"The Winter King" Friedrich Faltsky or Tragedy under the White Mountain. About the "winter" king, the beautiful princess and their castle. Heidelberg Louis XV The Beloved
On October 7, 1619, the couple, accompanied by 568 people of their retinue and with 153 carts, set off from Heidelberg in the direction of Prague. Elizabeth, seven months pregnant, was sitting in the carriage, Friedrich rode beside her on horseback. The children were left in the Palatinate with their mother-in-law.
Johann von Zweibruecken remained to look after the Palatinate, who was not the first to do this, because he was previously the guardian of the underage Friedrich.
On November 4, 1619, Frederick was crowned king of Bohemia at St. Vitus Cathedral in Prague, Elizabeth was crowned three days later.
Elizabeth - Queen of Bohemia:
In honor of the coronation, coins were struck with the image of the royal couple. Several of these coins were later in the numismatic collection of their granddaughter, the Duchess of Orleans.
The royal couple settled in Prague Castle - the centuries-old seat of the kings of Bohemia.
Vladislav Hall of the Prague Castle:
But as much as the people rejoiced at the arrival of Frederick and his wife, so quickly he became disillusioned with them. The royal couple did not speak a word of Czech. The French lifestyle and traditions brought from the Heidelberg court were foreign to the locals. French fashion and especially the queen's too daring neckline did not find understanding among the courtiers. Everyone was shocked that the king was swimming naked in the Vltava in front of the queen and the ladies of the court. Further even worse - the court preacher Friedrich tried to force Calvinism on the Czechs (this is a kind of Protestantism). The new king ordered to remove the "idols" from St. Vitus Cathedral and Charles Bridge (they say idolatry is the lot of Catholics). A month after the coronation, a clear cooling was observed in the relationship between the king and the courtiers. And even the birth of Prince Rupert did not help to strengthen the authority of the royal couple.
Frederick King of Bohemia:
In January 1620, the king complained to his advisers that his orders were not being carried out. To strengthen his authority, the king set out on a study tour of his kingdom - in the provinces of Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, Lusatia. He visited churches (also Catholic), monasteries and tried to show his religious tolerance. With the Archbishop of the Wroclaw Cathedral in Silesia, he discussed the cult of relics in Catholicism. In the Moravian capital Brno, he visited a re-baptized community. It was this trip that poked the king with his nose showed the king the ruthless reality, how unpopular he is. High officials, even entire cities refused to take the oath of office to him. Sometimes the route of the trip to Silesia had to be changed because of the danger of stumbling upon the riding units of the Polish gentry.
Rumors began to circulate among the people that King Frederick would not hold his throne for a long time, that he was a “king for one winter,” and in the spring he would “float” with melt water ... And although Frederick was king for longer than one winter (about a year in total), but nevertheless the unflattering nickname “ winter king».
As expected, the Habsburgs did not accept the loss of Bohemia. Emperor Ferdinand of Habsburg, who had taken away the crown of Bohemia, decided to take revenge and instructed the Bavarian Elector Maximilian, the leader of the Catholic League, to gather an army and oppose the Czech Protestants.
Prague Castle towering over the city:
On November 8, 1620, at the Battle of White Mountain near Prague, the fate of the "winter" king and queen was decided. The troops of the Czechs were commanded by Prince Christian of Anhalt (the one who persuaded Frederick to accept the Bohemian crown), and the troops of the Catholic League were commanded by Elector Maximilian. The Czechs were defeated in the battle, the promised military reinforcements from the Protestant Union were refused at the last moment.
On the day of this fateful battle, Frederick was at Prague Castle. He suddenly noticed that his soldiers fleeing from the battlefield were arriving at the castle and were looking for refuge in the castle. Panic seized the entire courtyard ... We hastily began to pack caskets, boxes, baskets and load them onto carts and carriages. Elizabeth constantly asked if her beloved monkey, Dzeko, was taken, while in the confusion, little Prince Rupert was almost forgotten in the nursery.
Thus, in November 1620 - exactly one year after the solemn arrival in Prague - the king and queen moved in the opposite direction, and in the most shameful way ...
So the "bohemian scam" failed. The king of Bohemia, Frederick, was deposed. Those who hoped that this would all end, were cruelly mistaken. The Thirty Years' War - a war between Catholics and Protestants throughout Europe - was just breaking out. It will be the most terrible, bloody, devastating war in Europe until the 20th century.
And again a portrait in your favorite pearl necklace:
Escape from Prague was like a scene from an adventure novel. 40 miles through the winter blizzard (pregnant again) Elizabeth had to ride in a ladies' saddle behind her English servant. Despite these trials, she retained her self-control and remained calm and balanced throughout the journey.
In Breslau the roads of Friedrich and Elizabeth parted. He headed south to Moravia in a (vain) search for help, she to Brandenburg, where her mother-in-law Louise-Juliana of Orange had also moved shortly before. She was "asked" from the Palatinate, and she moved to live with her daughter and son-in-law, taking the eldest grandchildren. The old mother never saw her son Friedrich again. She survived him, died at the age of 68 and was buried in the Kaliningrad Konigsberg Cathedral.
By order of the Elector of Brandenburg, the Bohemian queen was placed in a semi-equipped castle in Küstrin.
There, on January 16, 1621, Elizabeth gave birth to her fifth child, Prince Moritz.
Everything turned out as Friedrich's mother predicted - he lost EVERYTHING. He no longer had a home. Bohemia was lost, Kurpfalz and the title of Elector were also lost. He himself was betrayed "imperial disgrace" and exiled from the empire.
The news from Prague plunged the British into horror and indignation. They sympathized with Frederick, felt sorry for Elizabeth, and condemned Jacob I for not giving his daughter a helping hand.
At first, in London, it was generally unknown where Elizabeth was, only at the end of November a messenger from Kustrin arrived in London with a letter from her. One of the courtiers described the king's reaction to his daughter's letter as follows: He nearly burst with anger". Rumors that his daughter wanted to seek asylum in England filled James I with fear. The news that Frederick intended to demand the withdrawal of the imperial troops from the Palatinate, recognition of him as king of Bohemia and payment of compensation for the damage caused him even more anger.
And nevertheless, there were enough young Englishmen who were ready to go to fight for the honor of Queen Elizabeth - like the knights of the Middle Ages went on military campaigns with the name of the lady of the heart on their lips. In England at that time, there was a real cult of Princess Elizabeth. Even years later (she was already living in exile), fans came to her and asked for some small souvenir as a keepsake. The "Winter Queen" has become a real symbol of the struggle for the Protestant faith. Some compared her to the beautiful Elena, because of whom the Trojan War began.
Elizabeth quickly recovered from childbirth and headed to Westphalia, where she met with Frederick. Together they arrived in The Hague at the invitation of Moritz of Orange, the stadtholder of the Netherlands. On their way, the entire population of the cities took to the streets to honor them, as if they had arrived with a triumph of victors, and not like miserable refugees. They were already considered "martyrs" for the Protestant cause.
The Prince of Orange was very generous and courteous and placed at their disposal two large houses in The Hague next to his own palace.
Binnenhof in the center of The Hague, which houses the States General (Parliament of the Netherlands):
Inventory documents from that time indicate that the best furniture was ordered for the couple: for example, Elizabeth slept in a bed covered with gold brocade under a luxurious canopy.
It says a lot about the fact that Elizabeth was not particularly ambitious, and in general her life worked out well. At the court of the Prince of Orange, she was treated like the first lady (because the prince did not have a wife, only a mistress). To distract the "winter" king and queen from gloomy thoughts, the Prince of Orange arranged walks, performances, hunting trips in their honor ...
When Moritz of Orange died in 1625, his younger brother Friedrich Heinrich of Orange, who had recently married Amalia Solms-Braunfel, the former lady of the court Elizabeth. Surprisingly, the former queen of Bohemia reacted quite calmly to the increasingly imperious notes in the voice of her former court lady, and now the newly baked princess of Orange.
Fiedrich tried to somehow get out of the situation. I went to the Netherlands, asked for military reinforcements. But it was all in vain ... The Habsburgs took the Bohemian crown back to themselves, and the Kurpfalz and Elector dignity were given to Maximilian of Bavaria as a reward for victory and loyalty to the emperor.
The events around the "winter" king and queen sparked the first ever "media war". Invented 150 years earlier, book printing made it possible to quickly spread news and opinions in the form of leaflets.
"Vacation of the Count Palatine "... Caricature of the "winter king" who escaped from Prague with his family. There is a lowered stocking on Frederick's leg - a hint of his Order of the Garter.
