The instrumental form of the concerto can be considered a genuine contribution of the Baroque, which embodied the aesthetic ideals of an era marked by sudden changes, anxiety and tense anticipation. A concert is a kind of musical play of light and shadow, a kind of construction where each component is in opposition to the other parts. With the advent of the concert, a tendency is born towards musical storytelling, towards the development of melody as a kind of language capable of conveying depths. human feelings. In fact, the etymology of the word “concertare” comes from the words “to compete”, “to fight”, although the understanding of the meaning of this musical form is also connected with “consertus” or “conserere”, which means “to harmonize”, “to put in order”, “to unite” . The etymological meanings correspond very well to the purpose of the composers, who, through the new form, contributed to an amazing advancement musical language era.

Historians consider the birth of the instrumental concerto grosso to be the 70s of the 17th century, and its origins can be traced back either to the vocal-instrumental concerto and the organ and orchestral canzone of the 16th-17th centuries, which are in many ways close to it, or to the ensemble sonata that developed in the 17th century. The named genres, along with opera, embodied the main features of the new musical style- baroque.

L. Viadana, in the preface to the collection of his concerts (Frankfurt, 1613), emphasized that the melody in the concert sounds much more clearly than in the motet, the words are not obscured by counterpoint, and the harmony, supported by the general bass of the organ, is immeasurably richer and fuller. In fact, the same phenomenon was described in 1558 by G. Zarlino: “It happens that some psalms are written in the manner of a choros pezzato (implying performance by a “divided, torn choir” - N. 3.). Such choirs are often sung in Venice during vespers and at other solemn hours and are located or divided into two or three choirs, with four voices in each.

The choirs sing alternately and sometimes together, which is especially good at the end. And since such choirs are located quite far from each other, the composer, in order to avoid dissonance between individual voices, must write in such a way that each choir separately sounds good... The basses of different choirs must always move in unison or an octave, sometimes in a third, but never in a fifth." The movement of the bass of various choirs in unison indicates the gradual formation of homophony. In parallel, the continuous imitation of the old polyphony is replaced by something related to it, but already leading into new era principle of dynamic echo - one of the first not polyphonic principles shaping.

However, an important role in musical development The imitation continued to play - often stretta-shaped, as in the old style. The rudiments of forms that will become characteristic of the future concerto grosso are noticeable. Double exposition will be especially common in concertos based on dance themes, and while in Corelli the first exposition is usually solo, in the later concerto the tutti opening is more popular. In general, double exposures are natural for concerto grosso: after all, the listener needs to imagine both sound masses from the very beginning. Obvious and the simplest way development - roll calls of two masses. And the result of the “concert dispute” should be summed up by the final tutti: so it was with Pretorius, so it will be with Bach, Handel, Vivaldi. The example from Benevoli's Mass anticipates the concerto, or ritornello, form that dominated music in the first half of the 18th century. Still not yet consensus regarding the origins of this form.

Its discoverer X. Riemann associated it with the fugue and likened the ritornello to a theme, and the solo development to an interlude. On the contrary, Schering, citing the testimony of A. Scheibe (1747), disputed the relationship of the concert form with the fugue and directly derived it from the aria with ritornello. A. Hutchings, in turn, disagrees with this: he considers the source of this form to be the sonata for trumpet with string orchestra, which existed in Bologna at the end of the 17th century and which, in his opinion, had a direct impact on the recital. Hutchings emphasizes that only after the concert's distribution did the operatic aria with ritornello acquire a finished form.

Only one thing is indisputable: in the first half of the 18th century, the concert form was found in almost all genres, and it is no coincidence that researchers consider it the main form of its time (like the sonata form in the second half of the 18th century). Being “an independent formation between monothematics and classical thematic dualism,” the concert form provided both thematic unity and the necessary degree of contrast, and also gave the performer the opportunity to demonstrate his skill in solo passages. And yet, with all their novelty, the analyzed samples directly follow from the music of the 16th century, primarily from the canzona - the ancestor of almost all later instrumental genres. It was in the instrumental canzone (canzonada sonar) that the future sonata cycle was born, and forms such as the fugue or the three-part reprise of the framing type began to crystallize (many canzones ended initial theme); The canzones were the first instrumental works to be published and, finally, here for the first time purely orchestral groups began to be compared, without the participation of voices.

