Artistic time and artistic space. Philological analysis of the text. Tutorial

Spatial features of the text. Space and image of the world. Physical point of view (spatial plans: panoramic image, close-up, moving – stationary picture of the world, external – internal space, etc.). Features of the landscape (interior). Types of space. The value meaning of spatial images (spatial images as an expression not spatial relations).

Temporal features of the text. Action time and storytelling time. Types of artistic time, the meaning of temporary images. Vocabulary with temporary meaning. Basic chronotopes of the text. Space and time of the author and the hero, their fundamental difference.

Any literary work in one way or another reproduces the real world - both material and ideal: nature, things, events, people in their external and internal existence, etc. The natural forms of existence of this world are time And space. However art world, or world of art, always conditional to one degree or another: it exists image reality. Time and space in literature are thus also conditional.

Compared to other arts, literature deals most freely with time and space.(Perhaps only the synthetic art of cinema can compete in this area). The “immateriality of... images” gives literature the ability to instantly move from one space to another. In particular, events occurring simultaneously in different places can be depicted; To do this, it is enough for the narrator to say: “Meanwhile, such and such was happening there.” Equally simple are transitions from one time plane to another (especially from the present to the past and back). The earliest forms of such time switching were flashbacks in the stories of characters. With the development of literary self-awareness, these forms of mastering time and space will become more sophisticated, but the important thing is that they have always taken place in literature, and, therefore, constituted an essential element of artistic imagery.

Another property of literary time and space is their discontinuity. In relation to time, this is especially important, since literature turns out to be capable of not reproducingallflow of time, but select the most significant fragments from it, marking the gaps with formulas like: “several days have passed,” etc. Such temporal discreteness (has long been characteristic of literature) served as a powerful means of dynamization, first in the development of the plot, and then in psychologism.

Fragmentation of space partly connected with the properties of artistic time, partly has an independent character.

Characterconventions of time and space highly dependentfrom birth literature. Lyrics, which present an actual experience, and drama, which plays out before the eyes of the audience, showing an incident at the moment of its occurrence, usually use the present tense, while the epic (basically a story about what has passed) uses the past tense.

Conditionality is maximum inlyrics, it may even completely lack the image of space - for example, in the poem by A.S. Pushkin “I loved you; love still, perhaps...” Space in lyric poetry is often allegorical: the desert in Pushkin’s “Prophet”, the sea in Lermontov’s “Sail”. At the same time, lyrics are capable of reproducing objective world in its spatial realities. Thus, in Lermontov’s poem “Motherland” a typically Russian landscape is recreated. In his poem “How often, surrounded by a motley crowd...” the mental transference of the lyrical hero from the ballroom to the “wonderful kingdom” embodies extremely significant oppositions for the romantic: civilization and nature, artificial and natural man, “I” and “the crowd” . And not only spaces are opposed, but also times.

Conventions of time and space Vdrama associated mainly with her orientation towards the theater. With all the diversity in the organization of time and space in drama, some common properties are preserved: no matter how significant the role narrative fragments acquire in dramatic works, no matter how the depicted action is fragmented, drama is committed to pictures closed in space and time.

Much wider possibilities epic kind , where the fragmentation of time and space, transitions from one time to another, spatial movements are carried out easily and freely thanks to the figure of the narrator - an intermediary between the life depicted and the reader. The narrator can “compress” and, on the contrary, “stretch” time, or even stop it (in descriptions, reasoning).

According to the peculiarities of artistic convention time and space in literature (in all its types) can be divided into abstract And specific, This distinction is especially important for space.

Both in life and in literature, space and time are not given to us in their pure form. We judge space by the objects that fill it (in a broad sense), and we judge time by the processes occurring in it. To analyze a work, it is important to determine the fullness, saturation of space and time, since this indicator in many cases characterizes style works, writer, direction. For example, in Gogol the space is usually filled as much as possible with some objects, especially things. Here is one of the interiors in " Dead souls»: «<...>the room was hung with old striped wallpaper; paintings with some birds; between the windows there are old small mirrors with dark frames in the shape of curled leaves; Behind every mirror there was either a letter, or an old deck of cards, or a stocking; wall clock with painted flowers on the dial...” (Chapter III). And in Lermontov’s stylistic system, the space is practically not filled: it contains only what is necessary for the plot and depiction of the inner world of the heroes; even in “A Hero of Our Time” (not to mention romantic poems) there is not a single detailed interior

The intensity of artistic time is expressed in its saturation with events. Dostoevsky, Bulgakov, Mayakovsky had an extremely busy time. Chekhov managed to sharply reduce the intensity of time even in dramatic works, which in principle tend to concentrate action.

Increased saturation of artistic space, as a rule, is combined with a reduced intensity of time, and vice versa: weak saturation of space - with time, rich in events.

Real (plot) and artistic time rarely coincide, especially in epic works, where playing with time can be a very expressive technique. In most cases, artistic time is shorter than “real” time: this is where the law of “poetic economy” manifests itself. However, there is an important exception related to the image psychological processes and subjective time character or lyrical hero. Experiences and thoughts, unlike other processes, proceed faster than the flow of speech, which forms the basis of literary imagery. Therefore, the image time is almost always longer than the subjective time. In some cases this is less noticeable (for example, in “A Hero of Our Time” by Lermontov, Goncharov’s novels, in Chekhov’s stories), in others it constitutes a conscious artistic device designed to emphasize the richness and intensity of mental life. This is typical of many psychological writers: Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, Faulkner, Hemingway, Proust.

The depiction of what the hero experienced in just a second of “real” time can take up a large amount of the narrative.

In literature as a dynamic, but at the same time visual, art, quite complex relationships often arise between “ real "and artistic time.« Real“time can generally be equal to zero, for example, with various types of descriptions. This time can be called eventless . But event time, in which at least something happens, is internally heterogeneous. In one case, literature actually records events and actions that significantly change either a person, or the relationships between people, or the situation as a whole. This plot , or plot , time. In another case, literature paints a picture of stable existence, actions and deeds repeated day after day, year after year. Events as such at such a time No. Everything that happens in it does not change either the character of a person or the relationships between people, does not move the plot (plot) from beginning to end. The dynamics of such time are extremely conditional, and its function is to reproduce a stable way of life. This type of artistic time is sometimes called "chronicle-everyday" .