Elizabeth was most worried about her husband. Frederick's condition made her apprehensive. He could not come to terms with his political fiasco, with the loss of land, title ... He created a "Bohemian government in exile" in The Hague, and the "winter" couple was now mostly financially supported by the United Republics of the Netherlands, which demanded that Frederick continue the war. The father-in-law in England, who helped his daughter with money, demanded, on the contrary, to make peace with the enemies. Likewise, his own Palatinate advisers did not stand aside with suggestions and advice. The electors put forward their demands. In addition, Frederick constantly emphasized his "royal" rank, which found, to put it mildly, a misunderstanding among the Dutch, who sponsored his very costly lifestyle. In a word, misunderstandings of the parties were inevitable, and Frederick was not a politician of the format of his grandfather William of Orange, in order to be able to resolve conflicts. Although it must be said that as the grandson of William of Orange and son-in-law of James I, he was highly respected in the Netherlands.
True, there was an option to get back the Palatinate and the elector's dignity ... You just had to ... convert to Catholicism. But here Frederick was harder than granite, no matter how hard the emperor's envoys tried. He also decisively rejected the offer of a personal "confession" to the emperor, who (possibly) would have pardoned him.
Doomed to inaction, Frederick found consolation from the turmoil he found in his personal life. He and his wife still adored each other, and every year and a half, another little prince or princess was born. In The Hague, the couple had 8 more children. One of the daughters was named Hollandine, after their host country. country. (It is noteworthy - of the 13 children of Elizabeth and Friedrich, only three had legal offspring).
The children were raised by Friedrich's old governess Madame de Plessen.
With kids: 
A heavy blow of fate befell the couple in 1629, when the 15-year-old eldest son Henry Friedrich, the heir and bearer of the hopes of not only parents, but also many European diplomats, drowned on a ferry in Harlem.
Frederick's Catholic opponents knew that sooner or later his son would demand back his Palatinate inheritance, and they tried to arrange his marriage with some Spanish Infanta, so that if his father could not be persuaded to convert to Catholicism, then maybe at least his son could be persuaded. And some Protestants, including the grandfather of Prince James I, saw in such a marriage a solution to problems and a benefit for the Protestant camp.
Frederick experienced the death of his son harder than his wife. He barely escaped on that ferry himself. For many months he did not get out of bed. This grief broke him completely.
After the death of her father, Elizabeth began a correspondence with the new king Charles I, her brother (yes, this is the one who is then executed). Contrary to expectations, no support was received from Karl.
Judging by many sources and testimonies in the last years of his life, Frederick was reconciled with his fate. He spent a lot of time with his wife, went hunting, took long walks alone, relaxed by swimming. In the Dutch town of Renene, far from the political turmoil, he built himself a palace on the banks of the Rhine - apparently to feel close to his native Palatinate Rhine.
He and his wife led a luxurious lifestyle, at the expense of Dutch and English sponsors.
Palace of the "winter" king in Renes:
One of the letters to his wife of that time contains the following lines: “Apparently, it is the will of the Lord that we find a small corner in the world and live there in solitude, contented with life. That's all I need. "
In October 1632, Frederick had another hope of returning the Palatinate with the help of the Swedish king, and he went to Mainz, occupied by the Swedes. Apparently, on the way, he caught some kind of infection (according to one version, he contracted the plague), for two weeks he lay in a fever. And on November 29, 1632, Frederick died at the age of 36, leaving his widow and 10 children alive at that time, the youngest of whom was only 9 months old.
Not his deathbed, Frederick asked the pastor to convey to his children his dying order - to remain faithful to Calvinism. But two of them subsequently disobeyed the will of their father.
Leib-medic Friedrich personally went to The Hague to prepare the widow for the sad news. When he arrived at the palace, Elizabeth was just posing for the artist Michiel van Mirevelt for his next portrait.
Portrait of Elizabeth Stewart by Michiel van Mirevelt (that is, one of her portraits by this artist):
(It is noteworthy that a very large number of portraits of Elizabeth Stewart have survived. She probably collected her portraits. Moreover, in the Netherlands at that time, the density of artists per square kilometer was off scale).
The doctor tried as tactfully as possible to inform her about the death of her beloved husband. She seemed to be petrified, showing no emotion. For three days she did not speak, did not take food or water, did not sleep. "Although I put on a mask of decency in public, there will never be peace and satisfaction in my life again.". The light of her eyes was extinguished, and since then the queen of Bohemia in exile has always worn only black.
And the coffin with the body of Frederick was lost. At first they wanted to bury him, as a symbolic figure in the Thirty Years' War, but because of the war and the constant change of government in the Palatinate, the lead coffin had to be removed from the crypt and transported from city to city ... for weeks in the basements of monasteries, churches, houses of local burgomasters, he several times fell from the cart during hasty transportation. So I got lost ... And the place where the remains of Frederick V Elector of Palatinate rests is still unknown.
Conventionally, the expansion of the Vikings is usually divided into three periods:
1) Covers the end of the 8th-9th centuries - characterized by scattered expeditions of the Vikings against the Frankish state, attacks on the shores of England, Scotland, Ireland and their resettlement to Orkney, Faroe, Hebrides.
2) It began at the end of the 9th century - at this time there is an attack on France, England by larger detachments of the Vikings, who are moving from robbery and collecting tribute to the settlement of the conquered territory. They found the Duchy of Normandy, conquer England, found the Kingdom of Sicily.
3) It was characterized by significant geographical discoveries, at the end of the 10th century. opened Iceland, Greenland at the same time the Vikings reached North. America (so called Vinland, Markland, Helluland).
“… Everything turned to flight, and rarely did anyone say: Stop, put up resistance, defend your homeland, your own children and people! Not realizing the meaning of what was happening and in constant strife among themselves, everyone bought off money where it was necessary to use weapons for protection, and thus betrayed the work of God. "
Guryev. A. Ya. "Viking Campaigns"
Viking campaigns of conquest
The first mention of the Viking raid we find in the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" - this happened in June 793 AD. e. on the small island of Lindisfarne (or Holy Island), located off the coast of Northumberland (England). The Vikings unexpectedly attacked, staged a terrible massacre, plundered the monastery and sailed away just as unnoticed. This is how the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle reports it: “This year there were terrible signs in Northumbria, which immensely frightened all the inhabitants. Strong whirlwinds whirled, lightning flashed, and in the sky they saw flying dragons belching fire. Soon after these signs a severe famine began, and in the same year, June 8, hordes of pagans plundered and destroyed God's temple in Lindisfarne and killed many people. "
Until recently, this date was considered to be the beginning of the so-called “Viking Age”. But in a number of modern studies we meet a slightly different point of view, so in the electronic version of the article "Age of the viking" the author writes that "... with the current influx of new information and research, our perception of the period is constantly being revised. The beginning of the Viking Age can no longer be considered 793 AD, the earliest recorded Viking raid in Western Europe, on Lindisfarne Monastery in Northumberland, as there is circumstantial evidence of earlier Viking attacks in the West. In addition, the people of today's Sweden were already involved in the expansion to the East and, most importantly, many significant characteristics of the social structure and economy of the Viking Age go back to the depths of the 8th century. However, it seems reasonable to date the beginning of the Viking Age to the end of the 8th century, or around 800 AD. e. because it was then that the violent expeditions of the Vikings and the far-reaching expansion received an impulse, and these are the first and main characteristics of the period. " Thus, we can confidently assert that the first raids took place before 793.
The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle tells that during the reign of King Britannicus (King of Wessex in 786-802), the first Danish ships appeared in England. Already in 792, Offa, king of Mercia, organized a defense in Kent against the pagans who sailed by sea in ships. And in 800, the Emperor Charlemagne organized a defense along the northern coast of France to the Seine "against the sea robbers who are teeming with the sea belonging to the Gauls." In 795, the Vikings reached Scotland and the Isle of Yona, where they attacked the monastery of the Venerable St. Columbus, and then reached Ireland. In 799, the monastery of St. Philibert was plundered on the island of Normontier at the mouth of the Loire River. In subsequent years, the Vikings raided all of the British Isles, the mainland and colonized the North Atlantic islands and regions that were almost devoid of population.
Huge, wealthy England became one of the best sources of profit and enrichment for the Vikings. They committed robberies here, extorted tribute (“Danegeldy” - “Danish money”) and acted as hired soldiers and merchants. They settled in the lands of England, engaged in agriculture, and played a large role in the founding of cities. This was the only region where they conquered already established kingdoms and established themselves on the throne, both in many small kingdoms in the 800s, and throughout England after reunification. From 1018 to 1042 (with the exception of one five-year period), England had a common king with Denmark. The historical material, which contains information about that time, is unusually rich and varied. There are many written sources, the most important of which is the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. Archaeological material is also rich and varied; a large number of geographical names, proper names and linguistic borrowings.