It is believed that this step towards a new concerto grosso was made by G. Gabrieli, the organist of the Cathedral of St. Mark in Venice (from 1584 to 1612). Gradually, in his canzones and sonatas, not only the number of instruments and choirs increases, but also a thematic contrast arises: for example, the solemn tutti chords are contrasted with the imitative construction of one of the choirs. It is on this contrast that many forms of the early and middle Baroque will be built: entire instrumental cycles will grow out of it, and in some parts such contrasts, characteristic of the canzone, will persist until the era of Corelli and even later.

Through the canzone in instrumental music Baroque also penetrated into the form-building technique characteristic of the motet - stringing together episodes of different themes.

In general, the melody of the Baroque - be it the "mosaic" of a canzone and an early sonata or the "endless melody" of Bach and his contemporaries - always has the character of progress from a certain impulse. Different energy of the impulse determines different duration of development, but when the inertia is exhausted, cadence must begin, as happened in the canzone of the 17th century or in the polyphonic miniatures of the mature Baroque. B.V. Asafiev reflected this pattern in the famous formula i:m:t. Concert deployment overcame the closedness of this formula, rethinking the cadence, turning it into an impulse of a new deployment or endlessly delaying it with the help of ever new local impulses and modulations at the level of motivic structures (structural modulations - A. Milka's term).

Less often, sudden contrast was used, transferring development to another plane. Thus, already in Marini’s sonata, the “technique of gradual transition” characteristic of the Baroque begins to take shape: subsequent development directly follows from the previous one, even if it contains contrasting elements. As a legacy from the music of the Renaissance, the early Baroque also inherited another principle of formation: reliance on the rhythmic and intonation formulas of popular dances established in the everyday music of the Renaissance.

Mention should also be made of the “chamber” and “church” sonatas. According to historians, both genres finally took shape in the second half of the 17th century, when Legrenzi worked. The names of the genres are associated with the theory of “styles” (hereinafter, the term “style” in the understanding of the 18th century is given in quotation marks), which, in turn, was part of the aesthetics of “rhetorical rationalism” common to all Baroque art. (This term was proposed by A. Morozov in the article “Problems of European Baroque”).

Rhetoric developed in the oratorical practice of Ancient Greece and was outlined in the treatises of Aristotle and then Cicero. An important place in rhetoric was given, firstly, to "locitopici" - " common places", which helped the speaker to find, develop a topic and present it clearly and convincingly, instructively, pleasantly and touchingly, and, secondly, the "theory of styles", according to which the nature of speech changed depending on the place, subject, composition of the audience, etc. n. For baroque musicians, locitopici became a vault expressive means their art, a way to objectify individual feeling as generally known and typical. And the category of “style” helped to comprehend the diversity of genres and forms of modern times, contributed to musical aesthetics criteria of historicism (often under the guise of the word “fashion”), explained the difference between the music of different nations, highlighted individual features in the works of the largest composers of the era, and reflected the formation of performing schools.

By the end of the 17th century, the terms sonata da camera, dachiesa meant not only and not so much the place of performance, but the nature of the cycle, recorded in 1703 by de Brossard, the author of one of the very first musical dictionaries. Corelli's forty-eight cycles, combined into four opuses, largely correspond to Brossard's description: op. 1 and 3 - church sonatas, op. 2 and 4 - chamber.<...>The basic principle of construction for both types of cycle is tempo and often metric contrast. However, in a church sonata, the slow parts are usually less independent: they serve as introductions and connections to the fast ones, so their tonal plans are often open.

These slow parts consist of only a few bars or approach an instrumental arioso, are built on a continuous pulsation of piano chords, with expressive delays or imitation, sometimes even include several independent sections, separated by caesuras. The fast parts of a church sonata are usually fugues or freer concert formations with elements of imitation; later in such Allegro the fugue and concert form can be combined. In a chamber sonata, as in an orchestral or clavier suite, the parts are mostly tonally closed and structurally complete; in their forms one can trace further development elementary two- and three-part.

The theme of chimes, and especially sarabands and gavottes, is usually homophonic, often symmetrical; rudiments of sonata form are noticeable. On the contrary, allemandes and gigues often move without stopping or repeating; polyphonic elements are common in allemandes; the gigue is often imbued with the spirit of a concert. The dachiesa and dacamera sonatas are not connected by a strict compositional scheme.

All chamber concerts begin with a prelude, followed by dance pieces, only occasionally “replaced” by slow introductions or concert Allegro. Church concerts are more solemn and serious, but the rhythms of a gigue, gavotte or minuet can be heard every now and then in their themes. Considerable confusion in the genre divisions of the early 18th century is brought about by the so-called chamber concert, which had nothing in common with the suite-like sonata dacamera and, according to researchers, originated not in the chamber, but in church music Bolognese school.