The ratio of non-event and event time largely determines tempo organization of artistic time of a work , which, in turn, determines the nature of aesthetic perception. So, " Dead Souls» Gogol, in which predominates eventless, “chronicle-everyday” time, create the impression of a slow pace. There is a different tempo organization in Dostoevsky’s novel “Crime and Punishment”, in which event-based time (not only externally, but also internal, psychological events).

The writer sometimes makes time last, stretches it to convey a certain psychological state of the hero (Chekhov’s story “I want to sleep”), sometimes stops, “turns off” (philosophical excursions of L. Tolstoy in “War and Peace”), sometimes makes time move backwards.

Important for analysis iscompleteness Andincompleteness artistic time. Writers often create in their works closed time, which has both an absolute beginning and - what is more important - an absolute end, which, as a rule, represents the completion of the plot, the denouement of the conflict, and in the lyrics - the exhaustion of a given experience or reflection. From the early stages of the development of literature and almost until the 19th century. such temporary completeness was practically obligatory and constituted a sign of artistry. The forms of completion of artistic time were varied: this was the hero’s return to his father’s house after wanderings (literary interpretations of the parable of the prodigal son), and his achievement of a certain stable position in life, and the “triumph of virtue,” and the hero’s final victory over the enemy, and, of course, same, the death of the main character or a wedding. At the end of the 19th century. Chekhov, for whom the incompleteness of artistic time became one of the foundations of his innovative aesthetics, extended the principle open finals and unfinished time on dramaturgy, those. to the literary genre in which it was most difficult to do this and which urgently requires temporal and eventual isolation.

Space, just like time, can shift at the will of the author. Artistic space is created through the use of image perspective; this occurs as a result of a mental change in the place from which the observation is being made: a general, small plan is replaced by a large one, and vice versa. Spatial concepts in a creative, artistic context can only be an external, verbal image, but convey a different content, not spatial.

The historical development of the spatio-temporal organization of the artistic world reveals a very definite tendency towards complication. In the 19th and especially in the 20th centuries. writers use space-time composition as a special, conscious artistic device; a kind of “game” begins with time and space. Its meaning is to compare different times and spaces, to identify both the characteristic properties of “here” and “now”, and the general, universal laws of existence, to comprehend the world in its unity. Each culture has its own understanding of time and space, which is reflected in literature. Since the Renaissance, culture has been dominated by linear concept time associated with the concept progress.Artistic time too for the most part linear, although there are exceptions. On culture and literature late XIX– beginning of the 20th century had a significant impact natural sciences concepts time and space, associated primarily with A. Einstein’s theory of relativity. Fiction responded to changing scientific and philosophical ideas about time and space: it began to contain deformations of space and time. Most fruitfully mastered new concepts of space and time Science fiction.

Titles denoting time and space.

Despite all the conventions of the “new artistic reality” created by the writer, the basis of the artistic world, like the real world, is its coordinates – time And place, which often indicated in the titles of works. In addition to cyclic coordinates (names of the time of day, days of the week, months), the time of action can be indicated by a date correlated with a historical event (“The Ninety-third Year” by V. Hugo), or the name of a real historical person with whom the idea of ​​a particular era (“Chronicle of the reign of Charles IX” by P. Merimee).

The title of a work of art can indicate not only “points” on the time axis, but also entire “segments” that mark the chronological framework of the narrative. At the same time, the author, focusing the reader’s attention on a certain time period - sometimes it is just one day or even part of a day - strives to convey both the essence of existence and the “clump of everyday life” of his heroes, emphasizing the typicality of the events he describes (“Morning of the Landowner” by L.N. Tolstoy, “One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich” by A.I. Solzhenitsyn).

The second coordinate of the artistic world of a work - place - can be indicated in the title with varying degrees of specificity, by a real (“Rome” by E. Zola) or a fictional toponym (“Chevengur” by A.P. Platonov, “Solaris” by St. Lem), defined in in the most general form (“Village” by I.A. Bunin, “Islands in the Ocean” by E. Hemingway). Fictional toponyms often contain an emotional assessment, giving the reader an idea of ​​the author’s concept of the work. Thus, the negative semantics of Gorky’s toponym Okurov (“Okurov Town”) is quite obvious to the reader; Gorky’s town of Okurov is a dead outback, in which life does not seethe, but barely glimmers. The most common names of places, as a rule, indicate the extremely broad meaning of the image created by the artist. Thus, the village from the story of the same name by I.A. Bunin is not only one of the villages of the Oryol province, but also a Russian village in general with a whole complex of contradictions associated with the spiritual disintegration of the peasant world and community.

Titles indicating the place of action can not only model the space of the artistic world (“Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow” by A. Radishchev, “Moscow - Petushki” by V. Erofeev), but also introduce the main symbol of the work (“Nevsky Prospekt” by N.V. Gogol, “Petersburg” by A. Bely). Toponymic titles are often used by writers as a kind of bond that unites individual works into a single cycle or book (“Evenings on a Farm near Dikanka” by N.V. Gogol).

Basic literature: 12, 14, 18, 28, 75

Further reading: 39, 45, 82

Artistic space and time are an integral property of any work of art, including music, literature, theater, etc. Literary chronotopes have primarily plot significance and are the organizational centers of the main events described by the author. There is also no doubt about the pictorial significance of chronotopes, since plot events in them are concretized, and time and space acquire a sensually visual character. Genre and genre varieties are determined by chronotope. All temporal-spatial definitions in literature are inseparable from each other and are emotionally charged.

Artistic time- this is time that is reproduced and depicted in literary work. Artistic time, unlike objectively given time, uses the diversity of subjective perception of time. A person's sense of time is subjective. It can “stretch”, “run”, “fly”, “stop”. Artistic time makes this subjective perception of time one of the forms of depicting reality. However, objective time is also used at the same time. Time in fiction is perceived due to the connection of events - cause-and-effect or associative. Events in the plot precede and follow each other, are arranged in a complex series, and thanks to this the reader is able to notice time in work of art, even if it doesn't say anything about time. Artistic time can be characterized as follows: static or dynamic; real - unreal; speed of time; prospective – retrospective – cyclical; past – present – ​​future (in what time are the characters and action concentrated). In literature, the leading principle is time.

