 2 O + Na 2 CO 3.

Exercise (1st level).

Based on the algorithm, create reaction equations:

1) NaOH + SO 2 ...;

2) Ca(OH) 2 + CO 2 ... ;

3) KOH + SO 3 ...;

4) Ca(OH) 2 + SO 2….

Tasks at the second level are cause-and-effect in nature.

Exercise (2nd level). Robert Woodward, a future Nobel laureate in chemistry, courted his bride using chemical reagents. From the chemist’s diary: “Her hands froze during a sleigh ride. And I said, “I wish I could get a bottle of hot water!” - “Great, but where can we get it?” “I’ll do it now,” I replied and took out from under the seat a wine bottle, three-quarters filled with water. Then he took out a bottle of sulfuric acid from the same place and poured a little syrup-like liquid into the water. After ten seconds, the bottle became so hot that it was impossible to hold it in your hands. When it started to cool, I added more acid, and when the acid ran out, I took out a jar of caustic soda sticks and added them little by little. So the bottle was heated almost to a boil the entire trip.” How to explain the thermal effect used by the young man?

When completing such tasks, students rely on the knowledge they received in class and also use additional sources.

The tasks of the third level are partially exploratory in nature.

Exercise 1 (3rd level). What physical error is made in the following verses?

“She lived and flowed on the glass,
But suddenly she was shackled with frost,
And the drop became a motionless piece of ice,
And the world has become less warm.”
Confirm your answer with calculations.

Task 2 (3rd level). Why does moistening the floor with water make the room cooler?

When conducting lessons within the framework of leveled learning technology at the preparatory stage, after informing students about the purpose of the educational session and the corresponding motivation, introductory control is carried out, most often in the form of a test. This work ends with mutual verification and correction of identified gaps and inaccuracies.

At the stage mastering new knowledge new material is given in a succinct, compact form, ensuring that the main part of the class is transferred to independent study of educational information. For students who do not understand the new topic, the material is explained again using additional didactic tools. Each student, as he or she masters the information being studied, is included in the discussion. This work can take place both in groups and in pairs.

At the stage consolidation The mandatory part of the tasks is checked using self- and mutual testing. The teacher evaluates the excess part of the work, and he communicates the most significant information for the class to all students.

Stage summing up The training session begins with a control test, which, like the introductory one, has mandatory and additional parts. Current control over the assimilation of educational material is carried out on a two-point scale (pass/fail), final control - on a three-point scale (pass/good/excellent). For students who have not completed key tasks, correctional work until completely absorbed.

TECHNOLOGY OF PROBLEM-MODULAR TRAINING

Restructuring the learning process on a problem-modular basis allows: 1) to integrate and differentiate the content of learning by grouping problem-based modules of educational material, ensuring the development of a training course in full, shortened and in-depth versions; 2) carry out independent choice by students of one or another course option depending on the level of training and individual pace of progress through the program;
3) focus the teacher’s work on the advisory and coordinating functions of managing students’ individual educational activities.

The technology of problem-based modular learning is based on three principles: 1) “compression” of educational information (generalization, enlargement, systematization); 2) recording educational information and educational activities of schoolchildren in the form of modules; 3) purposeful creation of educational problem situations.

The problem module consists of several interconnected blocks (training elements (TE)).

Block "incoming control" creates the mood for work. As a rule, test tasks are used here.

Update block– at this stage, they update the basic knowledge and methods of action necessary to master the new material presented in the problem module.

Experimental block includes a description of a teaching experiment or laboratory activity that contributes to the conclusion of the statements.

Problem block– formulation of an enlarged problem, the solution of which the problem module is aimed at.

Generalization block– primary system representation of the content of the problem module. Structurally, it can be designed in the form of a block diagram, supporting notes, algorithms, symbolic notation, etc.

Theoretical block contains the main educational material, arranged in a certain order: didactic goal, formulation of the problem (task), justification of the hypothesis, solution to the problem, control test tasks.

Output control block– control of learning results by module.

In addition to these main blocks, others may be included, for example application block– a system of tasks and exercises or docking block– combining the material covered with the content of related academic disciplines, as well as recess block– educational material of increased complexity for students who have a special interest in the subject.

As an example, we give a fragment of the problem-module program “Chemical properties of ions in the light of the theory of electrolytic dissociation and redox reactions.”

Integrating goal. Consolidate knowledge about the properties of ions; develop skills in drawing up equations of reactions between ions in electrolyte solutions and redox reactions; continue to develop the ability to observe and describe phenomena, put forward hypotheses and prove them.

UE-1. Incoming control. Target. Check the level of knowledge about redox reactions and the ability to write equations using the electronic balance method to assign coefficients.

Exercise	Grade
1. Zinc, iron, aluminum in reactions with non-metals are: a) oxidizing agents; b) reducing agents; c) do not exhibit redox properties; d) either oxidizing or reducing agents, it depends on the non-metal with which they react	1 point
2. Determine the oxidation state of a chemical element using the following scheme: Answer options: a) –10; b) 0; c) +4; d) +6	2 points
3. Determine the number of electrons given (accepted) according to the reaction scheme: Answer options: a) given 5 e; b) accepted 5 e; c) given 1 e; d) accepted 1 e	2 points
4. The total number of electrons participating in the elementary reaction equals: a) 2; b) 6; at 3; d) 5	3 points

(Answers to tasks UE-1: 1 – b; 2 - G; 3 - A; 4 – b.)

If you scored 0–1 points, study the summary “Oxidation-reduction reactions” again.

If you score 7–8 points, move on to UE-2.

UE-2. Target. Update knowledge about the redox properties of metal ions.

Exercise. Complete the equations for possible chemical reactions. Justify your answer.

1) Zn + CuCl 2 ... ;

2) Fe + CuCl 2 ... ;

3) Cu + FeCl 2 ... ;

4) Cu + FeCl 3 ... .

UE-3. Target. Creating a problematic situation.

Exercise. Perform a laboratory experiment. Pour 2–3 ml of 0.1 M iron trichloride solution into a test tube with 1 g of copper. What's happening? Describe your observations. Doesn't this surprise you? State the contradiction. Write an equation for the reaction. What properties does the Fe 3+ ion exhibit here?

UE-4. Target. Study the oxidative properties of Fe 3+ ions in reaction with halide ions.

Exercise. Perform a laboratory experiment. Pour 1–2 ml of 0.5 M solutions of potassium bromide and potassium iodide into two test tubes, add 1–2 ml of 0.1 M solution of iron trichloride to them. Describe your observations. State the problem.

UE-5. Target. Explain the results of the experiment.

Exercise. Which reaction in the task from UE-4 did not occur? Why? To answer this question, remember the differences in the properties of halogen atoms, compare the radii of their atoms, and create an equation for the reaction. Draw a conclusion about the oxidizing power of the iron ion Fe 3+.

Homework. Answer the following questions in writing. Why does a green solution of iron(II) chloride quickly change its color to brown in air? What property of the iron ion Fe 2+ is manifested in in this case? Write an equation for the reaction of iron(II) chloride with oxygen in an aqueous solution. What other reactions are characteristic of the Fe 2+ ion?

PROJECT-BASED LEARNING TECHNOLOGY

Most often you hear not about project-based learning, but about the project method. This method was formulated in the USA in 1919. In Russia it became widespread after the publication of W.H. Kilpatrick’s brochure “The Project Method. Application of target setting in the pedagogical process" (1925). This system is based on the idea that only those activities are carried out by the child with great enthusiasm, which are freely chosen by him and are not built in line with the academic subject, in which the reliance is placed on the children’s momentary hobbies; true learning is never one-sided; side information is also important. The original slogan of the founders of the project-based learning system is “Everything from life, everything for life.” Therefore, the design method initially involves considering the phenomena of life around us as experiments in a laboratory in which the process of cognition takes place. The goal of project-based learning is to create conditions under which students independently and willingly search for missing knowledge from different sources, learn to use the acquired knowledge to solve cognitive and practical problems, and acquire communication skills by working in different groups; develop research skills (ability to identify problems, collect information, observe, conduct experiments, analyze, build hypotheses, generalize), develop systems thinking.