In addition to the already mentioned facts of the attack of the Vikings on England, there is one more evidence of their presence here until 835. This is a robbery in 794 of the Donemutan monastery, which was probably located near the mouth of the Don River in South Yorkshire. Then these Norse Viking troops went to plunder in the richer parts of Scotland and Ireland. But in 835 the Vikings again rushed to England, and the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" contains a short message: "This year the pagans laid waste to the Sheppey." - an island at the mouth of the Thames. This was the beginning of more than two hundred years of Scandinavian activity in England, with the Danes playing the main role here. In the early years, the Viking raids especially suffered from the South and East of England and, in particular, the large cities of Hamwick (now Southampton) and London. The robbery took place according to a certain pattern. First, short-term raids on the islands and various areas of the coast, which were made from fortified bases on the European mainland, from Ireland or directly from Scandinavia, and then the Vikings began to stay here for the winter. The first report of such a Scandinavian winter camp dates back to the winter of 851. The camp was located on the Isle of Thanet off the east coast of Kent. A few years later, the Vikings established a winter camp on Sheppey Island.
Soon they raided deep into England, and in 865 a detachment camped on the Isle of Thanet made peace with the inhabitants of Kent, who paid a large ransom to the Vikings. This was one of the first numerous payments made by the English to "Dangelda". Further, the Vikings increasingly invaded England. In 865, “a large army of pagans” appeared in England, about two or three thousand people. They set up a winter camp in East Anglia, received horse tribute from the locals, and then made peace with them. The following year, the army rushed to Northumbria, and on November 1, the Vikings captured the capital of the Kingdom of York, made peace with its inhabitants, elevated an obedient king to the throne and winter here. It was probably during this time that Whitby Monastery was sacked and destroyed. During archaeological excavations, metal plates ripped off from church things were found here, and the geographical names on this territory indicate that the monastic lands passed into the possession of the Vikings. In 867, the army went to Mercia and settled for the winter in Nottingham, making peace with this kingdom. In 868 the Vikings returned to York and stayed there for a year, and in 869 they crossed Mercia and headed for East Anglia. After killing King Edmund and capturing his kingdom, the Vikings winterized in Thetford. In 870 they took over Wessex.
In 871, according to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, they settled in Reading. There were nine major battles, not counting minor skirmishes, and during these battles nine jarls and one king were killed until the kingdom of Wessex made peace with the Vikings. This happened exactly in the year when King Alfred the Great became king on the Wessex throne. The constant change of winter camps by the Vikings and numerous peace treaties continued for some time. In 871-872, the Vikings settled in a camp in London, and in subsequent years in Torksey (Mercia), and this time Mercia made peace with the Vikings. But in 873-874, the Vikings set up camp at Repton, expelled the king of Mercia and put a defector on the throne in his place. This event turned out to be a turning point in the development of the further expansion of the Vikings. In 874, the Viking army split up. Hovding Halfdan with part of the army went to Northumbria, wintered by the River Tyne, captured the whole kingdom the next year and began to plunder it in the west and north.
In 876, a well-known entry appeared in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle: "This year Halfdan began to distribute the lands of the Northumbrians, and they (the Vikings) began to cultivate and harvest them." Thus, the Vikings took the land for themselves and settled on it. Halfdan himself died probably a year later. The second part of the army, which left Repton in 874 during the reign of the kings of Goodrum, Osketil and Anund, went to Cambridge and remained there for a year. The army then moved to Wessex, England's last independent kingdom, and King Alfred was forced to make peace with the Vikings. In 875-876, the Viking winter camp was at Wairham, and the following year at Exeteri. In the late summer of 877, the Vikings headed to Mercia and divided it. They established a camp at Gloucester, and immediately after the new year returned and took over most of the kingdom of Wessex. King Alfred fled. But during the spring of 878, he managed to gather an army, and at the Battle of Edington, he defeated the Vikings. At the conclusion of the peace, the Vikings promised to leave Wessex, and their king Goodrum promised to be baptized. Indeed, he was soon baptized along with thirty of his entourage from among the nobility, and King Alfred became his godfather. In 878-879 the Vikings winterized in Kirnesester.
Then they went to East Anglia, and the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle says that in 880 they settled here and began to distribute land to their fellow tribesmen. However, one group of Vikings sailed to the continent, to Ghent, and in subsequent years, Viking raids and plunders took place there. After fifteen years of nomadic life in England, the Vikings conquered three of the four kingdoms and appropriated the land on which they settled and began to cultivate it. In 886, a new treaty between Goodrum and Alfred the Great was concluded, the text of which has been preserved. It establishes the border between the kingdoms of Alfred and Goodrum (borders with other Viking kingdoms remained unchanged). The rules of peaceful coexistence were established. It is not known exactly when exactly the Vikings, who appeared in England in 865, decided to settle here. Since they initially behaved traditionally: robbed, killed, engaged in extortion. Many treasures have been found dating back to this time. But the most informative information is provided by archaeological studies of the Viking winter camp of 873-874 in Repton.
Fortress and pagan Viking graves, treasures of coins, buried in those years. Viking burials are quite numerous, about 250 people, the vast majority of whom are men. Coins, Viking swords, Thor's hammers were found in the graves. A rich burial mound of the deceased Viking Hövding was also found. This burial place was plundered in the 17th century. It can be assumed that the winter, marked by innumerable disasters, and the death of the great Hövding, caused many a desire to end the nomadic way of life and settle on earth. It was this process that began in England two years later. But at the same time, on the continent, in Western Europe, the Vikings continued to follow their traditional way of life. In 892, a large army arrived in England from Boulogne, and from the area of the Loire River, Hovding Hasting brought his army. The Vikings brought all their property with them and, probably, were also ready to settle here forever. This army received support from the English states, where the Vikings were kings, but King Alfred organized an effective defense and began to build defensive structures. He gathered an army, placed ships on the coast, specially designed for sea battles with Viking ships. Destroyed supplies in areas where Vikings set up their camps.
He won a number of victories over the Vikings. In addition, an epidemic began in England, and people sought to settle from large cities and villages. The Vikings, deprived of money and resources, sailed on their ships to the banks of the Seine. The Seine delta abounded with small islets, where the Vikings, starting in the 40s of the 9th century, moored their ships, divided the booty and planned new raids. Alfred the Great died in 899, but his successors proved to be equally capable rulers. The Vikings still remained a constant threat to the population of England, as well as to other territories. English kings, strengthening their power, often clashed with Viking rulers. Power in the kingdoms passed from hand to hand, finding itself, then the Viking kings, then the English. In Northumbria and York, until about 880, there were kings obedient to the Vikings. Then power passed to the Viking kings of all origins. Beginning in the second decade of the 10th century, Ireland was ruled mainly by kings of the Danish dynasty. They justified the legitimacy of their power by the fact that they came from the legendary Ivar, who arrived in Dublin in 857 and died in 873. His grandson married the daughter of King Edward, but died soon after. His great-grandson, Olav Godfredsson, was king of York and died in 941. He and his Scottish allies were defeated in 937 by the son of King Edward Athelstan at the Battle of Brunanburg, which was fought by many kings and Yarls, and which was glorified in both English and Scandinavian written sources.
Northumbria was once ruled by King Eric the Bloody Ax, expelled from Norway. He reigned in York until he was overthrown and killed, after which the English king Edward seized power and became king of the country. Little is known about the internal politics of the Viking kings, but just like throughout the English kingdom, power was asserted through fortified cities and fortresses, both old and new. The Vikings played a large role in the development of cities. Many fortifications that King Alfred and his descendants erected to fight the Vikings were transformed into cities, since many of the functions of the center were transferred to them, and in some fortresses they already existed. Between the two kingdoms - East Anglia and Northumbria, there was a territory occupied by the so-called "Five Burgs", which included Lincoln, Nottingham, Derby, Leicester and Stamford - the "area of Danish law" ("Danelag"). An area where the population was guided by the laws of the Scandinavians. The Viking kings showed an interest in trade. This is confirmed by the fact that they minted coins. For example, Goodrum from East Anglia, during the decade of his reign, managed to establish the minting of coins. In the first half of the 10th century, coins of a clearly Scandinavian character were minted in York, with images of swords, banners, birds, Thor's hammer, etc. The European expansion of the Vikings had a strong Scandinavian influence on the English language and many geographical names.