Artistic space is one of the most important components of a work. Its role in the text is not limited to determining the place where the event takes place, the plot lines are connected, and the characters move. Artistic space, like time, is a special language for the moral assessment of characters. The behavior of the characters is related to the space in which they are located. The space can be closed (limited) - open; real (recognizable, similar to reality) – unreal; his own (the hero was born and raised here, feels comfortable in it, adequate to the space) - strangers (the hero is an outside observer, abandoned in a foreign land, cannot find himself); empty (minimum objects) – filled. It can be dynamic, full of varied movement, and static, “motionless,” filled with things. When movement in space becomes directed, one of the most important spatial forms appears - the road, which can become a spatial dominant that organizes the entire text. The motive of the road is semantically ambiguous: the road can be a concrete reality of the depicted space, it can symbolize the path of the character’s internal development, his fate; Through the road motif, the idea of ​​the path of a people or an entire country can be expressed. Space can be built horizontally or vertically (emphasis on objects stretching upward or objects spreading outwards). In addition, you should look at what is located in the center of this space and what is on the periphery, what geographical objects are listed in the story, what they are called (real names, fictitious names, proper names or common nouns as proper names).

Each writer interprets time and space in his own way, giving them own characteristics, reflecting the author’s worldview. As a result, the artistic space created by the writer is unlike any other artistic space and time, much less the real one.

Thus, in the works of I. A. Bunin (the “Dark Alleys” cycle), the lives of the heroes take place in two non-overlapping chronotopes. On the one hand, a space of everyday life, rain, corroding melancholy, in which time moves unbearably slowly, unfolds before the reader. Only a tiny part of the hero’s biography (one day, one night, a week, a month) takes place in a different space, bright, saturated with emotions, meaning, sun, light and, most importantly, love. In this case, the action takes place in the Caucasus or noble estate, under the romantic arches of the “dark alleys”.

An important property of literary time and space is their discreteness, that is, discontinuity. In relation to time, this is especially important, since literature is capable of not reproducing the entire flow of time, but selecting the most significant fragments from it, indicating gaps. Such temporal discreteness served as a powerful means of dynamization.

The nature of the conventions of time and space greatly depends on the type of literature. Conventionality is maximum in lyric poetry, since it is closer to the expressive arts. There may be no space here. At the same time, lyrics can reproduce the objective world in its spatial realities. With the predominance of the grammatical present in the lyrics, it is characterized by the interaction of the present and the past (elegy), past, present and future (to Chaadaev). The category of time itself can be the leitmotif of a poem. In drama, the conventions of time and space are established mainly on the theater. That is, all actions, speeches, and inner speech of the actors are closed in time and space. Against the backdrop of drama, the epic has broader possibilities. Transitions from one time to another, spatial movements occur thanks to the narrator. The narrator can compress or stretch time.

According to the peculiarities of artistic convention, time and space in literature can be divided into abstract and concrete. Abstract is a space that can be perceived as universal. The concrete not only ties the depicted world to certain topographical realities, but also actively influences the essence of what is depicted. There is no impassable border between concrete and abstract spaces. Abstract space draws details from reality. The concepts of abstract and concrete spaces can serve as guidelines for typology. The type of space is usually associated with the corresponding properties of time. Form of specification art. time are most often the linking of action to historical realities and the designation of cyclical time6 time of year, day. In most cases, the bad time is shorter than the real one. This reveals the law of “poetic economy.” However, there is an important exception related to the image psychological processes and the subjective time of the character or lyrical hero. Experiences and thoughts flow faster than the flow of speech, which forms the basis of literary imagery. In literature, complex relationships arise between the real and the thin. time. Real time may generally be zero, for example in descriptions. Such time is eventless. But event time is also heterogeneous. In one case, literature records events and actions that significantly change a person. This is plot or plot time. In another case, literature paints a picture of a stable existence that repeats itself day after day. This type of time is called chronicle-domestic time. The ratio of eventless, eventful and chronicle-everyday time creates a tempo organization of art. time of the work. Completeness and incompleteness are important for analysis. It is also worth saying about the types of organization of artistic time: chronicle, adventure, biographical, etc.

Bakhtin identified chronotopes in his heresy:

Meetings.

Roads. On the road (“high road”), the spatial and temporal paths of the most diverse people intersect at one temporal and spatial point - representatives of all classes, conditions, religions, nationalities, ages. This is the starting point and the place where events take place. The road is especially useful for depicting an event governed by chance (but not only for this). (remember Pugachev’s meeting with Grinev in “Kap. Daughter”). Common features chronotope in different types of novels: the road passes through one’s home country, and not in an exotic foreign world; the socio-historical diversity of this home country(therefore, if we can talk about exoticism here, then only about “social exoticism” - “slums”, “scum”, thieves’ worlds). In the latter function, “road” was also used in journalistic travel of the 18th century (“Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow” by Radishchev). This feature of the “road” distinguishes the listed types of novels from the other line of the wandering novel, represented by the ancient travel novel, the Greek sophistic novel, the novel Baroque XVII century. A “foreign world”, separated from its own country by sea and distance, has a similar function to the road in these novels.

Castle. TO end of the XVIII century in England - a new territory for the fulfillment of novel events - the “castle”. The castle is full of time from the historical past. The castle is the place of life of the rulers of the feudal era (and therefore historical figures of the past); traces of centuries and generations in the past have been deposited in it in visible form. various parts its structure, in its furnishings, in its weapons, in the specific human relations of dynastic succession. This creates a specific plot of the castle, developed in Gothic novels.

Living room-salon. From the point of view of plot and composition, meetings take place here (not random), intrigues are created, denouements are often made, dialogues take place that acquire exceptional significance in the novel, the characters, “ideas” and “passions” of the heroes are revealed. Here is the interweaving of the historical and social-public with the private and even the purely private, alcove, the interweaving of private everyday intrigue with political and financial, state secrets with an alcove secret, a historical series with everyday and biographical ones. Here the visually visible signs of both historical time and biographical and everyday time are condensed, condensed, and at the same time they are closely intertwined with each other, fused into single signs of the era. The era becomes visually visible and plot-visible.

Provincial town. It has several varieties, including a very important one - idyllic. Flaubert's version of the town is a place of cyclical domestic time. There are no events here, but only repeating “occurrences.” The same everyday actions, the same topics of conversation, the same words, etc. are repeated day after day. Time here is eventless and therefore seems almost stopped.

Threshold. This is a chronotope of crisis and life turning point. In Dostoevsky, for example, the threshold and the adjacent chronotopes of the staircase, hallway and corridor, as well as the chronotopes of the street and square that continue them, are the main places of action in his works, places where events of crises, falls, resurrections, renewals, insights, decisions take place that determine a person’s entire life. Time in this chronotope is, in essence, an instant, seemingly without duration and falling out of the normal flow of biographical time. These decisive moments included in Dostoevsky's large comprehensive chronotopes of mystery and carnival time. These times coexist in a unique way, intersect and intertwine in Dostoevsky’s work, just as they coexisted for many centuries in the public squares of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance (essentially the same, but in slightly different forms - in the ancient squares of Greece and Rome). In Dostoevsky, on the streets and in crowd scenes inside houses (mainly in living rooms), the ancient carnival-mystery square seems to come to life and shine through. This, of course, does not exhaust Dostoevsky’s chronotopes: they are complex and diverse, as are the traditions renewed in them.