To date, the following stages of project development have developed: development of a project assignment, development of the project itself, presentation of results, public presentation, reflection. Possible topics educational projects are varied, as are their volumes. Based on time, three types of educational projects can be distinguished: short-term (2–6 hours); mid-term (12–15 h); long-term, requiring considerable time to search for material, analyze it, etc. The evaluation criterion is the achievement of both the project goal and over-subject goals during its implementation (the latter seems to be more important). The main disadvantages in using the method are low motivation of teachers to use it, low motivation of students to participate in the project, insufficient level of development of research skills among schoolchildren, and unclear definition of criteria for assessing the results of work on the project.

As an example of the implementation of project technology, we will give a development carried out by US chemistry teachers. In the course of working on this project, students acquire and use knowledge in chemistry, economics, psychology, and participate in a wide variety of activities: experimental, calculation, marketing, and make a film.

We design household chemical products*

One of the goals of the school is to show the applied value of chemical knowledge. The task of this project is to create an enterprise for the production of window cleaning products. Participants are divided into groups, forming “production firms”. Each “firm” faces the following tasks:
1) develop a project for a new window cleaner; 2) produce experimental samples of a new product and test them; 3) calculate the cost of the developed product;
4) conduct marketing research and an advertising campaign for the product, receive a quality certificate. As the game progresses, students not only become familiar with the composition and chemical effects of household detergents, but also receive basic information about economics and market strategy. The result of the “company’s” work is a feasibility study of a new detergent.

The work is carried out in the following sequence. First, the “employees of the company,” together with the teacher, test one of the standard window cleaning products, copy its chemical composition from the label, and analyze the principle of the cleaning action. At the next stage, the teams begin to develop their own detergent formulation based on the same components. Next, each project goes through the stage of laboratory implementation. Based on the developed recipe, students mix the required quantities of reagents and place the resulting mixture in small bottles with a spray bottle. Labels with the trade name of the future product and the inscription “New window cleaner” are affixed to the bottles. Next comes quality control. “Companies” evaluate the cleaning ability of their products in comparison with purchased products and calculate the cost of production. The next stage is obtaining a “quality certificate” for the new detergent. “Companies” submit the following information about their product to the commission for approval: compliance with quality standards (laboratory test results), absence of environmentally hazardous substances, availability of instructions on the method of use and storage of the product, draft trade label, expected name and estimated price of the product. At the final stage, the “company” conducts an advertising campaign. Develop a plot and shoot a 1-minute commercial. The result of the game may be a presentation of a new tool with the invitation of parents and other participants in the game.

Individualization of learning is not a fad, but an urgent necessity. Technologies for individualized teaching of chemistry, with all the variety of methodological techniques, have much in common. All of them are developmental, providing clear control of the educational process and predictable, reproducible results. Often, individualized chemistry teaching technologies are used in combination with traditional methods. The inclusion of any new technology in the educational process requires propaedeutics, i.e. gradual training of students.

Questions and tasks

1. Describe the role of the academic subject of chemistry in solving the problems of developing students’ mental activity.

Answer. For mental development, it is important to accumulate not only knowledge, but also firmly established mental techniques and intellectual skills. For example, when forming a chemical concept, it is necessary to explain what techniques should be used so that the knowledge is correctly learned, and these techniques are then used by analogy in new situations. When studying chemistry, intellectual skills are formed and developed. It is very important to teach students to think logically, use techniques of comparison, analysis, synthesis and highlighting the main thing, draw conclusions, generalize, argue reasonably, and consistently express their thoughts. It is also important to use rational teaching methods.

2. Can individualized learning technologies be classified as developmental education?

Answer. Training in new technologies ensures full assimilation of knowledge, shapes learning activities and thereby directly affects mental development children. Individualized learning is certainly developmental.

3. Develop a teaching methodology for any topic in a school chemistry course using one of the individualized technologies.

Answer. The first lesson when studying the topic “Acids” is a lesson in explaining new material. According to the individualized technology, we will distinguish three stages in it. Stage 1 – presentation of new material – is accompanied by control of assimilation. As the lesson progresses, students fill out a sheet in which they answer questions about the topic. (Sample questions and answers to them are given.) Stage 2 – comprehension of new material. In a conversation related to the properties of acids, the student is given the opportunity to express his thoughts on the topic. The 3rd stage is also a mental one, but of a research nature, on a specific problem. For example, dissolving copper in nitric acid.

The second lesson is training, systematization of knowledge. Here students choose and complete tasks of varying difficulty levels. The teacher provides them with individual advisory assistance.

The third lesson is monitoring the assimilation of the material covered. It can be carried out in the form of a test, a test, a set of tasks according to a problem book, where simple tasks are graded “3”, and complex tasks are graded “4” and “5”.

* Golovner V.N.. Chemistry. Interesting lessons. From foreign experience. M.: Publishing house NTs ENAS, 2002.

Literature

Bespalko V.P.. Programmed learning (didactic foundations). M.: graduate School, 1970; Guzik N.P.. Learn to learn. M.: Pedagogika, 1981; Guzik N.P. Didactic material in chemistry for
9th grade. Kyiv: Radyanska School, 1982; Guzik N.P. Organic chemistry training. M.: Education, 1988; Kuznetsova N.E.. Pedagogical technologies in subject teaching. St. Petersburg: Education, 1995; Selevko G.K.. Modern educational technologies. M.: Public Education, 1998; Chernobelskaya G.M. Methods of teaching chemistry in high school. M.: VLADOS, 2000; Unt I. Individualization and differentiation of training. M.: Pedagogy, 1990.

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE RF

FEDERAL AGENCY FOR EDUCATION

GOU VPO FAR EASTERN STATE UNIVERSITY

INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY AND APPLIED ECOLOGY

A.A. Kapustina methods of teaching chemistry course of lectures

Vladivostok

Far Eastern University Publishing House

Methodological manual prepared by the department

inorganic and organoelement chemistry, Far Eastern State University.

Published by decision of the educational and methodological council of FENU.

Kapustina A.A.

K 20 Methodological manual for seminar classes on the course “Structure of Matter” / A.A. Kapustina. – Vladivostok: Dalnevost Publishing House. University, 2007. – 41 p.

The material on the main sections of the course is contained in a condensed form, samples of solved problems, test questions and assignments are provided. Intended for 3rd year students of the Faculty of Chemistry in their preparation for seminar classes on the course “Structure of Matter”.

© Kapustina A.A., 2007

©Publishing house

Far Eastern University, 2007

Lecture No. 1

Literature:

1. Zaitsev O.S., Methods of teaching chemistry, M. 1999.

2. Magazine “Chemistry at school”.

3. Chernobelskaya G.M. Fundamentals of methods of teaching chemistry, M. 1987.

4. Polosin V.S.. School experiment in inorganic chemistry, M., 1970.

Subject of methods of teaching chemistry and its tasks

The subject of the methodology of teaching chemistry is the social process of teaching the basics of modern chemistry at school (technical school, university).

The learning process consists of three interconnected aspects:

1) educational subject;

2) teaching;

3) exercises.

Academic subject provides for the volume and level of scientific knowledge that must be acquired by students. Thus, we will get acquainted with the content of school programs, the requirements for knowledge, skills and abilities of students at different stages of education. Let's find out which topics are the foundation of chemical knowledge, determine chemical literacy, and which ones play the role of didactic material.

Teaching - this is the activity of the teacher through which he teaches students, that is:

Communicates scientific knowledge;

Instills practical skills and abilities;

Forms a scientific worldview;

Prepares for practical activities.

We will look at: a) the basic principles of learning; b) teaching methods, their classification, features; c) a lesson as the main form of teaching at school, methods of construction, classification of lessons, requirements for them; d) methods of questioning and monitoring knowledge; e) teaching methods at the university.

Teaching is a student activity consisting of:

Perception;

Understanding;

Assimilation;

Consolidation and practical application of educational material.

Thus, subject methods of teaching chemistry is research of the following problems:

a) goals and objectives of training (why teach?);

b) academic subject (what to teach?);

c) teaching (how to teach?);

d) learning (how do students learn?).

The methodology of teaching chemistry is closely related and comes from the science of chemistry itself, and is based on the achievements of pedagogy and psychology.

IN task teaching methods include:

a) didactic rationale for the selection of scientific knowledge that contributes to the formation of students’ knowledge of the fundamentals of science.

b) the choice of forms and methods of training for the successful acquisition of knowledge, development of skills and abilities.

