A dissident person who refuses to recognize the current order of things. Dissent during the reign of Catherine II and the activities of state authorities to suppress it: a historical and legal study. general description of work

UDC 94(470)

DISSENT AND POWER

© 2008 S.I.Nikonova Kazan State University of Architecture and Civil Engineering

Dissent was widespread in the USSR and was much more significant than dissidence. This is a fairly wide circle of citizens who are dissatisfied with certain phenomena of the spiritual and political life of society. Dissidents are a rather narrow circle of people who expressed open protest.

The last decades of Soviet power were characterized not only by the aggravation of economic and socio-political contradictions. A small but noticeable social phenomenon appeared in Soviet society, which was called dissidence. Dissidence hardly fits into the usual idea of ​​social movements: it is unusual in its content, forms of manifestation, the scale of influence on public consciousness, on the mood of society. Dissidence was an organizationally unformed, politically heterogeneous movement of open ideological and moral protest of the advanced layer of the Soviet intelligentsia against the Soviet system. This protest, public, open or latent, passive, covered, in fact, many forms of social and spiritual life of the country, played a special role in the moral and psychological preparation of society for the realization of the need for democratic reforms.

The term "dissident", which can be regarded as "dissenting, contradictory", appeared initially in a religious sense. Dissenters were called schismatics who deviated from the dogmas of the dominant church. In a figurative sense, "dissident" means "a dissenter, an apostate."

It was in this sense that the concept of "dissident" appeared in the socio-political lexicon of Soviet society in the 1970s. Dissidents included people who disagreed with the general line of the Central Committee of the CPSU, the policy of the Soviet state, the official party-state ideology, with morality generally accepted in Soviet society, aesthetic norms in the field of artistic creativity, etc. Moreover, the non-acceptance of even individual norms of the existing order was recognized

dissidence. Synonyms for the concept of "dissident" were the concepts of "dissenter", "freethinker". Well-known dissidents themselves had different attitudes to this definition, perhaps because in the Soviet mass media it sounded, as a rule, in the meaning of "renegade", "traitor to the motherland" and almost "enemy of the people".

So, A.D. Sakharov never called himself a dissident, preferring the old Russian word "freethinker". Well-known human rights activists L. Bogoraz and S. Kovalev see a certain negative connotation in the word "dissident", since this term was used by power structures. At the same time, the emigrant writer A. Amalrik called his autobiographical notes "Notes of a dissident".

Of particular interest is the opinion of P. Weill and A. Genis: “The phenomenon, which was later called dissident, arose imperceptibly. Actually, when its participants received this foreign name, everything ended ... Dissent has no history in the traditional sense: there are no founders , theorists, the date of the founding congress, the manifesto... It is impossible even to determine (especially in the early stages) who was a member of the protest movement." .

For the most part, Soviet people did not even know who the dissidents were. A cleverly chosen foreign word created the impression that the people who are so called are connected with something hostile: with the intrigues of Western intelligence services, with NATO and the CIA, with something threatening the Soviet system. In the mass consciousness, dissidents were identified with individuals and their destinies. They were assessed purely subjectively, while the assessment of a person can only conditionally be transferred to a phenomenon, just as the assessment of a phenomenon must be very carefully extended to a person.

In our opinion, it is still necessary to separate these two concepts: dissidents and dissidents. Indeed, philologically they are almost identical, but their political meaning is different.

So, dissidents are a fairly wide circle of Soviet people, who, on the whole, remain loyal to their country and its state system, critically thinking individuals, artists thirsting for creative freedom, dissatisfied with some individual phenomena in the spiritual or material sphere. Dissidents are conscious opponents of the WHOLE political and ideological system, showing their protest openly, both within the country and abroad. Actually, there were relatively few dissidents in the USSR, and they were known to a wide range of people, primarily "thanks" to the Western mass media, as well as as a result of accusatory revelations in the Soviet mass media.

Contrary to popular belief, even in the most severe years of political repression in the totalitarian Soviet state there was no universal and unquestioning submission to the ideological system; there was an unofficial social thought and people who were carriers of a different worldview. The atmosphere of society and the mood in it contained two layers: from above - toasts in honor of the leaders, mass rallies in support or in protest, and deep below - disagreement with ideological dogmas, criticism of the existing regime based on common sense, dissatisfaction with the conditions of life, work, creativity .

The processes that took place in 1953-1964 had a great influence on the growth of freethinking in the country. In the future, the gradual curtailment of a few democratic achievements, the course towards the rehabilitation of Stalinism, the violation of human rights in the country caused ideological resistance from a new population of Soviet people who no longer wanted to live in fear. Individuals appeared among the intelligentsia, who bravely opposed the regime and went to open protests.

The increase in the number of cases of resistance to the regime in 1965 - 1985: protest actions, appeals to public opinion not only in the country, but also abroad - testifies to

exacerbation of internal contradictions, as well as a change in society itself, its social structure, proportions and, as a result, moods and atmosphere.

Numerous facts of manifestations of dissent among different social strata are known, expressing their disagreement in various forms. So, the Leningrad translator-orientalist E. Lalayants in the late 1960s. wrote anonymous letters to various authorities, including international ones, signing them "The Leading Center of the Russian Political Party." The anonymous person was identified and convicted under article 190-1 of the Criminal Code (sentence - 3 years in prison). At the same time, in Leningrad, M. Mozhaikin, a shift foreman of the Avtovsky construction plant, was prosecuted for sending "threatening letters to various Soviet public organizations on behalf of the workers of the Kirov plant."

In 1970, a worker V. Vekshin and a pensioner P. Saburova were convicted under article 70 of the Criminal Code of the RSFSR in Kemerovo. Vekshin threw a leaflet of his own composition into the smoking room of the Yuzhnaya mine, during a search they confiscated the "Encyclopedic Dictionary" and a set of the magazine "Technology of Youth" with numerous notes in the margins. Saburova wrote and distributed dozens of letters "defaming the Soviet system" interspersed with religious phrases.