Unlike Dostoevsky, in the works of L. N. Tolstoy the main chronotope is biographical time, flowing in internal spaces noble houses and estates. The renewal of Pierre Bezukhov was also long-term and gradual, quite biographical. The word “suddenly” is rare in Tolstoy and never introduces any significant event. After biographical time and space, the chronotope of nature, the family-idyllic chronotope, and even the chronotope of the labor idyll (when depicting peasant labor) are of significant importance in Tolstoy.

The chronotope, as the primary materialization of time in space, is the center of pictorial concretization, embodiment for the entire novel. All abstract elements of the novel - philosophical and social generalizations, ideas, analyzes of causes and consequences, etc. - gravitate towards the chronotope and through it are filled with flesh and blood, and are attached to artistic imagery. This is the pictorial meaning of the chronotope.

The chronotopes we have considered are of a genre-typical nature; they underlie certain varieties of the novel genre, which has developed and developed over the centuries.

The principle of chronotopicity of an artistic and literary image was first clearly revealed by Lessing in his Laocoon. It establishes the temporary nature of the artistic and literary image. Everything statically-spatial should not be statically described, but should be involved in the time series of events depicted and the story-image itself. Thus, in the famous example of Lessing, the beauty of Helen is not described by Homer, but her effect on the Trojan elders is shown, and this effect is revealed in a number of movements and actions of the elders. Beauty is involved in the chain of events depicted and at the same time is not the subject of a static description, but the subject of a dynamic story.

There is a sharp and fundamental boundary between the real world depicted and the world depicted in the work. It is impossible to confuse, as was done and is still sometimes done, the depicted world with the depicting world (naive realism), the author - the creator of the work with the human author (naive biographism), recreating and updating the listener-reader of different (and many) eras with a passive listener-reader of his time (dogmatism of understanding and evaluation).

We can also say this: before us are two events - the event that is told in the work, and the event of the telling itself (in this latter we ourselves participate as listeners-readers); these events occur at different times (different in duration) and in different places, and at the same time they are inextricably united in a single, but complex event, which we can designate as a work in its eventful completeness, including here its external material given, and its text, and the world depicted in it, and the author-creator, and the listener-reader. At the same time, we perceive this completeness in its integrity and inseparability, but at the same time we understand all the differences in its constituent moments. The author-creator moves freely in his time; he can begin his story from the end, from the middle and from any moment of the events depicted, without destroying the objective passage of time in the depicted event. Here the difference between depicted and depicted time is clearly manifested.

10. Simple and detailed comparison (short and not essential).
COMPARISON A comparison is a figurative allegory that establishes similarities between two life phenomena. Comparison is an important figurative and expressive means of language. There are two images: the main one, which contains main meaning statements and auxiliary, attached to the conjunction “as” and others. Comparison is widely used in artistic speech. Reveals similarities, parallels, and correspondences between initial phenomena. Comparison reinforces various associations that arise in the writer. Comparison performs figurative and expressive functions or combines both. A form of comparison is the connection of its two members using the conjunctions “as”, “as if”, “like”, “as if”, etc. There is also a non-union comparison (“The samovar in iron armor // Makes noise like a household general...” N.A. Zabolotsky).

11. The concept of the literary process (I have some kind of heresy, but in response to this question you can blab out everything: from the origin of literature from mythology to trends and modern genres)
The literary process is the totality of all works appearing at that time.

Factors that limit it:

For the presentation of literature inside literary process depends on the time when a particular book comes out.

The literary process does not exist outside of magazines, newspapers, and other printed publications. (“Young Guard”, “New World”, etc.)

The literary process is associated with criticism of published works. Oral criticism also has a significant impact on LP.

“Liberal terror” was the name given to criticism in the early 18th century. Literary associations- writers who consider themselves close on any issues. They act as a certain group that conquers part of the literary process. Literature is, as it were, “divided” between them. Issue manifestos expressing general sentiments one group or another. Manifestos appear at the moment of formation literary group. For literature of the early 20th century. manifestos are uncharacteristic (the symbolists first created and then wrote manifestos). The manifesto allows you to look at the future activities of the group and immediately determine what makes it stand out. As a rule, the manifesto (in the classical version, anticipating the activities of the group) turns out to be paler than literary movement which he represents.

Literary process.

With the help of artistic speech in literary works, the speech activity of people is widely and specifically reproduced. A person in a verbal image acts as a “speaker”. This applies, first of all, to lyrical heroes, characters in dramatic works and narrators of epic works. Speech in fiction acts as the most important subject of depiction. Literature does not only mean in words life phenomena, but also reproduces itself speech activity. Using speech as the subject of the image, the writer overcomes the schematic nature of verbal pictures that are associated with their “immateriality.” Without speech, people's thinking cannot be fully realized. Therefore, literature is the only art that freely and widely masters human thought. Thinking processes are the focus of people's mental life, a form of intense action. In the ways and means of comprehending the emotional world, literature is qualitatively different from other forms of art. Used in literature direct image mental processes with the help of the author's characteristics and statements of the characters themselves. Literature as an art form has a kind of universality. With the help of speech, you can reproduce any aspect of reality; The visual possibilities of the verbal truly have no limits. Literature most fully embodies the cognitive principle artistic activity. Hegel called literature “universal art.” But the visual and educational possibilities of literature were realized especially widely in the 19th century, when the realistic method became leading in the art of Russia and Western European countries. Pushkin, Gogol, Dostoevsky, Tolstoy artistically reflected the life of their country and era with a degree of completeness that is inaccessible to any other form of art. The unique quality of fiction is also its pronounced, open problematic nature. It is not surprising that it is in the sphere literary creativity, the most intellectual and problematic, directions in art are formed: classicism, sentimentalism, etc.

Plot and text composition

Plot is the dynamic side of the form of a literary work.

Conflict is an artistic contradiction.

The plot is one of the characteristics of the artistic world of the text, but it is not only a list of signs by which it is possible to quite accurately describe the art. the world of the work is quite wide - spatio-temporal coordinates - chronotope, figurative structure, dynamics of action development, speech characteristics and others.