Let's start with the principles of learning.

EXPLANATORY NOTE

When passing the candidate's exam, the graduate student (applicant) must demonstrate an understanding of the patterns, driving forces and dynamics of the development of chemical science, evolution and the basic structural elements of chemical knowledge, including fundamental methodological ideas, theories and the natural scientific picture of the world; deep knowledge of programs, textbooks, educational and methodological aids in chemistry for secondary schools and the ability to analyze them; reveal the main ideas and methodological options for presenting the most important sections and topics of the chemistry course at the basic, advanced and in-depth levels of its study, disciplines of the chemical block in secondary and high school; deep understanding of the prospects for the development of chemical education in educational institutions various types; ability to analyze own experience work, work experience of practicing teachers and innovative teachers. Those taking the candidate exam must be proficient in innovative pedagogical technologies for teaching chemistry and chemical block disciplines, be familiar with modern trends in the development of chemical education in the Republic of Belarus and the world as a whole, and know the system of school and university chemical experiments.

The program provides a list of only basic literature. When preparing for the exam, the applicant (graduate student) uses curricula, textbooks, collections of problems and popular scientific literature on chemistry for secondary schools, reviews of current problems in the development of chemistry, as well as articles on methods of teaching it in scientific and methodological journals (“Chemistry in school”, “Chemistry: teaching methods”, “Chemistry: problems of presentation”, “Adukacy and education”, “Vestsi BDPU”, etc.) and additional literature on the topic of your research.

primary goal of this program - to identify in applicants the formation of a system of methodological views and beliefs, conscious knowledge and practical skills that ensure the effective implementation of the chemistry teaching process in educational institutions of all types and levels.

Methodological preparation involves the implementation of the following tasks:

• formation of scientific competence and methodological culture of graduate students and candidates for scientific degrees of candidate of pedagogical sciences, mastery of modern technologies for teaching chemistry;
• developing in applicants the ability to critically analyze their pedagogical activity, study and generalize advanced pedagogical experience;
• formation of a research culture of applicants for the organization, management and implementation of the chemical education process.

When passing the candidate exam, the examinee must discover understanding of the patterns, driving forces and dynamics of the development of chemical science, evolution and the basic structural elements of chemical knowledge, including fundamental methodological ideas, theories and the natural scientific picture of the world; deep knowledge of programs, textbooks, educational and methodological aids in chemistry for secondary and higher schools and the ability to analyze them; reveal the main ideas and methodological options for presenting the most important sections and topics of a chemistry course at basic, advanced and in-depth levels of its study, as well as courses in the most important chemical disciplines at a university; understanding the prospects for the development of chemical education in educational institutions of various types; the ability to analyze one’s own work experience, the work experience of practicing teachers and innovative teachers.

The person taking the candidate exam must own innovative pedagogical technologies for teaching chemistry, be familiar with modern trends in the development of chemical education in the Republic of Belarus and the world as a whole, know the system and structure of school and university chemical workshops.

Applicants must know all the functions of a chemistry teacher and a teacher of chemical unit disciplines and the psychological and pedagogical conditions for their implementation; be able to apply them in practical activities.

Section I.

General issues of theory and methods of teaching chemistry

Introduction

Goals and objectives of the training course on methods of teaching chemistry.

The structure of the content of the methodology for teaching chemistry as a science, its methodology. A brief history of the development of methods for teaching chemistry. The idea of ​​the unity of the educational, educational and developmental functions of teaching chemistry as a leading one in the methodology. Construction of a training course on methods of teaching chemistry.

Contemporary problems of learning and teaching. Ways to improve chemistry teaching. Continuity in teaching chemistry in secondary and higher schools.

1.1 Goals and objectives of teaching chemistry in secondary and higher schools.

Model of a specialist and content of training. Dependence of learning content on learning goals. Features of teaching chemistry as a major and as a non-core academic discipline.

Scientific and methodological foundations of chemistry.Methodology in philosophy and natural science. Principles, stages and methods of scientific knowledge. Empirical and theoretical levels of chemical research. General scientific methods of knowledge in chemistry. Particular methods of chemical science. Chemical experiment, its structure, goals and significance in the study of substances and phenomena. Features of modern chemical experiment as a method of scientific knowledge.

Construction of a chemistry course based on the transfer of the science system to the education system. Basic teachings of chemical science and intrascientific connections between them. The influence of interscientific connections on the content of the academic discipline. Showing interdisciplinary connections between courses in chemistry, physics, mathematics, biology, geology and other fundamental sciences. The connection of chemistry with the sciences of the humanities.

A set of factors that determine the selection of the content of the academic subject of chemistry and didactic requirements for it: the social order of society, the level of development of chemical science, age characteristics of students, working conditions of educational institutions.

Modern ideas implemented in the content of the academic subject of chemistry and disciplines of the chemical block: methodologization, ecologization, economization, humanization, integrativeness.

Analysis and justification of the content and construction of a chemistry course in mass media secondary school, disciplines of the chemical block in the higher education system. The most important blocks of content, their structure and intra-subject connections. Theories, laws, systems of concepts, facts, methods of chemical science and their interaction in the school chemistry course. Information about the contribution to science of outstanding chemists.

Systematic and non-systematic chemistry courses. Propaedeutic chemistry courses. Integrative science courses. The concept of a modular structure of content. The concept of linear and concentric course construction.

Standards, chemistry programs for secondary and higher schools as a normative document regulating the education of secondary school students and students, the structure and methodological apparatus of the program standard.

1.2. Education and development of personality in the process of teaching chemistry

The concept of student-centered learning by I.S. Yakimanskaya in the light of the idea of ​​humanization of chemistry teaching. Humanistic orientation of the school chemistry course.

Issues of environmental, economic, aesthetic and other areas of education in the study of chemistry. Program for an ecologized chemistry course by V.M. Nazarenko.

Psychological theories of developmental education as a scientific basis for optimizing the study of chemistry in secondary schools.

Problem-based teaching of chemistry as an important means of developing students’ thinking. Signs of an educational problem in the study of chemistry and stages of its solution. Methods of creating a problem situation, the activities of the teacher and students in the conditions of problem-based teaching of chemistry. Positive and negative aspects of problem-based learning.

The essence and ways of using a differentiated approach in teaching chemistry as a means of developmental education.

1.3. Methods of teaching chemistry in secondary and higher schools

Methods of teaching chemistry as a didactic equivalent of methods of chemical science. Specifics of chemistry teaching methods. The most complete realization of the unity of the three functions of teaching as the main criterion for choosing teaching methods. Necessity, validity and dialectics of combining methods of teaching chemistry. The concept of modern teaching technologies.

Classification of methods of teaching chemistry according to R.G. Ivanova. Verbal teaching methods. Explanation, description, story, conversation. Lecture and seminar system for teaching chemistry.

Verbal and visual methods of teaching chemistry. Chemical experiment as a specific method and means of teaching chemistry, its types, place and significance in the educational process. Educational, educational and developmental functions of a chemical experiment.

Demonstration experiment in chemistry and requirements for it. Methods for demonstrating chemical experiments. Safety precautions when performing them.

Methods of selection and use of various visual aids when studying chemistry, depending on the nature of the content and age characteristics of students. The concept of a set of teaching aids on specific topics in a chemistry course. Methodology for compiling and using reference notes in chemistry in teaching.

Management of cognitive activity of pupils and students with various combinations of the teacher’s words with visualization and experiment.

Verbal-visual-practical methods of teaching chemistry. Independent work of pupils and students as a way to implement verbal, visual and practical methods. Forms and types of independent work in chemistry. Chemistry experiment: laboratory experiments and practical lessons in chemistry. Methodology for developing laboratory skills and abilities in students.

Programmed training as a type of independent work in chemistry. Basic principles of programmed learning.

Methodology for using chemical problems in teaching. The role of tasks in realizing the unity of the three functions of learning. The place of tasks in a chemistry course and in the educational process. Classification of chemical problems. Solving calculation problems at the stages of teaching chemistry. Methodology for selecting and composing tasks for the lesson. Using quantitative concepts to solve calculation problems. A unified methodological approach to solving chemical problems in high school. Solving experimental problems.