So in the English language there are about 600 Scandinavian borrowings, and it is characteristic that they usually refer to words associated with everyday objects, for example, a knife, a skin, a roof, a window, hurt, die. This includes a number of grammatical elements, such as plurals. The strong impact on the local language was also due to the fact that many Old English and Old Norse words were similar to each other. There are many borrowings in place names. So about 850 place names have the ending “by”, from the Norwegian “by”, (Derby, Holtby, Ormesby). And there are many endings with the Scandinavian word “torp” (thogr). The reason for the strong Scandinavian influence could be the continued contacts with Scandinavia and with the Scandinavian settlements in the British Isles, as well as the appearance of new immigrants from Scandinavia, even when the Viking troops were driven out of England during 865-899. The geographical names also indicate that the Scandinavian settlements in the east were predominantly Danish, which corresponds to the data on the presence of large detachments here, although they partly belonged to the Norwegians. Since about 900, Norwegian settlements have appeared in the north-west of England, and place names show that Norwegians and Danes settled here.
Many of them probably arrived here via Ireland, Scotland, the Isle of Man, or East Anglia. Many settlers undoubtedly converted to the Christian faith rather quickly, especially in East Anglia, where the first Viking king, Goodrum, was baptized as early as 878. Since the beginning of the 10th century, written sources no longer call the Vikings of South-East England pagans, from which we can conclude that by this time Christianity was already officially accepted here. In Northern England, the Christian church was under the yoke of paganism for a long time, as evidenced by archaeological studies of burials. Many of them were produced according to pagan ritual. The churches in the north were crumbling and falling into decay. But gradually, many Scandinavians in Northern England adopted the new faith under pressure from other converts. This time was the heyday of the art of stone carving. Most of the stone products dating back to the first half of the 10th century are crosses and tombstones in the shape of houses. In York alone, the remains of more than 500 crosses and tombstones have been found. Many of them are decorated in the Anglo-Scandinavian style. Some plots relate to famous heroic sagas or to Scandinavian mythology. Sigurd slaying the dragon Fafnir; Thor catching the Midgord snake, etc. Also speaking about the Scandinavian influence, it can be noted that in York, Skaldic art was very popular, especially during the reign of King Eric the Bloody Ax.
In the 10th century, many Scandinavians turned their eyes to Eastern Europe, which became their source of income during this time. In addition, the efforts of Western kings to defend their borders put a barrier to the belligerent aggressiveness of many Vikings. Thanks to this, these territories were temporarily spared from the expansion of the Scandinavians. But since the 80s of the 10th century, the situation has changed. The stream of Arabian silver passing through Russia has dried up. And already in 980 the Vikings reappeared on English soil. Basically, they rushed to the south and west coast of England. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle tells that in 980 Southampton was ravaged by the Vikings who arrived on seven ships, and in 983 the Vikings arrived on three ships in Portland, and it is possible that many of these troops came from Ireland. And already from 991, large Viking flotillas began to appear on the territory of England. This year Olav Tryggvesson made a campaign against England. The Chronicle says that he sailed to the shores of South-East England in 93 ships "with his Danish people." He defeated the British at the Battle of Maldon in Essex. And he mercilessly robbed the local population. The British were forced to pay a "Danegeld" of 10,000 pounds of silver in order for the Vikings to stop ravaging their lands. Since that time, each year has been marked in the Chronicle by the arrival of the Vikings and their merciless devastation of the English.
In 994, Olav Tryggvesson reappears, in alliance with the Danish king Sven Forkbeard. Their fleet consisted of 94 ships. They ravaged English settlements, tried to capture London (unsuccessfully). And they demanded 16,000 pounds of silver as a ransom. For the winter, the army set up camp at Southampton. The British concluded an agreement with Olav. He was baptized, received rich gifts, and promised not to ruin England again. Returning with the booty to Norway, Olav became king there. In 1000, due to civil strife in their homeland, the Viking campaigns stopped for a while. A year later, the Viking army reappeared. And she took the Danegeld 24,000 pounds of silver. In the years 1002-1003, Sven Forkbeard plundered large areas in South and East England. In 1006, the Vikings received from the British a "Danegeld" in the amount of 36,000 pounds. And in 1009 the Danish hoving Torkil Long came to England. Having settled on the Isle of Wight, he raided southern England from there. Shortly after Easter 1012, the Chronicle says, a huge sum of 48,000 pounds of silver was paid by the British. In 1013, Sven Forkbeard set out with a large flotilla, intending to conquer all of England. He was accompanied by his son, Knud. The army landed in Kent, and within a few months conquered the country. In February 1014, Sven Forkbeard died, and Knud was elected king. But the British gathered an army and drove the Vikings from their land.
Returning to Denmark, Knud again gathers an army, and in 1015 again sets out on a campaign. England was weakened by extortions, wars, and Knud won the big battle at Assandun. And he became in 1016 the sovereign king of England. He continued to receive tribute from the population, gradually increasing it. And in 1018 it was a huge amount - 72,000 pounds of silver. During the reign of Knud, he created a new aristocracy, from among his entourage. He carried out a redistribution of land in their favor. After the death of his brother Harald, Knud became king of Denmark, being at the same time the king of England. In 1028 he conquered Norway from St. Olav and became its king. The Scottish king submitted to him. And now Knud called himself the king of all England, Denmark, as well as the king of the Norwegians and some part of the Svei, that is, the Swedes. Knud ensured peace in England, prevented new Viking invasions. The British were satisfied with the payment of the "Danegeld", rather than the conquest of the robberies and murders of the Viking invasions. Knud respected ancient English laws and brought rich gifts to the church. After Knud's death, his empire fell apart. His children started an internecine struggle. But all died without heirs. And the half-brother of the sons of Knud, Edward, nicknamed the Confessor, became king. After his death in 1066, a new civil strife began. Jarl Harold Godwinsson became king. The King of Norway, Harald the Stern Ruler (Hardraade) also claimed the English throne. He set out on a campaign against England, but at the Battle of Stamford Bridge his army was defeated by King Harold, and he himself was killed.
Scandinavia borrowed from England, its architectural features, its saints, church terms. Events associated with England, more than ever, contributed to the involvement of Scandinavia in the international historical process.
In parallel, with attacks on England, the Vikings are raiding the Western European continent.
The first recorded invasion of the Western European continent dates back to 810. This is mentioned in the Frankish state annals, and it concerned Friesland, which then for many years was at the center of the interests of the Vikings. The Viking flotilla consisted of 200 ships. Friesland was plundered and taxed. In 820, another invasion took place. According to the annals, the Flotilla consisted of 13 ships that tried to land on the coast of Flanders, but their attack was repulsed. The coastal defense organized by Charlemagne proved to be very effective. Then they landed in the south of France, in Aquitaine, where they captured a large booty. Then the Franks resorted to another form of coastal defense. The Hovdings of the Vikings began to distribute lands near the mouths of large rivers so that they would protect them from the attack of sea robbers. So, in 826 Harald Klack received for life use on condition of service, Rüstringen, an area near the source of the Veser River, on the border between Friesland and Saxony. He was one of the Danish kings and served the Franks for a long time. After the death of Charlemagne in 814, an internecine war broke out between his children and grandchildren. The country's defense has weakened. The Vikings took advantage of this.
They in 834, and then in 835, 836 and 837 robbed Dorestad, located on the banks of the Rhine. It was one of the largest shopping centers in Northern Europe. By the middle of the 9th century, Viking campaigns are gaining momentum. And it was already impossible to stop them. In 841, the Vikings sailed up the Seine and began to demand tribute there, and then sacked Rouen. A year later, they attacked Kwentovich, the center of trade with England, and in 843, on St. John's Day, they sacked Nantes. Charlemagne's grandchildren sometimes used alliances with the Vikings to fight each other. The first information that the Viking army overwintered on the European continent dates back to 843. This happened in Normontier, and in the "Bertine Annals" it is reported that the Vikings brought their homes to the island and began to settle down, as if they were going to settle here forever. In Nantes, the Vikings were called "Westfolds", that is, "people from Vestfold," an area near the Oslofjord. The hikes are now acquiring an international character, with people from all over Scandinavia taking part in them. First of all, the West Frankish kingdom of Charles the Bald suffered from the attacks of the Vikings. But the Vikings did not leave other kingdoms alone, and now they reached the Mediterranean Sea. In 845, the Seine, Paris and even the fortifications on the Ile de Cité were plundered. Karl the Bald had to pay off the Vikings with 7,000 pounds of silver.