Art world– a subjective model of objective reality.

Hood. the world of each work is unique. It is a complexly mediated reflection of the author’s temperament and worldview.

Hood. world– display of all facets of creative individuality.

The specificity of literary representation is movement. And the most adequate form of expression is a verb.

Action, as an event unfolding in time and space or a lyrical experience, is what forms the basis of the poetic world. This action can be more or less dynamic, extensive, physical, intellectual or indirect, BUT its presence is mandatory.

Conflict as the main driving force text.

Hood. the world in its entirety (with spatial and temporal parameters, population, elemental nature and general phenomena, the character’s expression and experience, the author’s consciousness) exists not as a disorderly heap..., but as a harmonious, expedient cosmos in which the core is organized. Such a universal core is considered to be COLLISION or CONFLICT.

Conflict is a confrontation of contradiction either between characters, or between characters and circumstances, or within character, underlying the action.

It is the conflict that forms the core of the theme.

If we are dealing with a small epic form, then the action develops on the basis of one single conflict. In works of large volume, the number of conflicts increases.

PLOT = /FABULA (not equal)

Plot elements:

Conflict– an integrating rod around which everything revolves.

The plot least of all resembles a solid, unbroken line connecting the beginning and end of an event series.

Plots break down into various elements:

Basic (canonical);

Optional (grouped in a strictly defined order).

The canonical elements include:

Exposition;

Climax;

Development of action;

Peripeteia;

Denouement.

Optional include:

Title;

• Retreat;

  Ending;

Exposition(Latin – presentation, explanation) – a description of the events preceding the plot.

Main functions:

Introducing the reader to the action;

Orientation in space;

Presentation of characters;

Picture of the situation before the conflict.

The plot is an event or group of events that directly leads to a conflict situation. It can grow out of exposure.

The development of action is the entire system of sequential deployment of that part of the event plan from beginning to end that guides the conflict. It can be calm or unexpected turns (vicissitudes).

The moment of highest tension in a conflict is critical to its resolution. After which the development of the action turns to the denouement.

In "Crime and Punishment" the climax - Porfiry comes to visit! Talk! Dostoevsky himself said so.

The number of climaxes can be large. It depends on the storylines.

Resolution is an event that resolves a conflict. Tells along with the ending of the dramas. or epic. Works. Most often, the ending and denouement coincide. In the case of an open ending, the denouement may recede.

All writers understand the importance of the final final chord.

“Strength, artistic, the blow comes at the end”!

The denouement, as a rule, is juxtaposed with the beginning, echoing it with a certain parallelism, completing a certain compositional circle.

Optional Plot Elements(not the most important):

Title (only in fiction);

Most often, the title encodes the main conflict (Fathers and Sons, Thick and Thin)

The title does not leave the bright field of our consciousness.

Epigraph (from Greek - inscription) - can appear at the beginning of the work, or as parts of the work.

The epigraph establishes hypertextual relationships.

An aura of related works is formed.

Deviation is an element with a negative sign. There are lyrical, journalistic, etc. used to slow down, inhibit the development of action, switch from one storyline to another.

Internal monologues - play a similar role, since they are addressed to oneself, to the side; reasoning of the characters, the author.

Insert numbers - play a similar role (in Eugene Onegin - songs of girls);

Inserted stories - (about Captain Kopeikin) their role is an additional screen that expands the panorama of the artistic world of the work;

The final. As a rule, it coincides with the denouement. Completes the work. Or replaces the junction. Texts with open endings do not have a resolution.

Prologue, epilogue (from Greek - before and after what is said). They are not directly related to action. They are separated either by a period of time or by graphic means of separation. Sometimes they can be wedged into the main text.

Epic and drama are plot-based; and lyrical works do without a plot.

Subjective organization of text

Bakhtin was the first to consider this topic.

Any text is a system. This system involves something that seems to defy systematization: the consciousness of a person, the personality of the author.

The author’s consciousness in the work receives a certain form, and the form can already be touched and described. In other words, Bakhtin gives us an idea of ​​the unity of spatial and temporal relations in the text. It gives an understanding of one’s own and someone else’s word, their equality, the idea of ​​an “endless and complete dialogue in which not a single meaning dies, the concepts of form and content come closer together through understanding the concept of worldview. The concepts of text and context come together, and affirms the integrity of human culture in the space and time of earthly existence.

Korman B. O. 60-70s 20th century developed ideas. He established theoretical unity between terms and concepts such as: author, subject, object, point of view, someone else's word and others.

The difficulty lies not in distinguishing the narrator and the narrator, but in UNDERSTANDING THE UNITY BETWEEN CONSCIOUSNESS. And the interpretation of unity as the final author’s consciousness.

Consequently, in addition to realizing the importance of the conceptualized author, a synthesizing view of the work and the system was required and appeared, in which everything is interdependent and is expressed primarily in formal language.

Subjective organization is the correlation of all objects of the narrative (those to whom the text is assigned) with the subjects of speech and subjects of consciousness (that is, those whose consciousness is expressed in the text), this is the correlation of the horizons of consciousness expressed in the text.

It is important to consider 3 viewpoint plans:

Phraseological;

Spatio-temporal;

Ideological.

Phraseological plan:

As a rule, it helps to determine the nature of the bearer of the statement (I, you, he, we or their absence)

Ideological plan:

It is important to clarify the relationship between each point of view and with artistic world, in which it occupies a certain place from another point of view.

Space-time plan:

(see Heart of a Dog analysis)

It is necessary to distinguish distance and contact 9 according to the degree of remoteness), external and internal.

When characterizing the subject organization, we inevitably come to the problem of the author and the hero. Considering different aspects, we come to the ambiguity of the author. Using the concept of “author” we mean a biographical author, an author as a subject of the creative process, an author in his artistic embodiment (the image of the author).

A narrative is a sequence of speech fragments of text containing a variety of messages. The subject of the story is the narrator.

The narrator is an indirect form of the author’s presence within the work, performing a mediating function between the fictional world and the recipient one.

The hero’s speech zone is a set of fragments of his direct speech, various forms indirect transmission of speech, fragments of phrases that fell into the author's zone, characteristic words, emotional assessments characteristic of the hero.

Important characteristics:

Motif – repeating elements of the text that have a semantic load.