We are talking about a contemporary and “twin” of the so-called Italian overture - a three-part concerto by Torelli, Albinoni and Vivaldi, a textbook description of which was left to us by I.-I. Quantz. First part " chamber concert"was usually composed in four-beat meter, in concert form; its ritornello had to be distinguished by its pomp and polyphonic richness; subsequently, a constant contrast of brilliant, heroic episodes with lyrical ones was required. The second, slow part was intended to excite and calm passions, contrasting the first in meter and tonality (minor of the same name, tonality of the first degree of kinship, minor dominant in major) and allowed a certain amount of decoration in the soloist’s part, to which all other voices were subordinate.

Finally, the third movement is again fast, but absolutely different from the first: it is much less serious, often dance-like, in three-beat meter; her ritornello is short and full of fire, but not without some flirtatiousness, general character- lively, playful; Instead of a solid polyphonic development of the first movement, there is a light homophonic accompaniment. Quantz even names the optimal duration of such a concert: the first part is 5 minutes, the second is 5-6 minutes, the third is 3-4 minutes. Of all the cycles in Baroque music, the three-part cycle was the most stable and figuratively closed form. However, even the “father” of this form, Vivaldi, often varies the genre types of individual parts. So, for example, in the two-horn “Dresden” concerto in A major (in the collected works of Vivaldi edited by F. Malipiero - volume XII, no. 48), he opens the first part of the three-part cycle, adding to the Allegro a slow frame in the character of a French overture. And in the Eighth Concerto from Volume XI of Malipiero’s collection, the third movement, unlike Quantz’s description, is a fugue.

Bach sometimes acts in a similar way: in the Brandenburg Concerto No. 2, the form of the cycle “modulates” from three-part to four-part, church, closed by a fugue. Often, parts borrowed from a suite, church sonata or operatic overture are added to a three-part cycle. In the Brandenburg Concerto No. 1 it is a minuet and a polonaise. And in the Violin Concerto in F major by G. F. Telemann, the ritornello form of the first movement is followed by a typically suite continuation: Corsicana, allegrezza (“gaiety”), scherzo, rondo, polonaise and minuet. Modulation at the cycle level is carried out through a common link - Corsicana: it is in 3/2 time, Unpocograve, but with its melodic strangeness and angularity it leads away from the traditional genre type of the slow part of the concert. Thus, one can note the increased importance of “improvisation”.

Meanwhile, Quantz, like other theorists of that time, considered one of the most important features of concerto grosso to be “clever mixtures of imitations in concert voices,” so that the ear would be attracted by one instrument or another, but at the same time all soloists would remain equal. Consequently, already during Corelli's time the concerto grosso was exposed to the influence of its brothers - the solo and rippie (without soloists) concerts. In turn, in a recital, additional soloists from the orchestra are sometimes highlighted, for example in the first part of the concert “Spring” op. 8 Vivaldi in the first episode depicting the singing of birds, the solo violin is joined by two more violins from the orchestra, and in the finale of the concert the second solo violin is introduced without any pictorial intentions - to enrich the texture.

This genre is characterized by a mixture of various concert instruments, numbering from two to eight or even more. Quantz's compatriot, Matteson, considered the number of parts in a concerto grosso excessive and likened such concerts to a table set not to satisfy hunger, but for the sake of pomp and impressiveness. “Everyone can guess,” adds Matteson thoughtfully, “that in such a dispute between instruments ... there is no shortage of images of jealousy and vindictiveness, feigned envy and hatred.” Both Quantz and Matteson came from the German concertogrosso tradition. Schering associated the Germans’ love for mixed compositions in this genre with the traditions of performing wind instruments: back in medieval Germany there was a guild of Stadtpfeifer (city musicians) who played in churches, on ceremonies, at weddings, as well as giving various signals from fortress or town hall towers.

The wind concertino, according to Schering, appears very early, almost simultaneously with the strings. His most popular model was also a trio of two oboes and "bass" unison bassoons. Sometimes oboes were replaced by flutes. The widespread use of such compositions (soon there will also be two trumpets with a timpani “bass”) is attributed not only to their acoustic merits and similarity to a string trio, but also to the authority of Lully, who in the 70s of the 17th century transferred them from French military bands to opera. The juxtapositions of three- and five-voices—purely dynamic, not timbre—excellently organize and articulate its forms. In fact, this is a further development of the techniques of the old multichoral concerto.