This was the first of his many payments to the Vikings. The Danish king Horik destroyed Hamburg in the same year. In 845, an epidemic began among the Vikings, but she was unable to stop them. The threat of war to King Horik of three Frankish kings did not help either. In 860, the monk Ermentarius of Normontier wrote about the Vikings: “The number of ships is growing. The endless stream of hordes never stops. The Vikings destroy everything in their path. Nothing can stop them. They captured Bordeaux, Perigueux, Limoges, Angoulême and Toulouse. Angers, Tours and Orleans they razed to the ground. Their countless flotilla sails up the Seine, evil is being done throughout the country. Rouen is destroyed, plundered and burned. Paris is captured, Beauvais and Millau, the fortress of Melun, razed to the ground, Chartres is besieged, Evreux and Bayeux are plundered. All cities are under siege. " The victims were not only cities, churches and monasteries. Villagers were also affected. The population was taxed to pay off the Vikings, who robbed, killed, driven into slavery. In some places they founded their settlements. In 845 they “settled peacefully on the earth” in Aquitaine. And in 850 they were provided with land for settlement after they plundered the coast of the Seine.
In 861, King Charles promised a large sum of money to a Viking army led by Veland to drive out another Viking army that had occupied one of the Seine islands. Weland laid siege to this army, and it surrendered and then disintegrated. Weland joined Karl and was baptized. But he was soon killed by another Viking. The most effective defenses against the Vikings were fortified bridges across rivers, as well as fortifying city walls and building new fortresses in the country. Charlemagne began to build them, and his heirs continued. The results were already evident during the long siege of Paris in 885-886. The Vikings were never able to take it, and they had to retreat. On some expeditions, the Vikings reached the Mediterranean. The first reliably established expedition to Spain took place in 844. At the same time, Seville was captured, but the Moors quickly recaptured it. The most famous campaign took place under the leadership of the Hovdings Björn, Jernside and Hasting. They left the Loire in 859 in 62 ships and returned only three years later, having traveled to many places, including Spain, North Africa, the Rhone Valley and Italy, and captured a lot of booty and many prisoners. They lost a lot on the way back, but the rumor about their exploits spread far. The "Bertine Annals", Arab sources and later sources of Scandinavia and Normandy tell about this.
The heirs of Charlemagne to ensure the security of the interior regions of the country, entered into agreements with the Viking hevdings, who based their bases near the mouths of the rivers. So, Harald Klak in 841 received the possession of Walcheren and other lands. And when another hoving, Rurik, began his raids in the Rhine Valley, he was given over to the possession of Dorestad and other counties. This happened in 850. After the first raids in 834-837, Dorestad was attacked again in 846, 847, 857 and 863, and soon the city lost its significance altogether. In the 70s and 80s of the 9th century, there was a period of calm when most of the Vikings were busy conquering England. But then the attacks resumed with renewed vigor. Most of their activity was great on the coast, but now they invaded into the interior of the country, into Flanders and along the course of the Rhine. So, for example, in 880 Tornau and monasteries near the Scheldt River were raided, in 881 there was an invasion of the area between the Scheldt and Somme rivers. In the Chronicle, a story dating back to 882 is preserved, in which it is reported that Hasting from the Loire attacked the coastal areas, and other Vikings burned Cologne and Trier, as well as many monasteries along the Meuse, Moselle and Rhine rivers. Then the youngest son of Louis the German, Karl the Tolstoy, who at that time bore the title of emperor, entered into an alliance with the Hövding Godfred, who was baptized and received Friesland and other lands previously owned by Rurik. This was the last time that Viking Hovding ruled Friesland.
Viking raids continued, but at the same time, more and more fortresses were erected, and the defense was strengthened more and more, and was better organized. By the end of the 9th century, the good times for the Vikings were over. In 890, the Vikings tried to take advantage of the internecine struggle in independent Brittany, but here they were defeated and went north. In 891, they were defeated by the German king Arnulf at the Battle of the Dila River, a tributary of the Scheldt. After several successful raids in 892, the Viking army went to England with their families and all their belongings, apparently intending to settle there. But in England, King Alfred organized an effective defense, and the Viking army was forced to retreat. Part of it went to East Anglia, to Northumbria, a kingdom under Viking rule, while others returned to the Seine region. Since that time, information about the presence of the Vikings on the Western European continent has almost disappeared, but some groups may have continued to be here. The last thing known is that King Rudolph of the West Franks paid tribute to them in 926. From Brittany, where the Vikings retained their power for a number of years, they were finally expelled around 937. But their power in Normandy was still strong.
In 911, King Charles the Simple gave the city of Rouen and the surrounding lands along the Seine River to the sea in the possession of Rollo's hevding and his people, paying them for protection from other Vikings. This marked the beginning of the Duchy of Normandy. Rollo and his family concentrated power in their hands and expanded their possessions, which was not possible for other Hovdings who received land in Western Europe. Gradually, many Scandinavians moved to this rich and fertile land. The first local rulers were called the Counts of Rouen. Rollo did not immediately receive the entire territory, which later became known as Normandy. This territory developed over the course of the 10th century, in the course of numerous wars. The most important conquests date back to 924 and 933. The name "Normandy" (terra Normannorum or Nortmannia) occurs for the first time in the early 11th century. This word means “land of the Normans”, which reflects the ethnic origin of its rulers. A strong and centralized government was established in Normandy.
It retained its independence until 1204, when it was conquered by the French king Philip Augustus. But it is obvious that all of its rulers recognized the formal supremacy of the French king. Rollo and his son, William Longsword, revived and fortified churches and monasteries. Rouen flourished, in part, thanks to a lively trade with the Vikings, who sold their booty here. The minting of coins resumed, and they bore the names of the Norman rulers, not the French king. In the 10th century, interest in Scandinavian culture began to fade at the Rouen court. And the supremacy of the Scandinavian language ceased even before that time. It is also characteristic that not a single ruler of Normandy after Rollo bore a Scandinavian name. Place names with Scandinavian elements, meanwhile, indicate that the Vikings arrived in Normandy from different places - mainly from Denmark, but some also from Norway and England. Such place names are found mainly in the area between Rouen and the sea, that is, in the central part of Normandy, as well as along the coast.
Today we know about the stay of the Vikings on the Western European continent, mainly thanks to written sources. There is very little archaeological data on the presence of the Vikings here. Only a few items of precious metals were found in Dorestad, a few silver hoards in Holland, and a Scandinavian burial in northern France.
Geographical discoveries and colonization
By the “Viking Age” Iceland was discovered by Irish monks, but the colonization that took place at the end of the 9th century was certainly carried out by the Norse Vikings. The first settlers were the leaders with their entourage, who fled from Norway from the despotism of King Harold, nicknamed the Fair-haired. For several centuries Iceland remained independent, ruled by powerful leaders called Godar. They met annually in the summer at meetings of the althing, which was the prototype of the first parliament. However, the Althingi could not settle the feuds of the leaders, and in 1262 Iceland submitted to the Norwegian king. It regained its independence only in 1944. In 986 Icelander Eric the Red took several hundred colonists to the southwestern coast of Greenland, which he had discovered several years earlier. They settled in the area of Vesterbygden (“western settlement”) at the edge of the ice cap on the banks of the Ameralikfjord. Even for hardy Icelanders, the harsh conditions of southern Greenland have proven difficult. Hunting, fishing and whaling, they lived in the area for approx. 400 years old. However, by about 1350 the settlements were completely abandoned. Historians have yet to find out why the colonists, who had accumulated considerable experience of life in the North, suddenly left these places. A cooling climate, a chronic grain shortage, and the almost complete isolation of Greenland from Scandinavia after the plague epidemic in the mid-14th century could probably play a major role here.
One of the most controversial issues in Scandinavian archeology and philology is related to the study of the attempts of the Greenlanders to establish a colony in North America. Two Icelandic family sagas - the Saga of Eric the Red and the Saga of the Greenlanders - detail the visit to the American coast c. 1000. According to these sources, North America was discovered by Byadni Herjulfsson, the son of the Greenlandic pioneer, but the main heroes of the sagas are Leif Eriksson, the son of Eric the Red, and Thorfinn Thordarson, nicknamed Karlsabni. Leif Eriksson's base appears to have been in L'Anso Meadow, on the far north of Newfoundland's coastline. Leif and his associates carefully surveyed the more temperate region much to the south, which he called Vinland. Karlsabni assembled a party to establish a colony in Vinland in 1004 or 1005 (the location of this colony could not be established.) The aliens met resistance from the local residents and three years later were forced to return to Greenland.
Leif's brothers Ericsson Thorstein and Thorvald also took part in the development of the New World. It is known that Thorvald was killed by the natives. The Greenlanders made journeys to America for the forest after the end of the Viking Age.