Chronotope is the unity of space and time in a work of art;

Anachrony is a violation of the direct sequence of events;

Retrospection – shifting events into the past;

Prospection - a look into the future of events;

Peripeteia is a sudden sharp shift in the fate of a character;

Landscape is a description of the world external to man;

Portrait is an image of the hero’s appearance (figure, pose, clothing, facial features, facial expressions, gestures);

There are self-portrait descriptions, comparison portraits, and impression portraits.

- Composition of a literary work.

This is the relationship and arrangement of parts, elements within a work. Architectonics.

Gusev “The Art of Prose”: composition of reverse time (“ Easy breath"Bunin). Composition of direct time. Retrospective (“Ulysses” by Joyce, “The Master and Margarita” by Bulgakov) – different eras become independent objects of depiction. Intensification of phenomena - often in lyrical texts - Lermontov.

Compositional contrast (“War and Peace”) is an antithesis. Plot-compositional inversion (“Onegin”, “Dead Souls”). The principle of parallelism is in the lyrics, “The Thunderstorm” by Ostrovsky. Composition ring – “Inspector”.

Composition of figurative structure. The character is in interaction. There are main, secondary, off-stage, real and historical characters. Catherine - Pugachev are bound together through an act of mercy.

Composition. This is the composition and specific position of parts of elements and images of works in time sequence. Carries a meaningful and semantic load. External composition– dividing the work into books, volumes / is of an auxiliary nature and serves for reading. More meaningful elements: prefaces, epigraphs, prologues, / they help to reveal the main idea of ​​the work or identify the main problem of the work. Internal- includes Various types descriptions (portraits, landscapes, interiors), non-plot elements, staged episodes, all kinds of digressions, various forms of speech of characters and points of view. The main task of the composition– integrity of the depiction of the artistic world. This decency is achieved with the help of a kind of compositional techniques - repeat- one of the simplest and most effective, it allows you to easily round out the work, especially the ring composition, when a roll call is established between the beginning and the end of the work, carries a special artistic meaning. Composition of motives: 1. motives(in music), 2. opposition(combining repetition, contrasting with mirror compositions), 3. details, installation. 4. default,5. point of view - the position from which stories are told or from which the events of the characters or the narrative are perceived. Types of Viewpoints: ideological-integral, linguistic, spatial-temporal, psychological, external and internal. Types of compositions: simple and complex.

Plot and plot. Categories of material and technique (material and form) in the concept of V.B. Shklovsky and their modern understanding. Automation and disengagement. Correlation of concepts "plot" And "plot" in the structure of the artistic world. The importance of distinguishing these concepts for the interpretation of the work. Stages in plot development.

The composition of a work is its construction, the organization of its figurative system in accordance with the author’s concept. Subordination of the composition to the author's intention. Reflection of the tension of the conflict in the composition. The art of composition, compositional center. The criterion of artistry is the correspondence of the form to the concept.

Artistic space and time. Aristotle was the first to connect “space and time” with the meaning of a work of art. Then the ideas about these categories were carried out by: Likhachev, Bakhtin. Thanks to their works, “space and time” became established as the basis of literary categories. In any case work is inevitably reflected real time and space. As a result, a whole system of spatio-temporal relations develops in the work. Analysis of “space and time” can become a source of study, the author’s worldview, his aesthetic relationships in reality, his artistic world, artistic principles and his creativity. In science, there are three types of “space and time”: real, conceptual, perceptual.

.Artistic time and space (chronotope).

It exists objectively, but is also subjectively experienced by - different people. We perceive the world differently than the ancient Greeks. Artistic time And artistic space, this is the nature of the artistic image, which provides a holistic perception artistic reality and organizes the compositional work. Artistic space represents a model of the world of a given author in the language of his representation space. In the novel Dostoevsky this is ladder. U Symbolists mirror, in the lyrics Pasternak window. Characteristics artistic time And space. Is them discreteness. Literature does not perceive the entire flow of time, but only certain essential moments. Discreteness spaces are usually not described in detail, but are indicated using individual details. In lyric poetry, space can be allegorical. Lyrics are characterized by the overlap of different time plans of the present, past, future, etc. Artistic time And space symbolic. Basic spatial symbols: house(image of a closed space), space(image of open space), threshold, window, door(border). In modern literature: station, airport(places of decisive meetings). Artistic space May be: point, volumetric. Artistic space Romano Dostoevsky- This stage area. Time in his novels moves very quickly and Chekhov time stopped. Famous physiologist Wow Tomsky combines two Greek words: chronos- time, topos- place. In concept chronotope- a space-time complex and believed that this complex is reproduced by us as a single whole. These ideas had a huge influence on M. Bakhtin, which in the work “Forms of Time and Chronotope” in the novel explores chronotope in novels of different eras since antiquity, he showed that chronotopes different authors and different eras differ from each other. Sometimes the author breaks the time sequence “for example, The Captain’s Daughter.” X character traitschronotope in 20th century literature: 1. Abstract space, instead of concrete, having a symbol and meaning. 2. The place and time of action are uncertain. 3. The character’s memory as the internal space of unfolding events. The structure of space is built on opposition: top-bottom, sky-earth, earth-underworld, north-south, left-right, etc. Time structure: day-night, spring-autumn, light-dark, etc.

2. Lyrical digression - the author’s expression of feelings and thoughts in connection with what is depicted in the work. These digressions allow readers to take a deeper look at the work. Digressions slow down the development of the action, but lyrical digressions naturally enter into the work, imbued with the same feeling as artistic images.

Introductory episodes – stories or novellas that are indirectly related to the main plot or not related to it at all

Artistic appeal – a word or phrase used to name persons or objects to which speech is specifically addressed. Can be used alone or as part of a sentence.

The categories of time and space are the determining factor in the existence of the world: through awareness of space-time coordinates, a person determines his place in it. The same principle is transferred to the artistic space of literature - writers, willingly or unwillingly, place their characters in a reality created in a certain way. Literary scholars, in turn, strive to understand how the categories of space and time are revealed in works.

Bakhtin: chronotope

Until the 20th century, the spatiotemporal organization of a work was not perceived as a problem in literary criticism. But already in the first half of the century the most important studies in this area were written. They are associated with the name of the Russian scientist M. M. Bakhtin.

In the work “The Author and the Hero in Aesthetic Activity” (1924, published in 1979), the researcher introduces the concept of the spatial form of the hero, speaking about the need to study spatial values, which are transgredient to the consciousness of the hero and his world, his cognitive-ethical attitude in the world and complete it from the outside, from the consciousness of another about him, the author-contemplator.