Methodology for using TSO in teaching chemistry. Methods of working with a graphic projector, educational films and filmstrips, transparencies, tape recorders and video recorders.

Computerization of training. The use of programmed and algorithmic teaching methods in computer-based chemistry teaching methods. Controlling computer programs.

1.4. Monitoring and evaluation of chemistry learning results

Goals, objectives and significance of monitoring the results of teaching chemistry.

System for monitoring learning results. Credit rating system and final control system. Contents of tasks for control. Forms of control. Classification and functions of tests. Methods of oral control of learning results: individual oral questioning, frontal control conversation, test, exam. Methods of written verification of results: test work, written independent work of a controlling nature, written homework. Experimental verification of learning results.

The use of computer technology and other technical means to monitor learning outcomes.

Assessing the results of chemistry learning on a 10-point grading scale in secondary and higher schools, adopted in the Republic of Belarus.

1.5. Means of teaching chemistry in secondary and higher schools.

Chemistry room

The concept of the system of chemistry teaching aids and educational equipment. A high school chemistry lab and a student workshop laboratory at a university as a necessary condition for full-fledged chemistry education. Modern requirements for the school chemistry laboratory and student laboratory. Laboratory premises and furniture. Arrangement of classroom-laboratory and laboratory rooms. System of educational equipment for the chemistry classroom and chemical laboratories. Equipment of workplaces for teachers, students, students and laboratory assistants.

Tools for ensuring safety requirements when working in a chemistry room and chemical laboratories. Work of a teacher of pupils and students on self-equipment of a chemical laboratory and laboratories.

Textbook of chemistry and chemical disciplines as a teaching system. The role and place of the textbook in the educational process. A brief history of domestic school and university chemistry textbooks. Foreign chemistry textbooks. The structure of the content of a chemistry textbook and its difference from other educational and popular science literature. Requirements for a chemistry textbook, determined by its functions.

Methods of teaching pupils and students to work with the textbook. Maintaining a workbook and laboratory notebook in chemistry.

Technical teaching aids, their types and varieties: chalk board, overhead projector (graphic projector), slide projector, film projector, epidiascope, computer, video and sound reproducing equipment. Tables, drawings and photographs as teaching aids. Ways to use technical teaching aids to increase the cognitive activity of students and increase the efficiency of knowledge acquisition. Didactic capabilities of technical teaching aids and assessment of the effectiveness of their use.

The role of the computer in organizing and conducting extracurricular and extracurricular cognitive activities of students. Computer tutorials for chemistry courses. Internet resources on chemistry and the possibilities of their use in teaching in secondary and higher schools.

1.6. Chemical language as a subject and means of knowledge in teaching chemistry.Structure of chemical language. Chemical language and its functions in the process of teaching and learning. The place of chemical language in the system of teaching aids. Theoretical foundations of the formation of chemical language. The volume and content of language knowledge, skills and abilities in school and university chemistry courses and their connection with the system of chemical concepts. Methods for studying terminology, nomenclature and symbolism in school and university chemistry courses.

1.7. Organizational forms of teaching chemistry in secondary and higher schools

The lesson as the main organizational form in teaching chemistry in high school. Lesson as a structural element of the educational process. Types of lessons. Lesson as a system. Requirements for a chemistry lesson. Structure and construction of lessons of different types. The concept of the dominant didactic goal of the lesson.

Educational, educational and developmental goals of the lesson. Lesson content system. The meaning and methodology of selecting methods and didactic tools in the classroom.

Preparing the teacher for the lesson. Lesson concept and design. Determining lesson objectives. Methodology for planning a lesson content system. Step-by-step generalizations. Planning a system of organizational forms. Methodology for establishing interdisciplinary connections between lesson content and other academic subjects. Methodology for determining the system of logical approaches to teaching methods and means in relation to the goals, content and level of training of students. Planning the introductory part of the lesson. Methodology for establishing intra-subject connections between a lesson and previous and subsequent material.

Techniques and methods for drawing up a plan and notes for a chemistry lesson and working on them. Modeling a lesson.

Conducting a lesson. Organization of class work. Communication between teacher and students during the lesson. The system of tasks and requirements of the teacher for students in the lesson and ensuring their implementation. Saving time in class. Chemistry lesson analysis. Lesson analysis scheme depending on its type.

Optional classes in chemistry. The purpose and objectives of school electives. The place of elective classes in the system of forms of teaching chemistry. The relationship between elective classes in chemistry, their content and requirements for them. Features of the organization and methods of conducting optional classes in chemistry.

Extracurricular work in chemistry. The purpose of extracurricular work and its importance in the educational process. System of extracurricular work in chemistry. Contents, forms, types and methods of extracurricular work in chemistry. Planning of extracurricular activities, means of organizing and conducting them.

Organizational forms of teaching chemistry at a university: lecture, seminar, laboratory workshop. Methodology for conducting a university lecture in chemistry. Requirements for a modern lecture. Organization of lecture form of training. Communication between the lecturer and the audience. Lecture demonstrations and demonstration experiment. Lecture control over knowledge acquisition.

Seminar in teaching chemistry and types of seminar classes. The main goal of the seminar is to develop the students’ speech. Discussion-based way of conducting seminars. Selection of material for discussion. Methodology for organizing a seminar lesson.

Laboratory workshop and its role in teaching chemistry. Forms of organization of laboratory workshops. Individual and group laboratory work. Educational and scientific communication when performing laboratory tasks.

1.8. Formation and development of systems of the most important chemical concepts

Classification of chemical concepts, their relationship with theories and facts and methodological conditions for their formation. Concepts: basic and developing. The relationship between systems of concepts about matter, a chemical element, and a chemical reaction.

The structure of the system of concepts about substances: its main components are concepts about the composition, structure, properties, classification, chemical methods of research and application of substances. The connection of these components with the system of concepts about chemical reactions. Revealing the dialectical essence of the concept of matter in the process of studying it. Qualitative and quantitative characteristics of a substance.

The structure of the system of concepts about a chemical element, its main components: classification of chemical elements, their prevalence in nature, the atom of a chemical element as a specific carrier of the concept of “chemical element”. Systematization of information about a chemical element in the periodic table. The problem of the relationship between the concepts of “valency” and “oxidation state” in a chemistry course, as well as the concepts of “chemical element” and “simple substance”. Formation and development of concepts about the natural group of chemical elements. Methodology for studying groups of chemical elements.

The structure of the system of concepts about chemical objects and their models. Typology of chemical objects (substance, molecule, molecular model), their essence, interrelation, invariant and variable components. Typology of models, their use in chemistry. The problem of the relationship between a model and a real object in chemistry.

The structure of the content of the concept of “chemical reaction”, its components: characteristics, essence and mechanisms, patterns of occurrence and progression, classification, quantitative characteristics, practical use and methods for studying chemical reactions. Formation and development of each component in their interrelation. Connection of the concept of “chemical reaction” with theoretical topics and with other chemical concepts. Providing an understanding of a chemical reaction as a chemical form of motion of matter.

2. Methodology of chemical and pedagogical research

2.1 Methodology of chemical and pedagogical research

Science and scientific research

Pedagogical sciences. Types of scientific and pedagogical research, Structural components of research work. The relationship between science and scientific research.

Chemical-pedagogical research

Chemical-pedagogical research and its specificity. Specifics of the object and subject of scientific and pedagogical research By theory and methodology of chemical education.

Methodological foundations of chemical and pedagogical research

Methodology of science. Methodological approaches (system-structural, functional, personal-activity). Integrative approach in chemical-pedagogical research.

Psychological and pedagogical concepts and theories used in research on the theory and methodology of teaching chemistry. Taking into account the specifics of teaching chemistry in the study, due to the specifics of chemistry.

Consideration of the methodological system in the trinity of training, education and development, teaching and learning, theoretical and axeological stages of knowledge.

Methodological foundations for identifying natural connections in training (adequacy of the target, motivational, content, procedural and effective-evaluative aspects of training).

2.2. Methodology and organization of chemical and pedagogical research

Methods in chemical and pedagogical research

Research methods. Classification of research methods (by degree of generality, by purpose).