In Penza, the "anti-Soviet" A. Lakalov was convicted, whose fault is that he sent letters under the pseudonym A. Karpov to the radio station "Freedom". Under the same pseudonym, he tried to take part in a discussion on a political topic in Komsomolskaya Pravda.

In Mordovia, at a university conference dedicated to the 100th anniversary of the birth of V.I. Lenin, a certain teacher expressed "politically unhealthy" judgments about the CPSU, its role and significance in building a communist society. During the demonstration, the head of a division of the Elektrovypryamitel plant (Saransk) told jokes that discredited one of the leaders of the Soviet state and discredited the coat of arms of the USSR. A laboratory assistant at an instrument-making plant (Saransk) "made statements discrediting the Soviet system. She considered the level of

life of Soviet people, the reaction of the Soviet government to the events taking place in Czechoslovakia. "One of the VNIIS engineers, while on a business trip in Moscow, visited the embassy of a capitalist country with a request to be allowed to travel there.

In the Yaroslavl region, dissidence manifested itself, just as in other provinces of Russia, mainly in the form of anonymous threats in letters to high authorities, leaders of the party and the country, and acts of vandalism. Thus, one of the anonymous writers wrote to Komsomolskaya Pravda: "Down with Soviet fascism! Long live multi-party socialism! Long live the free choice of a socialist system!" During the investigation, the anonymous person was identified. It turned out that during 1969-1974 he sent over 40 letters of similar content to various institutions in Moscow, Leningrad, Yaroslavl and other cities of the country.

In his book, S. Chertoprud gives the following statistics: in 1977, 16,125 documents were received and the authorship of 2,088 people was established. In 1985 similar figures were 9864 and 1376 respectively. Chekists almost always identified anonymous authors, for this work a special department was created in the 5th Directorate of the KGB: it was possible to identify from 60 to 90% of anonymous authors. Of these, up to 50% were subjected to prophylaxis, while the rest were sent to camps or for compulsory treatment in mental hospitals.

Unconscious or semi-conscious forms of discontent were widespread. This was connected, first of all, with a clear discrepancy between official propaganda and the realities of life, sometimes with everyday difficulties. Such unconscious forms of discontent include folklore (chastushkas, anecdotes), and spreading rumors, and listening to Western radio voices, reading "forbidden" literature, attending certain cultural events (semi-official exhibitions or performances, concerts of amateur authors or rock music).

The above "acts of protest" do not give grounds to believe that there was a mass opposition movement in the Soviet Union. Citizens who attended semi-underground concerts and exhibitions, read Solzhenitsyn, listened to radio voices, were overwhelmingly

The vast majority are quite law-abiding, many did not believe that they were doing something illegal. The dissidents themselves confirm that their community began with friendly companies, home circles - the circle of contacts is rather limited. R. Orlova writes about the first societies in the late 1950s: "People were drawn to each other. Cells of a new social structure were formed, as it were. For the first time, real public opinion arose. Newborn public opinion broke out of circles, from the sidelines into more numerous audiences" .

In the days of the Czechoslovak events of 1968, R.I. Ilyasov showed himself - the own correspondent of the "Teacher's newspaper" in Tatarstan. He was well versed in international relations and saw in the Czechoslovak events, first of all, a violation of international norms. R. I. Ilyasov clearly expressed his civic position in letters sent to the newspapers Rude Pravo and Yumanite. Realizing that these letters would not reach through official channels, he decided to pass them on through a French journalist who turned out to be a KGB informant. The letters ended up in the relevant authorities, their author was expelled from the party, his journalistic career was put to rest.

Single romantics who could not live a lie can also be classified as dissidents. In this sense, the first dissidents in Russia were A.N. Radishchev, N.I. Novikov, P.Ya. Quite consonant with these sentiments is the position of some "disagreeing" with Soviet reality.

So, A.A. Bolonkin, a scientist, doctor of technical sciences, in 1973 prepared several copies of the article "On the results of the implementation of the 8th five-year plan for the development of the national economy", in which he summed up his own results, which very negatively characterize the development of the national economy of the country. The scientist saw the reason for the negative phenomena in the absence of democratic freedoms in the country. A.A. Bolonkin was condemned, and, speaking about the motives of his act, he answered: "Only in one thing did he experience growing, oppressive discomfort, he could not achieve one thing - the inner consent of the soul." And another romantic - V. Belikov, a school teacher of literature. He wrote in

to lead and stories, attracted his students to this, tried to teach them to think, reflect, analyze. V. Belikov was arrested and convicted, he was accused of "distributing among his students his opuses discrediting the Soviet system."

An. Yakovlev, a prominent political figure of the 1980s, characterizes dissidents in this way: “At one extreme are creators, thinkers, artists. , every village or town and, of course, in cities ... Depending on how harshly they are treated in official circles, such a person arouses sympathy for himself, and regret, and sometimes hostility of those around him ... Of these various ideas of life and the image of dissidents is formed in the public mind - people marked by abilities and knowledge, morality and civic activity... People who really had something to say to their fellow citizens, but just for this reason they were persecuted ".

There is a widespread misconception that the policy of persecution was directed only against the free-thinking part of writers, artists, scientists, artists, and creative intelligentsia. State and party organs adhered to the general line of suppressing any form of dissent. The attitude towards dissidents in the country was very complicated. Society trusted official propaganda and press reports that portrayed dissidents as "renegades", "CIA agents", and anti-Soviet. There was widespread opinion about the mental illness of dissidents, especially after the inclusion of psychiatry in the arsenal of means of suppressing dissent in the country.

The diversity of thoughts, ideals, goals of people who are considered dissidents is the subject of study by modern researchers who, relying on available materials, are trying to draw up a reliable picture. Despite the efforts of scientists, many aspects of this phenomenon remain unclear. It is quite difficult to figure out what the dissident movement (if you can call it a movement) was, all the more, it was impossible to do this in the Soviet period. On the general

A stream of information came crashing down on the property, in which it was difficult to distinguish between truth and falsehood, ideological "agitation" from the facts of real betrayal and immoral behavior of individuals.