In the work “Forms of time and chronotope in the novel. Essays on historical poetics"(1937-1938, publication 1975) Bakhtin makes a revolutionary discovery in the artistic understanding of the categories of time and space: the scientist develops a theory chronotope. The term researcher borrowed from A. Einstein's theory of relativity. M. M. Bakhtin gives the concept the following definition: “We will call the essential interconnection of temporal and spatial relations, artistically mastered in literature, a chronotope (which literally means “time-space”).”

For a scientist, the idea of ​​an inextricable connection between space and time is important. Chronotope Bakhtin understands it as a “formal-substantive category of literature.” Time and space are correlated into a single concept of chronotope and enter into relationships of interconnection and interdependence: “Signs of time are revealed in space, and space is comprehended and measured by time.”

Time and space are correlated into a single concept of chronotope and are included in relationships of interconnection and interdependence

The chronotope underlies the determination of the aesthetic unity of a work of art in relation to primary reality.

The researcher notes and the connection genre forms of a work of art with a chronotope: the genre is, as it were, determined by the chronotope. The scientist presents the characteristics of various novel chronotopes.

Art, according to Bakhtin, is permeated chronotopic values. The work identifies the following types of chronotope (in relation to the genre of the novel):

• Chronotope meetings , in which a “temporal connotation” predominates and which is “distinguished by a high degree of emotional and value intensity”
• Chronotope roads , having a “wider volume, but somewhat less emotional and value intensity”; The chronotope of the road connects the series of lives and destinies, becoming more specific social distances, which are overcome within the chronotope of the road. The road becomes a metaphor for the passage of time
• Chronotope " Castle" , “which is saturated with time, moreover, in the narrow sense of the word, that is, the time of the historical past. The castle is the place of life of the rulers of the feudal era (and therefore historical figures of the past); traces of centuries and generations have been deposited in it in visible form.”
• Chronotope " Living room» , where “meetings take place (no longer having the previously specific random nature of meetings on the “road” or in an “alien world”), the beginnings of intrigues are created, denouements are often made, here, finally, and most importantly, dialogues take place that acquire exceptional significance in novel, the characters, “ideas” and “passions” of the heroes are revealed.”
• Chronotope " Provincial town» , which is “the place of cyclical domestic time.” With such a chronotope, there are no events, but only repeating “occurrences.” Time is devoid of progression here historical course, it moves in narrow circles: the circle of the day, the circle of the week, the month, the circle of all life<…>

Time here is eventless and therefore seems almost stopped. There are no “meetings” or “separations” here. This is thick, sticky time crawling in space.”

• Chronotope threshold , replenished by chronotope crisis and life fracture. Chronotope threshold always “metaphorical and symbolic”<…>Time in this chronotope is, in essence, an instant, seemingly without duration and falling out of the normal flow of biographical time.”

M. M. Bakhtin notes that each type of chronotope can include an unlimited number of small chronotopes. Key values considered chronotopes: plot(“They are the organizational centers of the main plot events of the novel”) and fine(“The chronotope provides essential ground for showing and depicting events”).

Bakhtin's concept has become key in understanding spatiotemporal connections and relationships. However, until now, its understanding has not always found the proper solution among researchers: often “chronotope” is simply replaced by the concept of spatio-temporal relations in the text, without implying either the interdependence of the components of time and space, or that the analyzed text belongs to the genre of the novel. The use of the designated term in Bakhtin’s understanding is incorrect in relation to non-novel genres.

Likhachev: organization of the action of the work

Sections on space and time also appear in the work of D. S. Likhachev (chapters “Poetics of Artistic Time” and “Poetics of Artistic Space” in the study “Poetics ancient Russian literature", 1987). In the chapter “Poetics of Artistic Time,” Likhachev examines the artistic time of a verbal work, noting the importance of the category of time in the perception of the structure of the world.

It is the author who decides whether to slow down or speed up time in his work, whether to stop it, or “turn it off” from the work.

In the researcher’s understanding, artistic time is “a phenomenon of the very artistic fabric of a literary work, subordinating both grammatical time and its philosophical understanding by the writer to its artistic tasks.”

Drawing attention to the subjectivity of human perception of time, the scientist notes that a work of art makes subjectivity one of the forms of depicting reality, while at the same time using objective time: “Alternatingly observing the rule of unity of time between the action and the reader-viewer in French classical drama, then abandoning this unity, emphasizing differences, leading the narrative primarily in the subjective aspect of time." The scientist notes that to these two forms (subjective and objective) of time a third can be added: the reader’s depicted time.

The author’s time also plays a significant role in the work, which can be either motionless, “as if concentrated at one point,” or mobile, striving to move independently and develop its own storyline.

Time in a work of art is perceived through a cause-and-effect or psychological, associative relationship.

Likhachev considers the most difficult issue in the study of artistic time to be the question of “the unity of the time flow in a work with several plot lines.”

The researcher notes that time can be “open”, included in the “wider flow of time” and “closed”, self-contained, “taking place only within the plot, not connected with events occurring outside the work, with historical time.” It is the author who decides whether to slow down or speed up time in his work, whether to stop it, or “turn it off” from the work. The scientist sees a close connection between the problem of time and the problem of the timeless and “eternal.”

The ideas of slowing down and accelerating time already largely correlate with the subsequently put forward theory of the modeling structure of the world. Analyzing the poetics of artistic space, Likhachev notes that the world of a work of art is not autonomous and depends on reality, artistically transformed. The writer, being the creator of his work, creates a certain space, which can be both large and narrow, both real and surreal, imaginary. Whatever space is, it has certain properties and organizes the action of the work. This property of organizing action is “especially important for literature and folklore”: it is what determines the connection with artistic time.

Lotman: an artistic model of the world

Yu. M. Lotman emphasizes the conventionality of the space of art. In a number of works (“Artistic space in Gogol’s prose”, “Plot space of Russian novel XIX century"), the scientist notes that the language of “spatial relations” is primary.

Artistic space is the author’s model of the world, which is expressed through the language of spatial representations

Lotman sees a clear relationship between space and genre: “switching to another genre changes the “platform” of the artistic space.” Space in a work of art largely determines the connections of the picture of the world (temporal, ethical, social, etc.): “in artistic model of the world, “space” sometimes metaphorically takes on the expression of completely non-spatial relations in the modeling structure of the world.” Thus, the scientist concludes that artistic space is a model of the author’s world, which is expressed through the language of spatial representations, and “artistic space is not a passive container of characters and plot episodes. Correlating it with actors and the general model of the world created literary text, convinces us that the language of artistic space is not a hollow vessel, but one of the components common language, which the work of art speaks.”