General scientific methods. Theoretical analysis and synthesis. Analytical review methodological literature. Modeling. Study and generalization of teaching experience. Closed and open type(advantages and disadvantages). Pedagogical experiment

Organization and stages of research

Organization of chemical and pedagogical research. The main stages of the study (ascertaining, theoretical, experimental, final).

Selecting an object, subject and purpose of research in accordance With problem (topic). Setting and implementing tasks. Formulating a research hypothesis. Correction of the hypothesis during the study.

Selection and implementation of methods to evaluate the effectiveness of the study, confirmation of the hypothesis and achievement of the research goal.

Pedagogical experiment in chemical education

Pedagogical experiment, essence, requirements, plan and conditions of implementation, functions, types and types, methodology and organization, project, stages, stages, factors.

2.3 Assessing the effectiveness of chemistry-pedagogical research

Novelty and significance of the researchCriteria for the novelty and significance of chemical and pedagogical research. The concept of criteria for the effectiveness of pedagogical research. Novelty, relevance, theoretical and practical significance. Scale and readiness for implementation. Efficiency.

Measurement in Educational Research

Measurement in educational research. The concept of measurement in educational research. Criteria and indicators for assessing the results of the educational process.

Parameters of the effectiveness of the educational process. Component analysis of education and training outcomes. Operational analysis of the quality of students' knowledge and skills. Statistical methods in pedagogy and methods of teaching chemistry, reliability criteria.

Generalization and presentation of scientific results

Processing, interpretation and consolidation of research results. Processing and presentation of the results of chemical and pedagogical research (in tables, diagrams, diagrams, drawings, graphs). Literary presentation of the results of chemical and pedagogical research.

Dissertation as final research work and as a genre literary work about the results of chemical and pedagogical research.

Section III. Particular issues of theory and methods of teaching chemistry

3.1 Scientific foundations of school and university chemistry courses

General and inorganic chemistry

Basic chemical concepts and laws.Atomic-molecular science. Basic stoichiometric laws of chemistry. Laws of gas state.

The most important classes and nomenclature are not organic matter. General provisions chemical nomenclature. Classification and nomenclature of simple and complex substances.

Periodic law and atomic structure.Atom. Atomic nucleus. Isotopes. The phenomenon of radioactivity. Quantum mechanical description of the atom. Electronic cloud. Atomic orbital. Quantum numbers. Principles of filling atomic orbitals. Basic characteristics of atoms: atomic radii, ionization energies, electron affinity, electronegativity, relative electronegativity. Periodic law D.I. Mendeleev. Modern formulation of the periodic law. The periodic table is a natural classification of elements based on the electronic structures of their atoms. Periodicity of properties of chemical elements.

Chemical bonding and intermolecular interaction.The nature of the chemical bond. Basic characteristics of chemical bonds. Basic types of chemical bonds. Covalent bond. The concept of the valence bond method. Bond polarity and molecular polarity. s- and p-bonds. Multiplicity of communication. Types of crystal lattices formed by substances with covalent bonds in molecules. Ionic bond. Ionic crystal lattices and properties of substances with an ionic crystal lattice. Polarizability and polarizing effect of ions, their influence on the properties of substances. Metal connection. Intermolecular interaction. Hydrogen bond. Intramolecular and intermolecular hydrogen bonds.

Theory of electrolytic dissociation.Basic principles of the theory of electrolytic dissociation. Reasons and mechanism of electrolytic dissociation of substances with different types of chemical bonds. Ion hydration. Degree of electrolytic dissociation. Strong and weak electrolytes. True and apparent degree of dissociation. Activity coefficient. Dissociation constant. Acids, bases and salts from the point of view of the theory of electrolytic dissociation. Amphoteric electrolytes. Electrolytic dissociation of water. Ionic product of water. pH of the environment. Indicators. Buffer solutions. Hydrolysis of salts. Product of solubility. Conditions for the formation and dissolution of sediments. Proton theory of acids and bases by Brønsted and Lowry. Concept of Lewis acids and bases. Acidity and basicity constants.

Complex connections.Structure of complex compounds. The nature of chemical bonds in complex compounds. Classification, nomenclature of complex compounds. Stability of complex compounds. Instability constant. Formation and destruction of complex ions in solutions. Acid-base properties of complex compounds. Explanation of the hydrolysis of salts and the amphotericity of hydroxides from the point of view of complex formation and the proton theory of acid-base equilibrium.

Redox processes.Classification of redox reactions. Rules for drawing up equations of redox reactions. Methods for setting coefficients. The role of the environment in the course of redox processes. Electrode potential. The concept of a galvanic element. Standard red-ox potentials. Direction of redox reactions in solutions. Corrosion of metals and methods of protection. Electrolysis of solutions and melts.

Properties of basic elements and their compounds.Halogens. General characteristics of elements and simple substances. Chemical properties of simple substances. Preparation, structure and chemical properties of the main types of compounds. Biogenic significance of elements and their compounds. p-elements of the sixth, fifth and fourth groups. General characteristics of elements and simple substances. Chemical properties of simple substances. Receipt. Structure and chemical properties of the main types of compounds. Biogenic significance of elements and their compounds.

Metals. Position in the periodic table and features of physical and chemical properties. Natural metal compounds. Principles of receipt. The role of metals in the life of plant and local organisms.

Physical and colloidal chemistry

Energy and direction of chemical processes.The concept of internal energy of a system and enthalpy. Heat of reaction, its thermodynamic and thermochemical designations. Hess's law and consequences from it. Assessment of the possibility of a chemical reaction occurring in a given direction. The concept of entropy and isobaric-isothermal potential. Maximum process performance. The role of enthalpy and entropy factors in the direction of processes under various conditions.

Rate of chemical reactions, chemical equilibrium.The rate of chemical reactions. Factors influencing the rate of a chemical reaction. Classification of chemical reactions. Molecularity and reaction order. Activation energy. Reversible and irreversible reactions. Conditions for the onset of chemical equilibrium. Chemical equilibrium constant. The Le Chatelier-Brown principle and its application. Concept of catalysis. Catalysis is homogeneous and heterogeneous. Theories of catalysis. Biocatalysis and biocatalysts.

Properties of dilute solutions.General characteristics of dilute solutions of non-electrolytes. Properties of solutions (pressure saturated steam over solution, ebullioscopy and cryoscopy, osmosis). The role of osmosis in biological processes. Dispersed systems, their classification. Colloidal solutions and their properties: kinetic, optical, electrical. The structure of colloidal particles. The importance of colloids in biology.

Organic chemistry

Saturated hydrocarbons (alkanes). Isomerism. Nomenclature. Synthesis methods. Physical and chemical properties of alkanes. Radical substitution reactions S R . Radical halogenation of alkanes. Haloalkanes, chemical properties and applications. Unsaturated hydrocarbons. Alkenes. Isomerism and nomenclature. Electronic structure alkenes Preparation methods and chemical properties. Ionic addition reactions at a double bond, mechanisms and basic principles. Polymerization. The concept of polymers, their properties and characteristics, use in everyday life and industry. Alkynes. Isomerism and nomenclature. Preparation, chemical properties and applications of alkynes. Alkadienes. Classification, nomenclature, isomerism, electronic structure.

Aromatic hydrocarbons (arenes).Nomenclature, isomerism. Aromaticity, Hückel's rule. Polycyclic aromatic systems. Methods for obtaining benzene and its homologues. Electrophilic substitution reactions in the aromatic ring S E Ar, general patterns and mechanism.

Alcohols. Monohydric and polyhydric alcohols, nomenclature, isomerism, methods of preparation. Physical, chemical and biomedical properties. Phenols, methods of production. Chemical properties: acidity (influence of substituents), reactions at the hydroxyl group and aromatic ring.

Amines. Classification, isomerism, nomenclature. Methods for obtaining aliphatic and aromatic amines, their basicity and chemical properties.

Aldehydes and ketones.Isomerism and nomenclature. Comparative reactivity of aldehydes and ketones. Preparation methods and chemical properties. Aldehydes and ketones of the aromatic series. Preparation methods and chemical properties.

Carboxylic acids and their derivatives.Carboxylic acids. Nomenclature. Factors affecting acidity. Physico-chemical properties and methods for producing acids. Aromatic carboxylic acids. Preparation methods and chemical properties. Derivatives of carboxylic acids: salts, acid halides, anhydrides, esters, amides and their mutual transitions. Mechanism of esterification reaction.