A serious problem of dissidence was the search for a "foothold", a basic foundation. What is the meaning of activity, in the name of which all the ordeals and tragedies of dissidents? The people, in the eyes of dissidents, are unable to understand, let alone share and support their ideas. The authorities take a sharp and uncompromising position towards dissidents. Thus, they felt real support and understanding only from the West, feeling that they were part of an international democratic movement. Orientation towards Western public opinion, appeal to foreign mass media to some extent supported the image of traitors and renegades created by the authorities, justified the use of force in the fight against dissidents.

In the country, the struggle of dissidents was mainly in the nature of a moral struggle for the dignity of the human person. However, participation in the struggle required special qualities that were not present in everyone. The realization of this created among the dissidents a belief in some kind of their superiority over the rest of the Soviet population. They distanced themselves from the average Soviet person, opposing themselves not only to the authorities, but also to the majority of Soviet people.

Thus, the activities of active dissidents have a certain connotation of sacrifice, self-sacrifice, which is also reflected in their understanding of the state of their voluntary and forced isolation in an essentially hostile environment. Interesting in this regard are the documents on the stay of dissidents in places of deprivation of liberty. In the reports of ITU officers, attention is focused on the distinctive qualities of these prisoners in comparison with the rest of the "contingent". “These were extremely complex, contradictory, psychologically difficult people. There were university teachers, writers, poets, artists, journalists, musicians, military personnel, workers, etc. The vast majority of anti-Soviet people had higher and incomplete higher education, some owned foreign language-

mi. And, nevertheless, in the zone they continued to constantly engage in self-education, subscribed to various literature, newspapers, magazines.

The peculiar aristocracy, or rather, the elitism of the dissidents did not give them the opportunity to expand their ranks by attracting representatives of different segments of the population. The disposition towards isolation became one of the important features that formed the structure of the dissident movement. Dissent (in the broad sense of the word) was widespread in the country, and was much more significant than dissent. This range includes informal organizations of a non-political nature, extraordinary thinking creative people, mass movements of a cultural direction, representatives of an elite culture.

In a broad sense, a fairly large circle of people who think extraordinary can be attributed to the number of dissidents, which, undoubtedly, goes beyond the small movement of dissidents, which can be very carefully identified with the political opposition. Unfortunately, today it is rather difficult to draw up a complete picture of protest manifestations; it is rather difficult to trace the mechanism for obtaining information by state security agencies. It can be assumed that it came not only from employees and so-called informants, but from ordinary people who sincerely, as a rule, out of patriotic motives, signaled the manifestation of "anti-Sovietism."

A fairly new phenomenon in the public life of Soviet society was the "signer campaign": the compilation and collection of signatures against the arbitrariness of the authorities, in defense of human rights activists, in which well-known people, figures of science, culture, and art participated. Thus, there were petition campaigns in defense of

that of A. Sinyavsky and Y. Daniel, Y. Galanskov and Y. Ginzburn, against the persecution of A. Sakharov and A. Solzhenitsyn.

The authorities made attempts to influence the signatories through labor collectives, creative organizations, through "prevention", through confidential conversations. These measures had some effect, and the number of signatories was reduced, and in the 1970s the practice of open letters to party and state bodies in protest against the state's domestic and foreign policy practically disappeared. However, latent opposition persisted, manifesting itself in other forms.

The ideological uniformity of Soviet society turned out to be just a myth. The diversity of opinions and worldviews was openly manifested in 1965-1985. among different segments of the population, different social groups. Dissatisfaction with the entire system, with the entire existing political order, was the lot of a very few, but there were many dissidents in the country, which, in general, testifies not only to a systemic crisis, but also to the more complex social structure of Soviet society.

NOTES

1. Weil P. and Genis A. 60s: The World of the Soviet Man. -M.: 1998. - P.176.

2. TsDNI RM, F.269, Op.7. D.696, L.47 - 48.

3. Chernoprud S. Yuri Andropov. Secrets of the Chairman of the KGB. - M.: 2006. - P.220.

4. Orlova R., Kopelev P. We lived in Moscow 1956 - 1980.

M.: 1997. - P.20.

5. CGA IPD RT. F.15. Op.35. D.199. L.1 - 7.

6. Yakovlev A.N. The Bitter Cup: Bolshevism and the Reformation in Russia. - Yaroslavl: Verkh.-Volzh.kn.izd-vo, 1994.

7. From the Cheka to the FSB. History and modernity of the Department of the Federal Security Service of the Russian Federation in the Republic of Mordovia. - Saransk: 2003. - P.329.

DISSENT AND AUTHORITY

© 2008 S.I.Nikonova Kazan State University of Architecture and Building Construction

"Another way thinking" was widely spread in the USSR and it was more significant than the dissident movement. While dissidents composed a small group of people openly protested against the existing regime, those who "thought different" belonged to a wide public and expressed critical opinions about particular traits of cultural and political life.

Views, opinions and statements which differ from the dogmas of the church. Today, unlike him, they will not be burned at the stake for this and will not be subjected to exposing torture. However, in the Middle Ages, everything was different! We'll talk about this.

Branded for life

In the Middle Ages, people's consciousness was very poor. They willingly believed in witches, dragons, sorcerers and other evil spirits. Science was not as advanced as it is today. The medieval church, in its views and ideas, was much different from today. Each person who had his own view of the structure of this world, and also disagreed with the priests of the Middle Ages in some way, involuntarily received the stigma of "heretic". And no one cared what social status he was endowed with - a nobleman, a genius, a scientist, a healer or a clairvoyant!

The clergy, hiding behind their position, constantly referred to the fact that only their interpretation, only their opinions on this matter, are the only true and correct ones! Hiding behind the Lord God, these people destroyed a huge number of those who disagreed with them. After all, there was a strict rule that a heretic is almost always a person sentenced to death! The label of a heretic in the overwhelming majority of cases meant being burned at the stake or hanging on the gallows of the Inquisition. Remember how many geniuses were then burned at the stake!