Following the example of Lully, Georg Muffat will use the echoes of closed masses in the developing parts of his concertigrossi; this technique will not be neglected by Corelli and his followers. However, in the 18th century, Vivaldi “discards the old understanding of concertino, which required the stylistic unity of both sound materials, and puts forward a new, colorful and programmatic, dictated by the spirit of the time. This principle itself was already known to the Venetian opera composers. Torelli and Corelli gradually developed it in their pastoral concerts. Vivaldi combined it with the poetry of solo concerts." As has often happened in the history of music, in symphonic style The colorful programmatic interpretation of the orchestra came from the theater. In turn, many overtures to operas, oratorios, and cantatas of the early 18th century turn out to be concerto grosso cycles. One of the first "Italian overtures" - to the opera "Eraclea" (1700) by A. Scarlatti - a three-part "Vivaldi" cycle.

The principle of juxtaposing sound masses was one of the fundamental principles of the Baroque orchestra, and it was not without reason that the ritornello form, based on these juxtapositions, fit so well into all genres. Its influence can be traced back in the early classicist symphonies (rarefaction of texture in the secondary part, tutti invasions - “ritornellos”, etc.), in the operas of Gluck, Rameau, and the Graun brothers. And symphonies for two orchestras, to the roll calls of which were added comparisons of concertini isolated from them, were written in Italy back in the second half of the 18th century; in everyday and program music, polychoranes were sometimes used by Haydn and Mozart.

The piano concert is one of the most significant and sought-after genres in the world of music. The genre nature of the concert, concretized by its dynamism, developed game logic, and the ability to convey deep life collisions, turned out to be very attractive to composers of various times and national traditions. Representatives of Viennese classicism, in whose work the solo instrumental concert received final crystallization.

The study of the piano concert genre determines the field of scientific interests of such musicologists as: L. N. Raaben (“Soviet instrumental concert”), I. I. Kuznetsov (“Piano concert” (on the history and theory of the genre)), M. E. . Tarakanov (“ Instrumental concert"), G. A. Orlova ("Soviet piano concert"). Essential angles the latest trends analysis of the genre, from the perspective of performing practice, is demonstrated by the works of A. V. Murga, D. I. Dyatlov, B. G. Gnilov; genre and historical aspects of the piano concerto are analyzed in scientific publications D. A. Nagina, O. V. Podkolozina, Sh. G. Paltajanyan and others. Despite the undying interest of musicologists in the concert genre, some historical as well as theoretical aspects of the problem under study require deeper study. This circumstance determined target publications: explore the features of the origin and development of the piano concerto genre. To achieve this goal, the following were identified: tasks publications:

1. Explore the genesis of the instrumental concert genre;
2. Analyze the origins of the formation and development of the piano concerto genre;
3. Reveal genre specificity piano concert.

The historical movement of music is clearly reflected in the fate of musical genres. The living connection of times is clearly manifested in the example of the instrumental concert - one of the most ancient genres of European music. According to researchers, the etymology of the word “concert” is associated with the Italian “concertare” (“agree”, “come to agreement”) or the Latin “concertare” (“dispute”, “fight”), because the relationship between the solo instrument and the orchestra contains elements of “partnership” and “rivalry”. Traditionally, a concerto is defined as a single-movement or multi-movement musical work for one or more solo instruments and orchestra.

One of the varieties of instrumental concert is the piano concerto. Since the history of the development of the piano concert cannot be separated from the genesis of the instrumental concert as a whole, we will explore the features of the origin of this unique musical genre. The origins of the piano concert go back to the distant musical past. We focus on the fact that until the end of the 17th century. The instrumental concert did not exist as an independent genre. The concept of "concert" was first discovered in musical usage XVI century This definition used to denote vocal and instrumental works. Concerts were choral spiritual compositions with instrumental accompaniment. As an example, it is advisable to name the concerts of G. Gabrieli, L. da Viadana and G. Schütz. The emergence of the instrumental concert genre is associated with the emergence of the homophonic style in music. At this stage, composers, more than ever before, sought to emphasize the leading importance of the melodic principle expressed by the solo instrument, as opposed to the accompanying orchestra. The competition between a solo musical instrument and an orchestra has actualized the importance of the virtuoso principle in the concert genre. The development of the instrumental concert was also greatly influenced by the practice of instrumental ensembles and the tradition of playing together. musical instruments, dating back to folk music playing in European culture Middle Ages.