Carbohydrates. Monosaccharides. Classification, stereochemistry, tautomerism. Preparation methods and chemical properties. The most important representatives of monosaccharides and their biological role. Disaccharides, their types, classification. Differences in chemical properties. Mutorotation. Sucrose inversion. Biological significance of disaccharides. Polysaccharides. Starch and glycogen, their structure. Cellulose, structure and properties. Chemical processing of cellulose and the use of its derivatives.

Amino acids. Structure, nomenclature, synthesis and chemical properties. a-Amino acids, classification, stereochemistry, acid-base properties, features of chemical behavior. Peptides, peptide bond. Separation of amino acids and peptides.

Heterocyclic compounds.Heterocyclic compounds, classification and nomenclature. Five-membered heterocycles with one and two heteroatoms, their aromaticity. Six-membered heterocycles with one and two heteroatoms. An idea of ​​the chemical properties of heterocycles with one heteroatom. Heterocycles in natural compounds.

3.2 Features of the content, structure and methodology of studying chemistry courses in secondary and higher schools.

Principles of construction and scientific and methodological analysis of educational support for chemistry courses in the main one. full (secondary) and higher schools. Educational value of chemistry courses.

Scientific and methodological analysis of the section “Basic chemical concepts”.The structure, content and logic of studying basic chemical concepts at basic, advanced and in-depth levels of studying chemistry. Analysis and methodology for the formation of basic chemical concepts. Features of the formation of concepts about a chemical element and substance at the initial stage. General methodological principles for the study of specific chemical elements and simple substances based on atomic-molecular concepts (using the example of the study of oxygen and hydrogen). Analysis and methodology for forming quantitative characteristics of a substance. The concept of a chemical reaction at the level of atomic-molecular concepts. Interrelation of initial chemical concepts. Development of initial chemical concepts when studying selected topics in the eighth grade chemistry course. The structure and content of an educational chemical experiment in the section "Basic chemical concepts". Problems of methods of teaching basic chemical concepts in secondary school. Features of studying the section "Basic chemical concepts" in university chemistry courses.

Scientific and methodological analysis of the section "Main classes of inorganic compounds".The structure, content and logic of studying the main classes of inorganic compounds at basic, advanced and in-depth levels of chemistry. Analysis and methodology for studying oxides, bases, acids and salts in primary school. Analysis and methodology for forming the concept of the relationship between classes of inorganic compounds. Development and generalization of concepts about the most important classes of inorganic compounds and the relationship between classes of inorganic compounds in complete (secondary) school. Structure and content of an educational chemical experiment in the section "Main classes of inorganic compounds." Problems of teaching methods for basic classes of inorganic compounds in secondary school. Features of studying the section “Main classes of inorganic compounds” in university chemistry courses.

Scientific and methodological analysis of the section "Structure of the atom and the periodic law."The periodic law and the theory of atomic structure as the scientific foundations of a school chemistry course. The structure, content and logic of studying the structure of the atom and the periodic law at basic, advanced and in-depth levels of chemistry. Analysis and methodology for studying the structure of the atom and the periodic law. Problems associated with radioactive contamination of the territory of Belarus in connection with the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant.

Structure, content and logic of study periodic table chemical elements D.I. Mendeleev at basic, advanced and in-depth levels of studying chemistry. Analysis and methodology for studying the periodic system of chemical elements based on the theory of atomic structure. The meaning of the periodic law. Features of studying the section “Atomic structure and periodic law” in university chemistry courses.

Scientific and methodological analysis of the section "Chemical bonding and structure of matter".The importance of studying chemical bonds and the structure of substances in a chemistry course. The structure, content and logic of studying chemical bonds and the structure of matter at basic, advanced and in-depth levels of studying chemistry. Analysis and methodology for forming the concept of chemical bonding based on electronic and energy concepts. Development of the concept of valence based on electronic representations. The degree of oxidation of elements and its use in the process of teaching chemistry. Structure of solids in the light of modern concepts. Disclosure of the dependence of the properties of substances on their structure as the main idea of ​​studying the school course. Features of studying the section "Chemical bonding and structure of matter" in university chemistry courses.

Scientific and methodological analysis of the section "Chemical reactions".

Structure, content and logic of studying chemical reactions at basic, advanced and in-depth levels of studying chemistry. Analysis and methodology for the formation and development of a system of concepts about chemical reactions in basic and full (secondary) schools.

Analysis and methodology for generating knowledge about the rate of chemical reactions. Factors influencing the rate of chemical reactions and methods for developing knowledge about them. Worldview and applied significance of knowledge about the rate of chemical reactions.

Analysis and methodology for developing concepts about the reversibility of chemical processes and chemical equilibrium. Le Chatelier's principle and its significance for using a deductive approach in studying the conditions for shifting equilibrium during the occurrence of reversible chemical reactions. Features of studying the section "Chemical reactions" in university chemistry courses.

Scientific and methodological analysis of the section "Chemistry of solutions and the fundamentals of the theory of electrolytic dissociation."The place and significance of educational material about solutions in a school chemistry course. Structure, content and logic of studying solutions at basic, advanced and in-depth levels of studying chemistry. Analysis and methodology for studying solutions in a school chemistry course.

The place and significance of the theory of electrolytes in the school chemistry course. Structure, content and logic of studying the processes of dissociation of electrolytes at basic, advanced and in-depth levels of chemistry study. Analysis and methodology for studying the basic provisions and concepts of the theory of electrolytic dissociation in a school chemistry course. Disclosure of the mechanisms of electrolytic dissociation of substances with different structures. Development and generalization of students' knowledge about acids, bases and salts based on the theory of electrolytic dissociation.

Analysis and methodology for studying the hydrolysis of salts in specialized classes and classes with in-depth study of chemistry. The importance of knowledge about hydrolysis in practice and for understanding a number of natural phenomena. Features of studying the section "Chemistry of solutions and the basics of the theory of electrolytic dissociation."in university chemistry courses.

Scientific and methodological analysis of the sections "Non-metals" and "Metals"..Educational tasks of studying non-metals and metals in a high school chemistry course. The structure, content and logic of studying non-metals and metals at basic, advanced and in-depth levels of chemistry. Analysis and methodology for studying non-metals and metals at various stages of chemistry education. The importance and place of chemical experiment and visual aids in the study of non-metals. Analysis and methodology for studying subgroups of nonmetals and metals. Interdisciplinary connections in the study of nonmetals and metals. The role of studying the systematics of non-metals and metals for the development of general chemical and polytechnic horizons and the scientific worldview of students. Features of studying the section "Non-metals" and "Metals".in university chemistry courses.

Scientific and methodological analysis of the organic chemistry course.Objectives of the organic chemistry course. The structure, content and logic of studying organic compounds at basic, advanced and in-depth levels of studying chemistry in high school and university. The theory of the chemical structure of organic compounds as the basis for the study of organic chemistry.

Analysis and methodology for studying the basic principles of the theory of chemical structure. Development of concepts about the electronic cloud, the nature of its hybridization, the overlap of electronic clouds, and the strength of communication. Electronic and spatial structure of organic substances. The concept of isomerism and homology of organic compounds. The essence of the mutual influence of atoms in molecules. Disclosure of the idea of ​​the relationship between the structure and properties of organic substances. Development of the concept of a chemical reaction in the course of organic chemistry.

Analysis and methods for studying hydrocarbons, homo-, poly- and heterofunctional and heterocyclic substances. Relationship between classes of organic compounds. The importance of the organic chemistry course in polytechnic training and the formation of the scientific worldview of students. The relationship between biology and chemistry in the study of organic substances. Organic chemistry as the basis for the study of integrative disciplines of chemical-biological and medical-pharmaceutical profile.

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The main sections of chemistry teaching methods include methods, forms, teaching aids and scientific organization labor of a chemistry teacher.

As is known, any educational content cannot be introduced into the educational process outside of the method. Therefore, the teaching method with philosophical point vision is called a form of content movement in the educational process. If subject content is the didactic equivalent of science, then teaching methods are the didactic equivalent of methods of cognition and methods of the science being studied. They must reflect their structure, specificity and dialectics. Therefore, it is not by chance that in didactics the question of the relationship between scientific methods and teaching methods is raised.