We do not know when the first heretic appeared, but the most famous of them is Giordano Bruno. This is a medieval astronomer. He calculated that our planet is round, and not flat, as was then commonly believed. However, the society did not share his views, moreover, his discovery caused the wrath of the clergy, for which the scientist was burned at the stake! Sometimes heretics were not executed, but simply tortured. Let's find out in which cases this happened.

Why were heretics tortured?

If the inquisitors agreed that threats, persuasion and cunning did not work on the accused, then they had to resort to violence. It was believed that physical torture and torment more clearly enlighten the mind of a dissenter. At that time, there was a whole list of torture legalized by the Inquisition.

The centuries-old torture of heretics was the clearest proof of the weakness of the medieval church in the face of its ideological opponents. The priests could not win the victory by the Word of God. The easiest way to do this was by force of power and coercion!

The heretic is our benefactor!

Yes... It was a terrible time... The time of the eternal hunt for dissidents and witches! However, despite all the hardships, it is the heretic who is the "engine" of medieval progress! Can you imagine if it were not for them, what would our world be like today? Yes, we would still ride on wooden rattling carts, candles in candelabra would still burn in our houses, and we would write with quills on parchment! Horrible! It is to heretics that we - modern people - owe all the existing benefits of civilization!

I quote a fragment of the letter P.L. Kapitsa Chairman of the State Security Committee of the USSR Yu.V. Andropov:

“... dissidents must be treated very thoughtfully and carefully, as did Lenin.

Dissent is closely connected with the useful creative activity of man, and creative activity in any branch of culture ensures the progress of mankind.

It is easy to see that dissatisfaction with the existing lies at the origin of all branches of human creative activity. For example, a scientist is dissatisfied with the existing level of knowledge in the field of science that interests him, and he is looking for new research methods. The writer is dissatisfied with the relationship of people in society, and he tries to influence the structure of society and the behavior of people using an artistic method. The engineer is dissatisfied with the modern solution of a technical problem and is looking for new constructive forms to solve it. A public figure is dissatisfied with the laws and traditions on which the state is built, and is looking for new forms for the functioning of society, etc.

Thus, in order for the desire to start creating to appear, the basis must be dissatisfaction with the existing, that is, one must be a dissident. This applies to any branch of human activity. Of course, there are many dissatisfied, but in order to productively express yourself in creativity, you must also have talent. Life shows that there are very few great talents, and therefore they must be valued and protected.

This is difficult to accomplish even with good leadership. Great creativity requires great temperament, and this leads to sharp forms of discontent, therefore talented people usually have, as they say, a "difficult character." For example, this can often be seen in great writers, as they quarrel easily and like to protest. In fact, creative activity usually meets with a bad reception, because in the mass people are conservative and strive for a quiet life.

As a result, the dialectic of the development of human culture lies in the grip of the contradiction between conservatism and dissent, and this happens at all times and in all areas of human culture.

If we consider the behavior of such a person as Sakharov, it is clear that the basis of his creative activity is also dissatisfaction with the existing. When it comes to physics, where he has a great talent, his activity is extremely useful. But when he extends his activities to social problems, this does not lead to the same useful results, and in people of a bureaucratic type, who usually lack creative imagination, it causes a strong negative reaction. As a result, instead of simply, as did Lenin, not paying attention to the manifestations of dissent in this area, they are trying to suppress it by administrative measures and at the same time do not pay attention to the fact that they immediately ruin the useful creative activity of the scientist.

Together with the water, the child is thrown out of the trough. A lot of creative work has an ideological character and is not amenable to administrative and forceful influence. How to proceed in such cases, well shown Lenin with regard to Pavlov what I wrote about at the beginning. Life later confirmed that Lenin was right when he ignored Pavlov's sharp dissent in social issues and, at the same time, treated him very carefully as a personal Pavlov and to his scientific work.

All this led to the fact that in Soviet times Pavlov, as a physiologist, did not interrupt his brilliant work on conditioned reflexes, which to this day play a leading role in world science. In matters relating to social problems, everything Pavlov expressed has long been forgotten.

It is interesting to remember that after the death of Lenin, just as carefully Pavlov treated CM. Kirov. As you know, he not only personally showed great attention to Pavlov, but also contributed to the fact that a special laboratory was built for his work in Koltushi. All this ultimately influenced Pavlovian dissent, which gradually began to fade. As I already wrote, a similar change in dissent occurred with the sculptor Meštrovic after Tito appreciated the wisdom of the Leninist approach to the creative activity of man and understood how to resolve the contradictions that arise in this case.

Now for some reason we forget Lenin's precepts in relation to scientists. For example Sakharov and Orlova we see that this leads to sad consequences. This is much more serious than it seems at first glance, since it ultimately leads in the development of big science to our lagging behind the capitalist countries, since this is largely the result of our underestimation of the need for a careful attitude to the creative activity of a great scientist. Now, in comparison with the Leninist changes, our concern for scientists has significantly decreased and very often takes on the character of bureaucratic leveling.

But to win the races, you need trotters. However, prize trotters are few and far between and usually skittish, and they also need skilled riders and good care. It is easier and calmer to ride an ordinary horse, but, of course, you cannot win races.

We have achieved nothing by increasing the administrative pressure on Sakharov and Orlova. As a result, their dissent is only growing, and now this pressure has reached such a magnitude that it causes a negative reaction even abroad. Punishing Orlova for dissent 12 years in prison, we thus completely remove him from scientific activity, and the need for such a ferocious measure is difficult to justify. That is why it causes general bewilderment and is often interpreted as a manifestation of our weakness.

Now, for example, there is an ever-expanding boycott of scientific ties with us abroad. At the European Center for Nuclear Research in Geneva (CERN), where our scientists also work, employees wear sweaters with Orlov's name woven on them. All this, of course, is a passing phenomenon, but it has a retarding effect on the development of science.