Creation of the first Viking states
It was mainly Danish Vikings who penetrated into England. In 835 they made a trip to the Thames estuary, in 851 they settled on the Sheppey and Thanet Islands in the Thames estuary, and in 865 they began the conquest of East Anglia. King Alfred the Great of Wessex eventually stopped their advance, but was forced to cede lands north of the line running from London to the northeastern outskirts of Wales. This territory, called Danelag (Region of Danish Law), was gradually recaptured by the British in the next century, but repeated Viking raids in the early 11th century. led to the restoration of the power of their king Cnut and his sons, this time over all of England. Ultimately, in 1042, as a result of a dynastic marriage, the throne passed to the British. However, even after that, the raids of the Danes continued until the end of the century.
The Norman raids on the coastal areas of the Frankish state began at the end of the 8th century. Gradually, the Scandinavians established themselves at the mouth of the Seine and other rivers in northern France. In 911, the French king Charles III the Rustic concluded a forced peace with the Norman leader Rollon and granted him Rouen with the adjacent lands, to which new territories were added a few years later. The Duchy of Rollon attracted a lot of immigrants from Scandinavia and soon received the name Normandy. The Normans adopted the language, religion and customs of the Franks.
In 1066, Duke William of Normandy, who went down in history as William the Conqueror, the illegitimate son of Robert I, a descendant of Rollon and the fifth Duke of Normandy, invaded England, defeated King Harold (and killed him) at the Battle of Hastings and took the English throne. The Normans undertook campaigns of conquest in Wales and Ireland, many of them settled in Scotland.
At the beginning of the 11th century. the Normans infiltrated southern Italy, where they fought against the Arabs in Salerno as hired soldiers. Then new settlers began to arrive here from Scandinavia, who settled in small towns, forcibly taking them away from their former employers and their neighbors. The most notorious among the Norman adventurers were the sons of Count Tancred of Hauteville, who conquered Apulia in 1042. In 1053 they defeated the army of Pope Leo IX, forcing him to make peace with them and give Apulia and Calabria as a fief. By 1071, all of southern Italy fell under the rule of the Normans. One of the sons of Tancred, Duke Robert, nicknamed Guiscard ("Sly"), supported the pope in the fight against the emperor Henry IV. Robert's brother Roger I started a war with the Arabs in Sicily. In 1061 he took Messina, but only 13 years later the island came under the rule of the Normans. Roger II united under his rule the Norman possessions in southern Italy and Sicily, and in 1130 Pope Anaclet II declared him king of Sicily, Calabria and Capua.
In Italy, as elsewhere, the Normans have demonstrated their amazing ability to adapt and assimilate in a foreign cultural environment. The Normans played an important role in the Crusades, in the history of the Kingdom of Jerusalem and other states formed by the crusaders in the East.
Choosing a name is a responsible business. Even the most ordinary people approach this issue with enthusiasm, flipping through lists of meanings of names and advice on the signs of the zodiac. In royal families, things are much more complicated. When choosing the name of the future monarch, all relatives along different lines were taken into account. Astrologers made up horoscopes, astrologers were determined by the stars ...
Often the child received the name of the previous kings - according to tradition - which was assigned a serial number (to avoid confusion). Or it consisted of the names of a good half of the ancestors. And all these efforts were in vain as soon as the child became king.
And all because the kind people immediately gave the king their nickname - depending on the appearance, the actions of the monarch during the reign, his habits, even mental abilities. And not always euphonic or beautiful. This is exactly what happened to two kings - Louis VI Tolstoy and Charles VI the Mad. But the parents chose ...
Birth of a nickname
The king's nickname could have been born in the palace corridors and city streets. A truly folk creation, it could arise overnight, or it could be selected from a dozen others describing the qualities of the king or his appearance.
Louis VI the Fat - King of France, the fifth of the Capetian dynasty. Son of King Philip I and Bertha of Holland.
Of all the nicknames of the king, one was usually left, which remained in history as the official one. Most likely there was not a single ruler without a nickname, it is just that not all of them have come down to us, although it is likely that they could be bright and original. Be that as it may, they could all be divided according to several principles.
The principle of appearance
The easiest way to earn a nickname from the people is to have something special about your appearance. The first and the simplest one is to play on the ruler's appearance. This is exactly how they got their prefixes to the official names:
Louis VI the Fat - it is clear why,
Frederick I Barbarossa - for a gorgeous red beard,
Philip IV the Handsome - apparently, for beauty by those standards,
Louis-Philippe Orleans - The Pear King and a caricature of him.
Louis Philippe d'Orléans, Pear King - the shape of the face was the reason for many cartoons, not only because of the resemblance to a pear, the fact is that the French word la poire can mean both fruit and stupidity ...
Almost everyone knows about Louis XIV - the Sun King, and there were also Harold I Hare's Paw, Sven I Forkbeard, Richard III Hunchback, William II Rufus (Red), Edward I Longshenks (Long-Legged) and ... Viking King Harald II Blue Tooth.
It may be true that he had blue teeth, but, most likely, BlueTooth is a distorted Scandinavian Bletand (dark-haired). Harald was not your typical Norwegian - he had brown eyes and black hair.
The king's hobbies
Often the reason for the assignment of the nickname was what the monarch did the most and his personal passions. William the Conqueror - fought, Enrique the Navigator - walked the seas, Henry I the Birdman - caught birds when he received the news that he had become king.
Henry of Navarre, nicknamed "Gallant Cheer".
But the first place for the originality of the nickname is shared by King Henry IV of France and King of Romania Carol II. For his demeanor, Henry of Navarre received the nickname Gallant Cheerleader. Karol II was known as the Playboy King for his romantic adventures.
He was married three times, the number of his girlfriends is legendary. In the end, the Romanian king abdicated the throne altogether and fled the country with an ordinary girl, leaving a Greek princess for her.
Personal qualities and generalizations
The nicknames received, thanks to personal qualities, have preserved the true face of their carriers for us. Brave warriors like Charles the Bold of Burgundy, Philip the Brave of Burgundy and Richard the Lionheart of England or those who suffered failures during his reign as the English king John the Landless, who lost almost all the French territories of the Plantagenets in the wars.
Charles VI the Mad - King of France since 1380, from the Valois dynasty.
Personality traits could also become a nickname for a king - good or bad: Pedro the Cruel Portuguese or Alfonso the Meek Aragonese, Pedro the Ceremonial Aragonese or Charles the Mad French.
The piety in the behavior of the monarch was especially noted: Louis the Pious of France, Istvan Saint of Hungary, Louis Saint of France. Far-sighted rulers were called Wise: Sancho the Wise of Navarre, Charles the Wise of France, Alfonso the Wise of Castile.
Lionheart and Humpty Dumpty
Humpty Dumpty is actually the real nickname of the English King Richard III, and not just a character in a famous poem. The story is also accurate. He was not loved for his ugliness, but the nickname was born after a battle in which his legs were cut off and no one from the army was able to come to his aid.
Richard III - King of England since 1483 from the York dynasty.
There were common nicknames - a whole series of Great, Just, Evil and Good Kings: Charlemagne, the Great Cnut, John the Good of France, Philip the Good of Burgundy, Charles the Evil of Navarre and others. Even the whole royal dynasty - the Lazy Kings (Merovingians) - was nicknamed for the fact that they never cut their hair.
Harold I Harepaw
The reign of this English king began in 1035 and lasted 5 years. During this time, he became famous mainly for his hunting skills and fast running, for which he was named the Hare's Paw.
Edmund II Ironside
King of England since 1016, Edmund has shown tireless courage in battles against the Danes. He found himself in the center of the battle so often that his subjects almost never saw him without armor. This made him Ironside.
John I the Posthumous
Alas, the 13th king of France died just five days after ascending to the throne, for which he was named so by the people. It is even more sad that he was proclaimed king on the same day that he was born.
Pepin III Short
The king of the Franks of the mid-8th century was nicknamed for a rather prosaic reason - he was rather short in stature.
Louis XV the Beloved
During one of the wars that fell on the long reign of the 65th king of France, Louis fell seriously ill. The people were alarmed in earnest, but when the ruler recovered, France was so delighted with his healing that she called Louis the Beloved.
Russian rulers
Our princes and kings, too, could not do without nicknames that they deserved for one reason or another.
Vasily Kosoy and Vasily II the Dark
The cousins fought for the place of the Grand Duke of Moscow for a long time. In their struggle, they did not shun self-harm. Vasily Yuryevich was blinded by the order of Vasily Vasilyevich, for which he received the nickname Squint.