The main task of the teacher is the optimal choice of teaching methods so that they ensure the education, upbringing and development of students. A teaching method is a type (method) of purposeful joint activity between the teacher and the students he leads. The specificity of methods of teaching chemistry lies, firstly, in the specificity of the content and methods of chemistry as an experimental-theoretical science and, secondly, in the peculiarities of the cognitive activity of students, the need to think in a “double series of images”, to explain really tangible properties and changes of substances by the state and changes in the invisible microworld, which can be understood using theoretical, model concepts.

It should be remembered that each method must be applied where it most effectively performs educational, educational and developmental functions. Any method can and should perform all three functions and performs them if applied correctly, selected adequately for the content and age characteristics of students and used not in isolation, but in combination with other teaching methods. Teaching methods are chosen and applied by the teacher, and the influence of the teacher’s personality is an extremely important factor in the teaching, and especially the upbringing, of students. Therefore, when choosing a method, the teacher must be sure that in the given specific conditions this particular method will have the greatest educational, educational, and developmental effect.

When studying methods of teaching chemistry, the problem of their optimal choice is raised. In this case, the following is taken into account: 1) patterns and principles of learning; 2) goals and objectives of training; 3) the content and methods of a given science in general and a given subject, topic in particular; 4) educational opportunities of schoolchildren (age, level of preparedness, characteristics of the class group); 5) the specifics of external conditions (geographical, industrial environment, etc.); 6) the capabilities of the teachers themselves.

The classification of teaching methods is based on three important features: the main didactic goals (learning new material, consolidating and improving knowledge, testing knowledge), sources of knowledge, and the nature of students’ cognitive activity.

Methods can be classified according to their functions: educational, educational and developmental, which should implement all methods to one degree or another. In addition, special functions of individual groups of teaching methods are distinguished: methods of organizing and implementing educational and cognitive activities of students, the dominant function of which is the organization of cognitive activity of students in sensory perception, logical comprehension of educational information, independence in the search for new knowledge; methods of stimulation and motivation of cognitive activity, the dominant function of which is stimulating-motivational, regulatory, communicative; methods of control and self-control of educational and cognitive activity, the dominant function of which is control and evaluation activity.

Methods for organizing and implementing educational and cognitive activities of students are a large and complex group of methods. The closest classification to chemistry and convenient for systematic study of this group of methods is division according to the nature of cognitive activity (explanatory-illustrative, heuristic, research). Each such method acts as a methodological approach. And within their framework, more specific methods are used that differ in the source of knowledge (verbal, verbal-visual, verbal-visual-practical). It is noteworthy that in this classification there is no division into pure visual and practical methods. The mutual integration of groups of methods is taken into account here. These groups of methods are divided into individual specific methods (lecture, story, conversation, etc.). Thus, a clear system of teaching methods emerges based on the following characteristics:

1. The nature of students’ cognitive activity (general methods): explanatory and illustrative, heuristic, research.

2. Type of knowledge sources (particular methods): verbal, verbal-visual, verbal-visual-practical.

3. Forms of joint activity between teacher and students (specific methods): lecture, story, explanation, conversation, independent work, programmed training, description, etc.

This classification also contains controversial issues that indicate the complexity of the task of classifying teaching methods, but it is quite convenient for practical use.

Let us consider the features of the activities of students and teachers under different general teaching methods.

With the explanatory-illustrative method, the teacher communicates ready-made knowledge to students using various private and specific methods - teacher explanation, working with a book, tape recorder, etc. In this case, if necessary, visual aids are used (experiment, models, screen aids, tables and so on.). A laboratory experiment can also be used, but only as an illustration of the teacher’s words. The explanatory-illustrative method assumes conscious but reproductive activity of students and the application of knowledge in similar situations.

Heuristic methods can be carried out with the active participation of the teacher. An example is a heuristic conversation about identifying the comparative activity of halogens, in which the student’s search is constantly adjusted by the teacher. To demonstrate the experiment, starch paste is poured into a solution of potassium iodide - no color is observed. Separately, starch paste is also poured into chlorine water - there is no coloring either. When all three components are mixed together - potassium iodide, starch paste and chlorine water, the starch turns blue. Next, the teacher conducts a conversation to analyze this experience.

With the research method, varying degrees of independence and complexity of the research task are also possible. Student research, like scientific research, combines the use of theoretical knowledge and experiment; it requires the ability to model, carry out a thought experiment, and build a research plan, for example, when solving experimental problems. In more complex cases with the research method, the student himself formulates the problem, puts forward and substantiates a hypothesis, and designs an experiment to test it. To do this, he uses reference and scientific literature, etc. Thus, with the research method, students are required to have maximum independence. However, using this method requires much more time.

Let's consider verbal teaching methods, among which there are monological and dialogic.

Monologue teaching methods include description, explanation, story, lecture, built mainly on the presentation of the material by the teacher himself.

The description introduces students to facts obtained through experiment and observation in science: methods of protecting the environment from the harmful effects of waste from industrial enterprises, the cycle of one or another element in nature, the course of a chemical process, the characteristics of a device, etc. With this method, it is useful to use clarity .

Explanation is used to study the essence of phenomena, to familiarize students with theoretical generalizations: for example, in the 7th grade - with the law of conservation of mass of substances from the point of view of atomic-molecular science, in the 8th grade - with the reasons for the periodic repetition of the properties of elements or the process of reversibility and irreversibility reactions, etc. With this method, connections between concepts and individual facts are revealed. The main thing in explanation is clarity. It is achieved by observing a strict logical sequence of presentation, establishing connections with knowledge already known to students, accessibility of terms, correct use of notes on the board and in students’ notebooks, providing available specific examples, dividing the explanation into logically complete parts with a step-by-step generalization after each part, ensuring consolidation of the material .

A lecture is a longer type of monologue presentation. It includes description, explanation, story, and other types of short-term monologue presentation using visual aids.

Dialogue methods include different types of conversations, seminars based on dialogue between the teacher and students, debates between students, etc.

A conversation is a dialogue between a teacher and students. It is expressed in the fact that the teacher asks students questions, and they answer them. Sometimes it happens that during a conversation, students have a question, which the teacher either answers himself or organizes students to answer.

New methods in school practice include a seminar, which can also be classified as verbal dialogic teaching methods. The seminar is practiced mainly with high school students. Students prepare for it according to a pre-developed plan. A seminar is held, as a rule, on a fairly large section or topic in the form of students discussing a particular problem. It is most useful to conduct seminars to summarize students' knowledge. At the seminar, students are given more time to make statements than during a conversation, attention is paid to their speech, logic, argumentation, ability to participate in discussion, etc. As topics for seminar classes, we can suggest, for example, the following: “Dependence of the properties of hydrocarbons on their structure”, “The significance of the achievements of organic chemistry in the development of the national economy”, etc. The seminar is a method that brings together school forms of work with university ones, and it is useful for high school students.

Verbal-visual teaching methods determine the use of various visual aids in the educational process in combination with the teacher’s word. They are directly related to learning tools and depend on them. In addition, teaching methods impose certain requirements on didactic tools. The process of eliminating this contradiction lies at the heart of improving these systems.

The system of verbal-visual teaching methods and its place in the educational process can be imagined in the form of a diagram (Diagram 6).

Scheme System of verbal and visual teaching methods

This division into blocks is determined by the content of the chemistry course. A demonstration experiment and natural objects help to study the properties of substances and the external manifestations of a chemical reaction. Models, drawings, graphs (this also includes the compilation of formulas and chemical equations as symbolic models of substances and processes) help explain the essence of processes, the composition and structure of substances, and provide a theoretical justification for observed phenomena. This division of visualization functions indicates the need to use the content of both blocks in didactic unity. In this case, teaching methods will promote movement from facts to theory, from the concrete to the abstract. Didactic unity is reflected in the so-called equipment complexes on the topic. Their essence lies in the fact that to solve different learning problems they use various visual aids within one lesson, which perform diverse functions and complement each other. If, for example, the device being demonstrated is too small and difficult to see from a distance, and students need to know its structure, the teacher can reproduce it in the form of a drawing, make a drawing on the board or depict it using magnetic applications or a flannelgraph. The chemical process in the device occurs under certain conditions. To justify them, you can provide reference data on substances in the form of graphs or digital data, explain the process using ball-and-stick models, etc. It is important not to get carried away with too much visualization, as this tires students. Particular attention should be paid to the combination of visualization with the teacher’s word. Experience shown without a teacher’s commentary is not only not beneficial, but sometimes can even be harmful. For example, when demonstrating the interaction of zinc with hydrochloric acid, students may get the impression that hydrogen is released not from the acid, but from the zinc. A very common mistake is the opinion that it is not the indicator that changes color, but the environment into which it enters. And most other experiments without explanations will not perform the necessary educational, educational and developmental functions. Therefore, the teacher’s word plays an important guiding and guiding role. But the word is also in a certain dependence on the means of visualization, since the teacher builds his explanation, focusing on the means of teaching that are at his disposal.