It is known that strong administrative pressure on dissident scientists has existed since ancient times, and even in recent times has taken place in the West. For example, the famous philosopher and mathematician Bertrand Russell for his dissent, he was twice imprisoned, however, only for short periods. But seeing that this only causes indignation in the intelligentsia, and does not affect Russell's behavior in any way, the British abandoned this method of influence. I can't imagine how else we're supposed to influence our dissenting scientists. If we are going to further increase the methods of power techniques, then this does not bode well.

Wouldn't it be better to just back up?"

Three letters from the personal archive of P.L. Kapitsa, in Sat.: There are prophets in the fatherland, Petrozavodsk, "Karelia", 1989, p. 101-105.

Where to get a dream

Living Utopias: 10 Ideal Futures

The last "official" utopia - the dream of capitalist globalization - has finally died. The scale of the global crisis forced even its staff ideologists to admit this. Globalization is now even more abusive concept than "Soviet communism". There is not a single concept of an ideal society left that would have mass supporters. But to live without a dream is, firstly, dangerous, and secondly, impossible. What will be the new utopia that will take over the world?

“There is a decree that none of the cases relating to the Republic should be carried out unless it was discussed in the Senate three days before the decision. It is considered a criminal offense to decide on public affairs other than the senate or popular assembly,” Thomas More wrote in his monarchical 16th century.

Utopia. A place that doesn't exist. More precisely, it is not on the world map, but it is in the minds of people. First, the utopia virus infects some talented madman. Then the epidemic begins. And often naive dreams turn into reality.

In 1897, at the Zionist congress in Basel, Theodor Herzl called on the Jews to create their own country with their own laws, language and customs. It seemed then as naive as the dreams of More or Campanella. Herzl himself understood this. “'I created a Jewish state' - if I said it out loud, I would be ridiculed. But perhaps in five years, and certainly in fifty, everyone will see it for themselves. he wrote in his diary. And exactly half a century later, a far from imaginary state appeared on the world map. Utopia is overgrown with tank troops and satellite-guided missiles.

But for more than half a century, the world has been strenuously trying to abandon the dream. Horror stories like Brave New World! Huxley, Zamyatin's "We" or Orwell's "1984" still smell pleasantly of fresh printing ink. After the experience of building totalitarian societies, dreaming of an ideal future has become indecent and very dangerous.

Now it is believed that social dreams are the lot of past centuries. It was our naive ancestors who kept running around with all sorts of "isms". Only acute paranoia could push people into prisons or barricades for the sake of some constructions of an ideal future. You can just live normally, get paid, take consumer loans, and if you really want to improve the world - donate a couple of hundred to some children's fund or Greenpeace ... Is it possible? Or not?

"A man without a utopia is more terrible than a man without a nose" Chesterton said. The development of society is impossible without some kind of landmark, a bright spot looming ahead. We get into a car with an automatic transmission, fill it with excellent gasoline, and suddenly we realize that we have nowhere to go. Without ideas about the end point of the route, a car is not needed. And utopia is not so much a goal as a movement towards this goal.

We want to look at utopias not as a genre of science fiction, but as a fully realizable future. It's not that easy. You can scold the existing order of things for a long time, but as soon as you offer an alternative, it seems naive and absurd. It seems that our world is arranged in the most reasonable way.

But try to look at our civilization from the point of view of some advanced alien. He is unlikely to be able to understand what military sergeants, financial brokers, mid-level officials or marketing managers are needed for. Our wars, our politics, our cities, our television is that less absurd than any of the utopias? “You don't live on the inside of the ball. You live on the outer surface of the ball. And there are still many such balls in the world, on some they live much worse than you, and on some - much better than you. But nowhere do they live more stupidly ... Don't you believe? Well, to hell with you", - Maxim diagnosed from the "Inhabited Island".

What seemed absurd in the past becomes normal in the future. And vice versa. Imagine that you are a peasant living in the time of Thomas More. And you are told: “Every day you will go underground and enter a shaking iron box. In addition to you, there are a hundred more people in it, standing tightly clinging to each other ... "Most likely, the peasant will fall to his knees in horror and will beg for mercy: “Why do you want to subject me to such a terrible torture?!” But we are talking about the banal Metro.

When you start telling someone another version of a utopia, skepticism immediately arises: they say that people are used to a certain way of life and you can force them to change only with the help of totalitarian violence. But let's take a simple example -. A few centuries ago, it seemed to be the norm. In the same "Utopia" by Thomas More, it was simply stated: “Slaves are not only constantly busy with work, but also chained…” The comfortable life of a noble person was not possible without slaves, serfs, or even servants. And we get by quite well. And we even manage to fry scrambled eggs in the morning without the participation of the cook.

The question of utopia It is a question of social norm and social values. Every society has a majority "normal people"- and there are different groups of people who "wanted the strange", or, more roughly, outcasts. Utopia turns some of the variants of "strange" into normal, and yesterday's "normal", on the contrary, becomes exotic. Utopias are not needed in order to immediately begin to put them into practice, destroying those who disagree and spending all the resources of mankind on this. Utopias give value, meaning and direction to our world, which will never be perfect.

But where will utopias come from if they are all thrown off the steamer of modernity and exposed by gloomy dystopias? Maybe there will be ideas that we are not even aware of now? But it is possible that those utopias that still live and are even realized as a local experience of individuals and communities will attract attention. We offer 10 utopian ideas, each of which is based on values ​​that may someday be shared by millions.

Psychological utopia

In response to what was born . Mass neuroses, numerous tragedies, wars, crimes that result from the mental illness of individuals and masses.

great goal . Psychological health of a person and society.

Forerunners . Behaviorist classic Burres Skinner. The author of the method of sociometry and the technique of psychodrama is Jacob Moreno. Abraham Maslow, founder of humanistic psychology.

Economy . It is understood that “psychological capital” is no less important than financial capital. The main incentive is not money, but psychological health, comfort, wisdom.

Control . Psychologists take part in almost all significant decisions related to politics, finance, and the army. Social conflicts are overcome as psychological ones. Politics is the art of curing mass neuroses.