This is how the understanding of the most important categories - time and space - in literary criticism took shape. Their study allows us to discover new meanings in works and find solutions to problems. genre definition. Through exploration of space and time, scholars can look at literary history differently.

Therefore, analysis of the work through consideration of the spatio-temporal level of the artistic whole can be found in a number of works by modern researchers. Works on time and space can be found in V.G. Shchukin (“Oh philological image world"), Y. Karyakin ("Dostoevsky and the eve of the XXI century"), N. K. Shutaya ("Plot possibilities of the chronotope "public place" and their use in the works of Russian classics of the 19th century century"), P. Kh. Torop, I. P. Nikitina ("Artistic space as a subject of philosophical and aesthetic analysis") and many, many others. ■

Evgenia Guruleva

Artistic image

Artistic image- this is fundamental in artistic creativity way perception and reflection of reality, a form of knowledge of life and expression of this knowledge specific to art.

Artistic image is not only an image of a person (the image of Tatyana Larina, Andrei Bolkonsky, Raskolnikov, etc.) - it is a picture of human life, in the center of which stands a specific person, but which includes everything that surrounds him in life. Thus, in a work of art a person is depicted in relationships with other people. Therefore, here we can talk not about one image, but about many images.

Any image is inner world, caught in the focus of consciousness. Outside of images there is no reflection of reality, no imagination, no knowledge, no creativity. The image can take sensual and rational forms. The image can be based on a person’s fiction, or it can be factual. Artistic image objectified in the form of both the whole and its individual parts.

Artistic image can expressively influence feelings and mind.

It provides the maximum capacity of content, is capable of expressing the infinite through the finite, it is reproduced and evaluated as a kind of whole, even if created with the help of several details. The image may be sketchy, unspoken.

Imaging Tools

1. Epigraph to a literary work may indicate the main character trait of the hero.

3. Hero's Speech. Internal monologues and dialogues with other characters in the work characterize the character and reveal his inclinations and preferences.

4. Actions, the actions of the hero.

5. Psychological analysis of the character: detailed, detailed recreation of feelings, thoughts, motives - the inner world of the character; here the depiction of the “dialectics of the soul” (the movement of the hero’s inner life) is of particular importance.

6. The character's relationships with other characters in the work.

7. Portrait of a hero. Image of the hero’s external appearance: his face, figure, clothing, behavior.

Portrait types:

• naturalistic (portrait copied from a real person);
• psychological (through the hero’s appearance, the hero’s inner world and character are revealed);
• idealizing or grotesque (spectacular and bright, replete with metaphors, comparisons, epithets).

8. Social environment, society.

9. Scenery helps to better understand the thoughts and feelings of the character.

10. Artistic detail: description of objects and phenomena of the reality surrounding the character (details that reflect a broad generalization can act as symbolic details).

11. The background of the hero's life.

Art space

Image of space

“House” is an image of a closed space.

“Space” is an image of open space, “peace”.

“Threshold” is the boundary between “home” and “space”.

Space - constructive category in literary reflection in reality, serves to depict the background of events. May appear different ways, be stated or undesignated, specified or implied, limited to a single place or presented over a wide range of scope and relationships between the distinguished parts.

Art space (real, conditional, compressed, volumetric, limited, boundless, closed, open,

Artistic time

This the most important characteristics artistic image, providing a holistic perception of reality and organizing the composition of the work. An artistic image, formally unfolding in time (like a sequence of text), with its content and development reproduces the spatio-temporal picture of the world.

Time in a literary work. A constructive category in a literary work that can be discussed from different points of view and appear with varying degrees of importance. The category of tense is associated with literary gender. Lyrics, which supposedly present an actual experience, and drama, which plays out before the eyes of the audience, showing the incident at the moment of its occurrence, usually use the present tense, while the epic is mainly a story about what has passed, and therefore in the past tense. The time depicted in the work has boundaries of extension, which can be more or less defined (cover a day, a year, several years, centuries) and designated or not designated in relation to historical time (in fantastic works the chronological aspect of the image may be completely indifferent or the action takes place in the future). In epic works, there is a distinction between the time of the narration, associated with the situation and the personality of the narrator, as well as the time of the plot, i.e., the period closed between the earliest and the latest incident, generally related to the time of reality shown in literary reflection.

Artistic time: correlated with the historical, not correlated with the historical, mythological, utopian, historical, “idyllic” (time in father's house, “good” times, time “before” (events) and, sometimes, “after”); “adventurous” (trials outside one’s home and in a foreign land, a time of active actions and fateful events, tense and eventful / N. Leskov “The Enchanted Wanderer”); “mysterious” (the time of dramatic experiences and the most important decisions in human life / the time spent by the Master in the hospital - Bulgakov’s “The Master and Margarita”).

Poetics of artistic time

(excerpt from an article by D.S. Likhachev)

X artistic time is ... time that is reproduced and depicted in a work of art. It is the study of this artistic time that has highest value to understand the aesthetic nature of verbal art.

Artistic time is a phenomenon of the very artistic fabric of a work, subordinating both grammatical time and its philosophical understanding by the writer to its artistic tasks.

Artistic time, unlike objectively given time, uses the diversity of subjective perception of time. A person’s sense of time is known to be extremely subjective. It can “stretch” and it can “run”. A moment can “stand still”, and a long period “flash by”. A work of art makes this subjective perception of time one of the forms of depicting reality. However, objective time is also used at the same time.

(...) Time in fiction is perceived through the connection of events - cause-and-effect or psychological, associative. Time in a work of art is not so much calendar references as the correlation of events. Events in a plot precede and follow each other, are arranged in a complex series, and thanks to this, the reader is able to notice time in a work of art, even if it does not specifically say anything about time. Where there are no events, there is no time.

1) “fail to keep up” with rapidly changing events;

2) calmly contemplate them.

The author can even stop him for a while, “turn him off” from the work ( philosophical digressions in "War and Peace"). These reflections take the reader into another world, from where the reader looks at events from the height of philosophical reflection (in Tolstoy) or from the height of eternal nature (in Turgenev). The events in these digressions seem small to the reader, the people seem like pygmies. But now the action continues, and people and their affairs again acquire normal size, and time picks up its normal pace.

The entire work can have several forms of time, develop at a pace, be thrown from one flow of time to another, forward and backward. The grammatical tense and the tense of a verbal work can diverge significantly. All details of the narrative have the function of time.