Using a demonstration experiment in teaching chemistry

The most important of the verbal and visual teaching methods is the use of a demonstration chemical experiment. The specificity of chemistry as an experimental-theoretical science has placed the educational experiment in one of the leading places. A chemical experiment in teaching allows students to become more familiar not only with the phenomena themselves, but also with the methods of chemical science.

A demonstration is an experiment that is conducted in a classroom by a teacher, a laboratory assistant, or sometimes one of the students. Demonstration experiments in chemistry are indicated in the program, but the teacher can replace them with others that are methodologically equivalent if he does not have the required reagents.

The problem of using a school chemical experiment is one of the most developed in the methodology, since it is this that more than others reflects the specifics of the educational subject. Widely known in research methods are V. N. Verkhovsky, K. Ya. Parmenov, V. S. Polosin, L. A. Tsvetkova, I. N. Chertkova and others. Materials about chemical experiments are regularly published on the pages of the journal "Chemistry at School" ". The requirements for a demonstration experiment are well known.

Visibility. Reagents should be used in such quantities and in containers of such volume that all parts are clearly visible to all students. Test tube experiments are clearly visible no further than the third row of tables, so cylinders, glasses or demonstration tubes of sufficiently large volume are used for demonstration. Anything that might distract attention is removed from the table. The teacher's gesture is carefully thought out; the teacher's hands do not obscure what is happening.

The clarity of the experiment can be enhanced by demonstrating it through an overhead projector in a cuvette or Petri dish. For example, the interaction of sodium with water cannot be shown with a large amount of metal, and with a small amount it is poorly visible, and it cannot be given to students for laboratory work - the experiment is dangerous. An experiment illustrating the properties of sodium is very clearly visible when projected through an overhead projector. For greater clarity, stage tables are widely used.

Simplicity. There should be no clutter of unnecessary parts in the devices. It should be remembered that, as a rule, in chemistry the object of study is not the device itself, but the process occurring in it. Therefore, the simpler the device itself, the better it meets the purpose of learning, the easier it is to explain the experience. However, simplicity should not be confused with oversimplification. Do not use household utensils in experiments - this reduces the culture of the experiment.

Students watch spectacular experiments with flashes, explosions, etc. with great pleasure, but they should not get carried away with them, especially at the beginning of their studies, since less spectacular experiments then receive less attention.

Safety of the experiment. The teacher carries full responsibility for the safety of students during class or extracurricular activities. Therefore, he must know the safety rules when working in a chemical laboratory. In addition to providing classes with fire safety equipment, exhaust means, and means for providing first aid to victims, the teacher needs to remember the techniques that promote safety in the lesson. The containers in which the experiment is carried out must always be clean, the reagents are checked in advance, and for experiments with explosions a protective transparent screen is used. Gases are checked for purity in advance and before the experiment itself. If the experiment is carried out with an explosion, students are warned about this in advance so that the explosion does not come as a surprise to them. It is necessary to provide personal safety equipment (safety glasses, a robe made of cotton fabric, rubber gloves, gas mask, etc.), make sure that your hair is tied up.

Reliability. The experience should always be successful, since a failed experience causes disappointment in students and undermines the authority of the teacher. The experiment is checked before the lesson in order to work out the technique of conducting it, determine the time it will take, find out the optimal conditions (sequence and quantity of added reagents, the concentration of their solutions), think over the place of the experiment in the lesson and the explanation plan. If the experiment still fails, it is better to immediately show it again. The reason for failure should be explained to students. If the experiment cannot be carried out again, then it must be shown in the next lesson.

The need to explain the experiment. Each experiment only has educational value when it is explained. Fewer experiments in a lesson are better, but all of them should be understandable to students. According to I. A. Kablukov, students should look at experience as a method of studying nature, as a question asked of nature, and not as “hocus pocus”.

The most important requirement for a demonstration experiment is the filigree technique of its implementation. The slightest mistake made by the teacher will be repeated many times by his students.

In accordance with the listed requirements, the following methodology for demonstrating experiments is recommended.

1. Setting the goal of the experiment (or the problem to be solved). Students must understand why the experiment is being carried out, what they must be convinced of, and what they must understand as a result of the experiment.

2. Description of the device in which the experiment is carried out, the conditions under which it is carried out, the reagents, indicating their required properties.

3. Organization of student observation. The teacher should orient students which part of the device to observe, what to expect (a sign of a reaction), etc.

4. Conclusion and theoretical justification.

To master a chemical experiment well, you need repeated and lengthy practice in conducting it.

The developmental function of the experiment can be enhanced through different ways combining the experiment with the teacher’s word. Four main ways of combining a teacher’s word with an experiment have been identified:

1) knowledge is derived from experience itself. The teacher’s explanation accompanies the experience and goes, as it were, parallel to the process that the students observe. This combination is unacceptable for spectacular experiments that attract the attention of students with a bright spectacle and create a strong dominant focus of excitation in the cerebral cortex;

2) the teacher’s word complements the observations made in the experiment, explains what the students see (for example, an experiment with the reduction of copper from oxide with hydrogen);

3) the teacher’s word precedes the experiment, which performs an illustrative function;

4) first a verbal explanation is given, a decoding of the phenomenon, and then a demonstration experiment. However, it does not follow from this that when demonstrating, the teacher predicts the course of the experiment and tells what should happen.

The first and second approaches are used for problem-based learning; they are more conducive to the development of mental activity.

Using educational visual aids in teaching chemistry

In addition to the demonstration experiment, a chemistry teacher has many other visual aids in his arsenal, which, when used correctly, increase the effectiveness and quality of the lesson (blackboard, tables of various contents, models, layouts, magnetic applications, on-screen aids). They are used both in combination with a chemical experiment and with each other, and separately, but always with the word of the teacher.

Writing on the board needs to be planned in advance. It must be performed clearly and consistently, so that the entire course of the lesson is reflected on the board. In this case, the teacher can return to what has already been explained and discuss with the students questions that are not well understood. Drawings on the board are made using stencils.

The teacher also supervises the students’ work at the blackboard so that their writing is clear and accurate.

Writing on the board is more appropriate than other types of visualization in cases where you need to reflect the sequence of derivation of a formula or other algorithmic prescription. You should only use a clean board that has no extraneous notes on it. The teacher should stand at the board so as not to block the note he is making.

It must be remembered that solving problems is not an end in itself, but a means of learning that contributes to the solid assimilation of knowledge.

Problems are classified according to types of solutions, mainly qualitative and computational.

Qualitative problems in chemistry

Among widely known types qualitative tasks can be specified as follows:

1. Explanation of the listed or observed phenomena: why does the reaction of calcium carbonate with sulfuric acid first begin rapidly and then stop? Why does dry ammonium carbonate produce another substance when heated?

2. Characteristics of specific substances: with what substances and why can hydrochloric acid react? Which of the following substances will hydrochloric acid react with?

3. Recognition of substances: which test tube contains acid, alkali, salt? Which test tube contains hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and nitric acid?

4. Proof of the qualitative composition of substances: how to prove that ammonium chloride contains ammonium ion and chlorine ion?

5. Separation of mixtures and isolation of pure substances: how to purify oxygen from carbon monoxide (IV) impurities?

6. Obtaining substances: obtain zinc chloride by all possible means.

This type of problem also includes chains of transformations, as well as the production of a substance if a number of other substances are given as starting materials. There may be tasks for using the device, for example: indicate which device can be used to collect ammonia, oxygen, hydrogen, chlorine, etc.