Technologies . Intensive development and technologization of psychological practices. The natural sciences also benefit from revealing the personal qualities and abilities of scientists, getting rid of unnecessary conflicts in the academic environment.

Lifestyle . Relations between people imply openness, frankness, mutual support, direct expression of any emotions. It is normal to radically change the way of life, work, place of residence. What we today consider downshifting (for example, changing the position of director to work as a gardener) has become commonplace. Education has ceased to be the privilege of children and continues throughout life.

. “In general, we don’t have dissidents. There are people who are very strongly attached to their neuroses and manias and even call psychologists "fuhrers" and "evil manipulators", and everyone else - "happy idiots". We don't get offended."

From the newspaper "The Truth of Utopia". “The Ministry of Personal Development has vetoed the draft state budget. According to representatives of the ministry, this document is certainly well developed from the point of view of the needs of industry and defense, but the psychological component leaves much to be desired.”

Where exists now . Psychotherapeutic groups of various types and schools, communities with a psychological bias (following the example of Western communities for the treatment of drug addicts).

neoliberalism

In response to what was born . The low efficiency of the state bureaucracy and the excessive influence of state institutions on literally all spheres of society.

great goal . True freedom, natural self-organization and prosperity based on free enterprise and individualism.

Forerunners . Milton Friedman, Friedrich von Hayek, Chicago School of Economics.

Economy . The market economy is becoming total, all barriers to trade have been removed.

Control . The world government only oversees the observance of the rules of the game and has little social obligation to the poor and incapacitated.

Technologies . The question of what technologies to develop is decided only by a market governed by commercial interest and strict copyright laws.

Lifestyle . “There is no such thing as society” – this is how Margaret Thatcher formulated the creed of neoliberalism. The competition for the best place in the sun is between people organized in enterprises, in free market competition. Multiculturalism has become the norm of life: everyone knows several languages ​​and freely plays with quotes, musical phrases and philosophical maxims of different cultures, without falling into dependence on the dogmas of any of them. People are free from any and all gender, ethnic, religious differences. There are no more nation-states. Thanks to the fact that market expediency is a common language for all spheres of life, relations between people have finally become clear and transparent, and most importantly, less hostile. Nothing causes hatred - not different identities, not sexual infidelity.

. “In some places, dense fundamentalism is still preserved - nationalism, religious intolerance. But all this is gradually fading away. So I'm personally concerned about groups that think we need to drastically increase taxes on non-profit spending - from 1% to 1.2% - to help the weak, the disabled, animals. I myself make contributions to a charitable foundation and I think that such a decision would be an infringement of my rights.

From the newspaper "The Truth of Utopia" . “The claims that verbal emotional support should be valued at a higher rate than tactile support are simply ridiculous. We are of the opinion that such actions should be evaluated by the result, and the volume of payments should be stipulated in contracts, as is done today in all developed regions of the world.”

Where exists now . In its most striking manifestations, the neoliberal utopia was partially realized in Great Britain and some countries of Western Europe.

Pedagogical utopia

In response to what was born . Imperfect education, and most importantly - the upbringing of children.

great goal . The upbringing of a humane, creative, comprehensively developed person, the harmonious development of mankind.

Forerunners . The Strugatsky brothers with their "Theory of Education", JK Rowling and her professor Dumbledore, Makarenko, Janusz Korczak, modern innovative teachers.

Economy . Education and upbringing is a key area for investment.

Control . The teacher has a status close to the level of a top manager. The Council of Educators has the right to veto any policy decision.

Technologies . Advanced training tools, such as "social simulators" created on the basis of virtual reality technologies.

Lifestyle . Children from an early age are placed in special boarding schools. At the same time, parents and children can see each other whenever they want. Parents have a lot of free time, which they can devote to sports, art, charity or education.

From the newspaper "The Truth of Utopia". ““I have already passed all tests, trials and interviews, the commission recognized me as fit to work as an educator. I confess: it was not easy, I am proud that everything worked out. It seems to me that I was a successful leader and earned the right to work in a boarding school,” the director of a furniture manufacturing company, who plans to change his specialty in the coming months, told our correspondent. Recall that the competition for the places of educators appearing in connection with the growth of the population reaches ten thousand people per place.

. “In my youth, there were still backward parents who refused to send their children to boarding schools. Now there are practically none of them, since the growth opportunities for those who have fallen out of the System are extremely limited. But, of course, I categorically disagree with the Makarenko group who demand that parents be banned from communicating with children under the age of 18.”

Where can you see it now?. "Advanced" Russian schools (including boarding schools, such as the Moscow "Intellectual"), summer educational camps.

Information utopia

In response to what was born . The inability of the human brain to evaluate the correctness of a decision, including one on which the fate of mankind depends.

great goal . The liberation of people from the routine, all uncreative work should be done by machines.

Forerunners . Ideas about the reorganization of society based on information technology are put forward by a variety of people - from rebel programmers in rumpled T-shirts to respectable analysts from consulting agencies.

Economy . Completely open and largely virtual. Due to this, all economic actions bring a cumulative effect, increasing the well-being of the entire population.

Control . The transfer of legislative power into the hands of the entire population. Any important decision is made on the basis of almost instantaneous universal voting on the Web. Administrative functions are reduced to a minimum. The development of the technology of the people's will is carried out by artificial intelligence.

Technologies . First of all, information. One hundred percent computerization of the world. The global network is brought to every inhabitant of the planet. Creation of artificial intelligence.

Lifestyle . Almost all the information that exists in the world is available, and at the same time there are powerful algorithms for its search and processing. This applies to everything from business to sex. Marriages are not made in heaven, but thanks to an accurate calculation of the compatibility of the future couple. Computer diagnostics made it possible to identify diseases at an early stage, which dramatically increased the life expectancy of the population.