Vasily II Vasilyevich Dark - the Grand Duke of Moscow since 1425, the fifth son of the Grand Duke of Vladimir and Moscow Vasily I Dmitrievich and Sophia Vitovtovna.
When Vasily II himself was captured, he was overtaken by an equivalent revenge, and he, also blinded, began to be called the Dark One.
Vladimir I Red Sun
The Grand Duke who baptized Russia had many nicknames - Saint, Great, Baptist. But more than others, Vladimir Svyatoslavich got the nickname from the epics - Red Sun.
“Vladimir Krasnoe Solnyshko and his wife Apraksia Korolevichna”. 1895. Illustration for the book "Russian epic heroes"
In folklore, he was reflected in the collective image, which was, among other things, the personification of natural phenomena.
Yury Dolgoruky
The founder of Moscow got a lot of help from various principalities. Twice he became the Grand Duke of Kiev, fought for Pereyaslavl, he himself founded many cities besides Moscow.
Yuri Vladimirovich, nicknamed Dolgoruky - Prince of Rostov-Suzdal and Grand Duke of Kiev, son of Vladimir Vsevolodovich Monomakh.
He received the nickname Dolgoruky not only for his disproportionately long arms, but also for his love of annexing the lands of weaker rulers.
Prince of Kiev Svyatoslav was nicknamed Bars by the enemies. More than once he came out victorious, having a much smaller number of troops ...
Prince Yaroslav was nicknamed the wise. Through dynastic marriages, he strengthened ties with European countries and founded a number of new cities.
Tsar Ivan IV the Terrible
Tsar of Moscow Ivan IV was called the Terrible for his cruelty, and Peter I became the Great for many great and glorious deeds.
The nicknames of the kings were given according to merit. So Alexander I quite officially from the Synod in 1814 received the prefix Blessed, Alexander II was called the Liberator, for the abolition of serfdom, and Alexander III was called the Peacemaker, because Russia did not wage wars under him.
linkIn this new series, we will talk about three women, whose fates are so closely intertwined with each other in love and hate that it is difficult to tell about each separately without mentioning the other two.
These three women are the great-greats ... grandmothers not only of the current Windsors, but also of almost all the royal dynasties of Europe.
- Sophie Princess of Palatinate, married Hanover, (1630-1714)
- Eleanor d'Albreuse Duchess of Braunschweig-Luneburg-Zell (1639 -1722)
- Sophie Dorothea Princess of Braunschweig-Zell (1666-1726)
But her turn will still come ...
I remember when I first took up this topic, I had great difficulties in understanding who is who. After all, the aristocrats did not differ in the imagination of names for children. The men are all Georgi and Ludwig, and the women are Sophie or Charlotte.
For ease of understanding, I give you this diagram:
The names of the three main characters are highlighted red and are underlined.
The first and third brothers do not play a role in our history, so, just in case, I just mentioned them so that you know what they were.
Elizabeth Stewart - "the winter queen" 
Elizabeth Stewart, daughter of King James I of England, married Frederick V, Elector of the Palatinate, with the crown of Bohemia looming on the horizon. But the Protestant spouses reigned in Prague for only a few months (only one winter), after which their army was defeated by the troops of the Habsburgs, and Bohemia withdrew to Catholic Austria. The failed monarchs had to flee, but not to their native Palatinate, but to the Netherlands. The pair were nicknamed "the winter king" and "the winter queen".
The Netherlands and western German lands in those years willingly accepted Protestant refugees from all over Europe. Most of them were merchants, artisans, farmers. Their skill and hard work came in handy after the devastating Thirty Years' War. They were given tax incentives, land, and financial assistance.
Netherlands in the 16th century, Bruegel: 
Among the refugees were many nobles, aristocrats and even monarchs in exile. They lost their lands, subjects, but did not despair. Those who had money left lived in grand style. The most famous refugee in the Netherlands was the native nephew of the "winter queen" Prince Charles - the future English king Charles II, the son of Charles I of the Stuart dynasty. The prince fled to the Netherlands from the English Civil War, during which his father was executed.
After the war, the eldest son Elizabeth - - began to rule in the Elector Palatinate. He and his brothers kept their parents in The Hague. The queen of Bohemia in exile lived like a queen and kept a large court. In the same place in The Hague in 1630 the twelfth child was born to the winter queen - "just" a girl, who was named Sophie. With age, the youngest daughter began to show great promise. The girl was distinguished from her older brothers and sisters by incredible vanity. Radiating inaccessibility and cold arrogance, Sophie was filled with the consciousness of her royal origin from the very childhood.
Sophie Princess Palatinate:
She was also very capable academically, speaking and writing in five languages, including Latin. She was interested in sciences, kept up acquaintances with scientists and philosophers. Today they would say "intellectual" about her.
Duke Georg Wilhelm of Braunschweig-Lüneburg and his younger brother Ernst August from the old Welf family ruled together the Duchy of Lüneburg (later it became known as the Kingdom of Hanover) according to a rather complex system of inheritance. But we will not dwell on this system in detail, since it has nothing to do with our history. The residence of the older brother was in the more significant (at that time) city of the duchy - Celle, and the younger one ruled in Hanover.
Georg Wilhelm, Duke of Braunschweig-Lüneburg in his youth:
His younger brother Ernst August (I couldn't find a younger photo):
Both brothers were inseparable. While the German lands lay torn to pieces, plundered and impoverished after a thirty-year war, the brothers cared little for the state of affairs in their duchy. They indulged in amusement, gambling, participation in carnivals and balls. They were constantly seen in different cities of Europe, accompanied by the most beautiful women. Especially the serenissima Venice attracted them like a magnet. Every now and then they returned to the city in the picturesque lagoon - the place of parties of the "cream of society" of that time. The brothers were mesmerized by the enchanting atmosphere of this fabulous city, cut by canal streets, with its graceful gondolas, lush carnivals and masquerades. They were patrons of the legendary Venetian brothels for an "exclusive clientele."
The elder brother, Georg Wilhelm, only laughed at the ministers of his duchy, who tried to remind him of his duties. He believed that he would still have time to sit for documents in stuffy offices. His red hair, blue eyes and cheerful disposition impressed women. A certain signora Bucolini even gave birth to a son from him, whom the duke recognized as his own, took with him to Celle, paid for his education and further contributed to his military career.
Who knows, perhaps the brothers would have led this way of life until the second coming if the ministers of the duchy had not given the 34-year-old duke a sharp ultimatum - or he would finally marry a princess equal in status and have offspring. Or his content will be cut. And although Georg Wilhelm had a solid private fortune, the duke did not want to lose income from the state treasury. After a short acquaintance with the market for worthy brides, he chose Princess Sophie of Palatinate.
Sophie Palatinate in Indian costume:
After a failed engagement with an English cousin (future King Charles II Stuart), 28-year-old Sophie lived with her older brother, Elector in the Palatinate, and raised his two children. Her favorite was Liselotte's little niece - a funny restless toddler who later became the Duchess of Orleans ..
Sophie willingly accepted Georg Wilhelm's offer. Of course, she knew that he did not love her, that he needed her only for status and for reproduction. But for the vain princess, there was no more important goal in life than to marry a noble aristocrat. Georg Wilhelm was the eldest son in the family and the reigning duke - what more could Sophie want at her "middle-aged" age for that time?
Preparations for the wedding were in full swing. "And the dress was sewn white ...". Finally, Georg Wilhelm decided to go to his beloved Venice and magnificently celebrate his separation from his bachelor life ... There is still no more or less reliable explanation for what happened next. According to some reports, he was inflamed with a passion for another beauty. According to others, he contracted an indecent illness. Or he just changed his mind about marrying Sophie. One way or another, but he did not show up for the wedding ceremony. For a proud bride, it's hard to imagine more humiliation than being rejected in such shame. But none of those around her caught the slightest hint of humiliation or disappointment on her face ... As always, proud posture and head held high.
To somehow hush up the scandal (or because of remorse?), Georg Wilhelm persuaded his younger brother Ernst August to marry his rejected bride. Ernst August, with all his love and affection for his elder brother, never lost sight of his personal gain. He agreed to his brother's proposal, but set his own conditions. In the so-called "contract of abdication" in 1658, Georg Wilhelm pledged never to marry, "live in celibacy", and announced his future children from the marriage of Ernst August and Sophie as his heirs.
This event went down in history under the name "bride exchange".
In the same 1658, Sophie married Ernst August. Although she certainly liked the boring and calculating Ernst August less than his charming, cheerful older brother. But in general, she believed that everything turned out well for her. She got married to the reigning duke. And her children in the future will inherit all the lands and the state of a single uncle ..