Residents of Utopia - about dissident marginals . “They say that in Africa and South America there are still entire tribes that refuse to use the capabilities of artificial intelligence and connect to the Web. Recently, ultras have been of great concern - they believe that all decisions, including those related to their lives, should be made by artificial intelligence, since its decisions are more accurate.

From the newspaper "The Truth of Utopia" : “Yesterday there were 85 referendums on the planet. Of these, planetary in nature was the vote on the budget for the development of the Earth. Recall that the main subject of discussion was the financing of the project “Artificial Intelligence in every home”. The program was again rejected by 49% of the vote against 38%. Thirteen percent of the citizens abstained. Recall that a year ago more than half of the voters voted against this project.”

Where can you see it now? . Social networks on the Internet, dating sites, online stores, online tenders, "electronic governments", ERP systems.

National-religious utopia

In response to what was born . A dead end and moral decline, which many countries have entered, abandoning their own tradition for the sake of wealth.

great goal . If not heaven on earth, then Holy Russia, righteous Iran or a modernized, but enlightened India.

Forerunners . Leaders of the Islamic revolution in Iran, supporters of religious justifications for building the state of Israel, leaders of the Vatican, Mahatma Gandhi, numerous leaders of Protestant sects in the United States, Russian religious philosophers of the early 20th century, and many others.

Economy . Development through conservative modernization, that is, the use of traditions - living or revived - in the construction of market and social institutions. Example: Islamic banking (loaning money at interest is forbidden by the Quran).

Control . Institutions and all major decisions are consistent with the national cultural tradition, in complex issues decisions are not for the secular leader and not for the referendum, but for the righteous-charismatics.

Technologies . Humanitarian and pedagogical technologies are enriched with mystical tradition, techniques of prayer, yoga, and rituals.

Lifestyle . Every minute of life is filled with meaning, prayer. Whatever you do, programming or banking, is not just work, but obedience that elevates the soul. A strong work ethic leads to prosperity; Of course, each country has its own rules and traditions, but all people are believers, and in all countries they understand each other well, and therefore they are religiously tolerant.

Residents of Utopia - about dissident marginals . “There are still atheists, but for them we organized an atheistic church - so that they would not be infringed on their rights. Much more dangerous are those groups that believe that their religion should become the only one, even if by military means. They do not understand that they are contrary to the will of God: if He wanted it, there would be only one religion in the world.”

From the newspaper "The Truth of Utopia" . “Another dispute between Shiites and Sunnis took place in Medina. According to sociologists, more than half a billion viewers watched the discussion on TV, and more than ten thousand people gathered in Medina itself, who came from all over the world. No less interesting is the discussion between the Jews and representatives of the Vatican, which will take place next Wednesday in Jerusalem. Already today there are no free places not only in the hotels of the Holy City, but also in almost all of Israel and Palestine.

Where exists now . In religious communities, in some families that combine patriarchal values ​​with inclusion in modern society.

"New Age"

In response to what was born . Churches and politicians hide from the people not only the truth, but also the path to spiritual perfection, enlightenment, turning people into stupid slaves, puppets incapable of knowing the mystical reality.

great goal . Mystical experience, sexual pleasures, new emotions should be available to every person.

Forerunners . American beatniks, Russian theosophists (Gurdjieff, Blavatsky), Carlos Castaneda, founders of syncretic churches such as Bahaism, mystics and gurus of all stripes, hippies.

Economy . Free and fair exchange without money. Take what you like and do as you know, unless it harms another; no copyrights and property accumulation.

Control . Key positions in society are occupied by spiritual teachers. Each school builds its own hierarchy. At the head are gurus, further advanced followers, beginners at the very bottom, etc. But in fact, all these diverse teachings form a universal, albeit heterogeneous, mystical church.

Technologies . Scientists and engineers are also sectarians, and their work is a recognized form of spiritual practice.

Lifestyle . People are united in groups, communities, etc., each of which chooses its own set of spiritual practices, made up of fragments of ancient mystical teachings, religions and philosophies. All kinds of healing options are replacing academic medicine, but if anyone wants, there are also pills. Sexual relations are entirely dependent on the teachings of which the members of the group are adherents - from free love and sexual perversions to total abstinence. The fundamental principles of life are non-violence and love for all living things. Vegetarianism, various gymnastics, and the absence of bad habits are in fashion (light drugs and psychedelics do not count).

A resident of Utopia about dissident marginals . "Pacific, you understand? Some people don't understand that everyone around is sister and brother. They do not understand that I threw myself and I have enlightenment. And they: come on, meditate! They would have offered to dig… And they will never treat you with grass.”

From the newspaper "The Truth of Utopia" . “... Teacher John Jin Kuznetsov opened a new path for brothers and sisters to receive complete and final enlightenment in just five years. In the near future, the average age of a full Zi-old man may be 33 years old.

Where exists now . Hippie communes, mystical communities from Baikal to Mexico.

transhumanism

In response to what was born . The limitations of the human body, in particular disease, aging and death.

great goal . Transfer from Homo sapiens to the "posthuman" - a creature with more advanced physical and mental abilities.

Forerunners . Philosophers Nick Bostrom, David Pierce and FM-2030 (real name - Fereydun Esfendiari), as well as science fiction writers.

Economy . Utopia can be realized both under a market system and under a socialist one. But in any case, the main investments go to science, technology and medicine.

Control . One of the main tasks of the authorities is to control the fair distribution of new technological opportunities.

Technologies . The rapid growth of developments related to medicine and pharmaceuticals. Technology to improve the human body. All organs are subject to replacement (except for the anterior lobes of the cerebral cortex, and even that is not a fact).

Lifestyle . A new body implies a new way of life and customs. Diseases do not exist, people (more precisely, their personality) become practically immortal. Emotions and mood can be regulated by direct brain stimulation - almost everyone has a mood switch in their pocket. Drugs and electronic chips help you think faster and remember more.

Residents of Utopia - about dissident marginals . “There are still rare settlements in which people refuse to change their bodies, in general, to use the achievements of the latest technologies. But they get sick a lot, are aggressive and quickly disappear from the face of the earth. Recently, an ultras movement has been born that calls for a complete replacement of the human body. They say out loud radical and indecent things, for example, that Homo sapiens- an inferior race.

From the newspaper "The Truth of Utopia" . “On the agenda of the World Summit is the question of the elimination of internal armies. The initiators of this project believe that ethical norms have changed a lot over the past decades: the absence of natural death makes the concepts of murder and war completely immoral ... "

Where exists now . Advanced scientific experiments.

Ecological utopia

In response to what was born . The danger of an ecological catastrophe, the depletion of resources, the separation of man from his natural habitat.

great goal . Live in harmony with nature, preserve humanity, wildlife, the entire planet in its diversity and beauty.

Forerunners . Various green movements, philosophers like Andre Gortz, Murray Bookchin or Nikita Moiseev, partly the Club of Rome.

Economy . Industrial growth is severely limited. The tax system is designed in such a way that it is unprofitable to produce products that somehow pollute the environment. Liberal incentives for production and consumption are severely limited.

Control . At the top is a democratic world government. Below - self-government of communities, towns and other small communities.

Technologies . The development of alternative energy - from solar panels to thermonuclear reactors. A sharp increase in the recycling rate of secondary materials. Completely new means of communication. Creation of new environmentally friendly means of transport that do not require roads.

Lifestyle . It is fashionable to combine agricultural work with intellectual work. Broken things are usually not thrown away, but repaired. Many items are used collectively, for example, instead of hundreds of television sets in each family, there are several community cinemas. The use of pet labor is considered immoral.

Residents of Utopia - about dissident marginals . “Sometimes ecovillages degenerate into corporations with a rigid hierarchy and inequality in consumption, sometimes petty leaders go so far as to start eating animal food and revive half-forgotten harmful technologies. On the other hand, there are some settlements in which they are sure that any impact is to the detriment of nature, they even refuse artificial breeding of plants and eat only what grows by itself.

From the newspaper "The Truth of Utopia" . “It may seem strange to many, but thirty years ago, eating the meat of living beings was considered completely normal.”

Where exists now . At the most local level, there are all kinds of ecovillages. At the most global level - the fight against climate warming and the destruction of the ozone layer.

space utopia

In response to what was born . The impossibility of human development, as a species, without space exploration.

great goal . Mankind's exit beyond the Earth, unlimited possibilities of knowing the world.

Forerunners . Historically: from Copernicus to Tsiolkovsky. Today there are thousands of scientists from different countries. Well, specific projects can be found in the tables of engineers NASA and Roscosmos.

Economy . mobilization type. Lack of competition. The main investments are in science and space technologies.

Control . Mobilization. Any political action is evaluated on the basis of its usefulness and necessity for the exploration of outer space. In fact, the world is controlled by a group of scientists - the leaders of the space project.

Technologies . Breakthroughs in a number of natural sciences: astronomy, physics, materials science, chemistry, etc.

Lifestyle . Most citizens feel themselves involved in the global colonization project - the development of other planets or even other star systems. In a sense, the god from the hearts goes back to heaven. There are many people who do not have a specific citizenship and consider themselves "citizens of space." The concept of "nationality" is blurred.

From the newspaper "The Truth of Utopia" . “There, in the big space, there is a lot of work going on. The assemblers of the space center have already begun to dock the elements of the first space city, capable of accommodating more than 50,000 inhabitants. Its first inhabitants will be scientists from the research center. Tsiolkovsky - it is here that the front line of the fight against gravity is now taking place.

A resident of Utopia about dissident marginals . “There are still ordinary people among us who believe that their petty interests are higher than the interests of mankind. They complain about shortcomings in the domestic sphere. However, for the most part, these are people of the past, and it’s even a pity for them. It is good that the Council did not go along with the extremists who demanded that those who do not work for the project be transferred to limited consumption. Let them live as they want."

Where can you see now . International space station. Mars Exploration Projects.

Alterglobalist utopia

In response to what was born . The injustice of neoliberal globalization. Inequality between the countries of the rich North and the poor South. Imperial ambitions of rich countries in foreign policy and racism in domestic.

great goal . World cooperation, economic justice, harmony with the environment, the triumph of human rights and cultural diversity.

Forerunners . Leaders of socialism like Marx or Bakunin. Former Red Brigades mastermind Tony Negri, linguist Noam Chomsky, economist and publicist Susan George.

Economy . Serial mass production is being replaced by craftsmanship with an emphasis on the uniqueness of the product. Financial transactions are subject to the "Tobin tax" (0.1-0.25%). Land speculation is prohibited. There is no private ownership of resources and copyright.

Control . Power is delegated from the bottom up: from "strong" cooperatives, self-governing communities and towns to a "weak" democratic world government.

Technologies . A harmonious combination of high technology and craftsmanship, manual and automated work. No two cars are the same.

Lifestyle . The world is divided into many relatively small communities and communes. Each of them has its own style. Somewhere the norm is vegetarianism and free love, and somewhere - patriarchal traditions. The world is one, but diverse. Communities cooperate on a horizontal level. Today, a Norwegian fishermen's community forms an alliance with Sami reindeer herders and Japanese musicians, and then this commune's mood changes and they enter into an alliance with some African cooperative. The same is true for the individual. Each community is free to enter and exit.

A resident of Utopia - about dissident marginals . “In my opinion, the main threat is the world government, last year it already tried to re-subordinate the Joint Law Enforcement Force, but the council of cooperatives, fortunately, was on the alert.”

From the newspaper "The Truth of Utopia" . “Can a person at seventy-three learn to play the kobyz? Maybe - and this was proved by a well-known theoretical physicist, a former member of the "Union of Scientists" commune. On the day of his seventieth birthday, he moved to the “Group of Kazakh Musicians”, and this year he already soloed at a concert organized by the “Asian Folk Center” in Edinburgh.”

Where exists now . Cooperatives of Brazilian peasants after they seized land from wealthy landowners. Communes in Western Europe.

National idea - Leonid Kornilov

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