But she did not forget the mortal offense inflicted on her.
After the wedding, the young couple settled in Hanover, and Georg Wilhelm lived in neighboring Celle. With such geographic proximity, it was impossible to avoid frequent family gatherings. But Sophie kept her aristocratic contenance and did not show what she felt in relation to her brother-in-law, who betrayed, rejected and exchanged her as an unnecessary thing.
The energetic Sophie (now called not Palatinate, but Hanoverian) took control of the construction of the garden at Herrenhausen Palace (now the outskirts of Hanover) and hired the most talented landscape architects.
Herrenhausen Gardens are among the most famous "regular gardens" of the Baroque era in Europe:
Sophie took her pet, her little niece Liselotte, from the Palatinate to her home in Hanover from the Palatinate. Thus, they decided to protect the girl from the scenes and scandals playing out in the parental house, as well as to save her from the "harmful" influence of her mother.
In 1660, Sophie became a mother herself for the first time. She had a son, George Ludwig, the future king of England, George I. The eldest son was followed by 5 more sons and a daughter. But she loved Sophie's niece all her life, like her own daughter. Over the course of many decades, they were bound by a personal correspondence.
There were about 300-400 people killed in the battle. Catholics brought 25 thousand people to the battlefield, and their opponents - 16 thousand people. The defeated after the battle on November 8, 1620 were seized by panic, many soldiers drowned in the cold waters of the Vltava as they fled in despair from the battlefield. Friedrich Faltsky did not show restraint that day either. He left Prague Castle and settled with his family in the Old Town. The next night, he decided to flee from Prague to Wroclaw. Escaped before noon on November 9th. It was an incredible failure in such a difficult situation. He left his subjects, the stricken estates and property.
History called him the Winter King, but his contemporaries called him the same - it was predicted that he would not hold out on the Czech royal throne for more than one winter. And they were right.
On November 8, the winners gathered on the territory of the Prague Castle that he had left. There were beautiful horses in the yard, which Frederick loved so much, incl. and a Turkish stallion, a gift from the Hungarian ruler Gabor Betlen. In the third courtyard of the Prague Castle, there were boxes that the fleeing did not manage to load; they contained not only jewelry, but also an order with diamonds, which he received from his father-in-law, King James I of England.
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“He abandoned the kingdom without any significant reasons, because he had enough funds to gather the scattered people and, for example, at night and together with his generals, strike at the enemy, as the Czechs were able to,” wrote Pavel Skala from Zgorze, Czech church historian, participant in the uprising against the Habsburgs.
The question is what chances of success Friedrich had. It is only known that together with his wife he was in a hurry to Wroclaw. Perhaps he remembered how solemnly Prague met him on October 31, 1619. His entire reign was distinguished by its own characteristics.
When the estates of Ferdinand II were overthrown from the Czech throne on August 19, 1619, in order to thus get rid of the rule of the Habsburgs, they had two candidates for his place - the Saxon Elector, the Lutheran Jan Jiri and the Palatinate Elector, Calvinist Friedrich.
He was the leader of the Evangelical Union. Frederick was elected on 26 August. He was from the famous family of Wittelbachs, with whom the post of Elector was associated from the middle of the 13th century. Friedrich was easy-going and friendly.
“All we can do with Frederick is to be guided by the right advice, otherwise he will never reach the point of deciding something for himself and doing something famous. The character is delicate, secretive, timid, but very greedy and arrogant, "- in 1606 the young Count Palatine was characterized by the duke of Sedan. Friedrich had an excellent education for his time - he spoke French as well as German. He was interested in science and sports, climbed trees and went swimming. He was a handsome young man, sporty rather than intelligent.
He was barely 16 years old when he was included in the marriage policy of King James I of England, who chose Frederick for his only daughter, Elizabeth. The young man visited London in November 1612. He immediately fell in love with the graceful and dissolute Elizabeth, who was one week older than him. Instead of letting Friedrich kiss the hem of her dress, she gave him her lips with a laugh. It was a public offense. The young people got married on February 24, 1613, and in June went to Heidelberg, Palatinate.
Elizabeth was sweet, but she loved entertainment, and she was happy to spend the Palatinate money. She had a whole palace in Heidelberg. At home, the elector spoke only French. It did not even occur to her to learn German.
Her royal background was often the cause of contention with her husband - she quarreled with him over the priority of observing etiquette. For example, which of them should have a more important place at the banquet. Elizabeth gave birth to 13 children to Frederick.
Frederick was confused by his election as king. He wanted to consult with members of the Evangelical Union and his father-in-law, James I. Ultimately, he decided to accept the crown, and in early October 1619 went to Prague. It was a magnificent procession of 153 carriages.
The road was not without accidents. A large stone fell on Elizabeth's carriage, which nearly killed their first-born son Jindrich Friedrich. Elizabeth was pregnant again at that time. The trip to Prague lasted a whole week, via Cheb, atec, Louny and Bustegrad. She was full of entertainment. For example, Pan Jan Jindrich from Stampach in his estate Mashtyov ordered to build a pergola on the lawn, covered with fresh greenery, in which he laid expensive tables.
The king was courteously greeted with breakfast or lunch, carefully covered with sumptuous dishes, game, and various fish. The king, the queen and all their escort were so entertained, the king and queen himself never ceased to be amazed at such a wonderful reception. "
This was an expensive deed, because the procession consisted of 569 people, including the military, and the same class procession that met the king at the border. It was the same in Prague.
On November 4, 1619, the king was solemnly crowned, and three days later the queen. However, Frederick was not a great strategist. His upbringing did not prepare him for this, and he knew little about the art of war. He was young and inexperienced. Humanly pleasant, that's all.
He behaved quite democratically, which underestimated his authority in the eyes of the citizens of Prague. For example, in the summer of 1620, he and his wife swam in the Vltava, which caused neglect among the citizens of Prague. He often smiled, loved to dance, sports, hunting, hiking. All this spoiled the impression, as did Elizabeth's deep neckline. Frederick spent a year and a week in the Bohemian kingdom, and devoted little time to real government.
He traveled a lot - to Moravia, Silesia, Lusatia. And, of course, to his army, because the destructive war against the imperial dragged on with varying success. And he constantly raised funds for the salaries of civilian soldiers. Before the battle on White Mountain, the mercenaries were last paid on September 15, which did not raise their morale in any way. Frederick asked for financial help, and jewelry would do. He asked the bourgeoisie, and the queen asked the bourgeoisie. It all ended in fiasco - the bourgeoisie refused to lend. Negotiated with foreign ambassadors about possible assistance. He turned many against himself.
The Calvinist king in October 1619 expelled the members of the St. Vitus chapter from the church and confiscated their estates. On the advice of his preacher Abraham Skultetus, he ordered to put a guard at the door of the temple. The canon houses were taken over by Calvinist preachers. The main shrine of the country must be adapted for the royal court and the nobility. Calvinists preached in the temple three times a week.
In addition, in December 1619, under pressure from Scultetus, images and works of art began to be removed from the temple. Scultetus even burned holy relics at home in order to "cleanse the temple", because the Calvinists did not approve of the luxurious decoration of the church.
They even smashed the altar, epitaphs, statues. They were joined by some Czech Calvinists and Lutherans. This did not benefit in the eyes of many Prague residents, not only Catholics, but most importantly the new Utraquists (radical chasniks), who were in the majority in the Czech Republic. Frederick also ordered to remove the Cross from the Charles Bridge, allegedly because "the queen, passing over this bridge, could not look at that naked bathhouse attendant." Even the Hussites did not reach such an image.
However, on December 27, 1619, the kingdom splendidly celebrated the birth of the royal son, Ruprecht. The battlefield was not as great. On the day of the battle on White Mountain, November 8, 1620, the king stayed at Prague Castle, where he received the envoys of the English king, his father-in-law Jacob I. At this time, he received a dispatch from his army that the hour of battle was approaching, and it was necessary that the king should come to the army and inspire him to win.
Frederick told the English envoys that he would not go to battle. Then he had lunch. It was exactly twelve. The battle began at half past eleven. At the Strahov Gate, he met with his commanders, who fled from the battlefield without waiting for its end. Friedrich immediately understood everything.
He immediately announced the defeat to the queen, who did not want to believe it. After that, the couple, together with the court, went to Stare Mesto.
Frederick doubted whether to stay and fight or leave Prague. Pregnant Elizabeth advised to fight. The indecisive king began to retreat. And the next morning, he fled with his people in the direction of Wroclaw, earning the nickname "Rabbit".
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