It should be noted that during the period under study, the orchestra (in the modern sense) did not exist. Ensemble associations of musicians were popular, whose interests and preferences determined stable forms of combining instruments. Feature concert ensembles XVII century was the obligatory participation of the so-called Continuo part, which was usually assigned to the harpsichord. This instrument acted as the leader of the ensemble, its conductor, thereby cementing the overall sound. It was at this time that the main principle of concert playing penetrated into the instrumental concert genre - the principle of competition and competition. The form of competition assumed an organic connection between coordination and martial arts, a combination of the leader and the accompanying person, and the mutual coordination of their efforts. The harpsichord supported or doubled the bass voice and filled the so-called “middle floor” of the musical space. And yet the main thing was not so much in external properties concert music XVII century, as much as in the internal nature characteristic of the musical consciousness of Europeans of the period under study. The new genre of instrumental concert had many similarities with the dance suite.

Master of the instrumental concert of the 17th century. is A. Corelli - the author of the first classical examples of the Concerto Grosso genre ( big concert), based on the comparison of solo ripieno and accompanying grosso. A. Corelli's concerts, as a rule, have many parts. The composer included four to seven parts in his concerts, as well as small Adagios, which served as links between the fast parts. Musical Unity Concerto Grosso by A. Corelli was also manifested in the preservation of the main tonality throughout all movements. The music of almost all concerts of this amazing Italian master is pathetic, sometimes you can hear a lyrical melody in it, and you can feel the connections with folk origins.

A special place in the history of the development of the instrumental concert of the 17th – 18th centuries. belongs to the Italian composer, virtuoso violinist A. Vivaldi. In the concerts of this brilliant composer, a typical structure of an instrumental concert developed, which assumed a tripartite form. If in A. Corelli's Concerto Grosso a closed whole is formed by short solo episodes, then in A. Vivaldi the soloists' parts are born of an unlimited flight of imagination and take place in a free improvisational presentation. In A. Vivaldi's concertos, the scale of orchestral ritornellos increases, and the whole form takes on a new dynamic character. The creator of the solo concert strove for bright and unusual sounds, mixed timbres different instruments, often included dissonances in music.

It should be noted that A. Vivaldi’s concerts provided musicians with ample opportunities to show off their virtuoso playing and show their perfect mastery of the instrument. Certain concert dialogues arise between the soloists and other participants in the concert performance. It was in the concertos of A. Vivaldi that the alternation of solo and tutti became a generic feature of the concert Allegro. Also defining characteristic feature This form is rondality, which becomes a consequence of the life-affirming nature of the instrumental concert of the 17th - early 18th centuries. A striking example of the style of instrumental concerts by A. Vivaldi is the cycle “The Seasons”.

A new stage in the evolution of the instrumental concert is associated with the work of representatives of the late Baroque - J. S. Bach and G. F. Handel. The discoveries of these masters of musical thought in the field of instrumental concert became an insight into the distant future. The abundance of timbre contrasts, the variety of rhythmic combinations, the intense interaction of the soloist and the ensemble-orchestra - all this works to complicate and more deeply interpret the concert. So, a shining example The concert mastery of J. S. Bach is the “Brandenburg Concertos” for various instrumental compositions, the “Italian Concerto”, which established the independent significance of the clavier as a concert instrument. We focus on what exactly keyboard concerts J. S. Bach, determined the vector of development of the future piano concert. As researchers testify, J. S. Bach worked for a long time in the field of the concert genre; He carefully studied the violin concertos of Italian masters and made transcriptions of violin concertos for the clavier. Then the composer began to write his own violin concertos and arrange them. Later, J. S. Bach moved on to writing his own keyboard concertos. It should be noted that, when creating keyboard concertos, J. S. Bach follows the traditions and experience of Italian masters, which is expressed in a three-part cyclic structure, lightweight texture, melodic expressiveness and virtuosity.

The solo instrumental concert also revealed the deep vital basis of G. F. Handel’s work. It is absolutely no coincidence that in a letter to one of his friends M.I. Glinka wrote: “For concert music - Handel, Handel and Handel.” The pinnacle of the instrumental concert creativity of this amazing master is the Concerto Grosso - the great treasures of orchestral music of the 18th century. These works are distinguished by classical rigor and restraint of writing. Speaking about the festivity of this genre in G. F. Handel, one could define his style as “Handelian baroque” and characterize it as energetic, lively, brilliant with bright contrasts and an abundance of bright rhythms. G. F. Handel's concertos are strict in melody and texture, and more laconic in compositional structure. The music of Concerto Grosso is predominantly homophonic. The structure of each cycle is varied (from two to six parts); Each concert is characterized by special genre connections, a certain figurative and poetic appearance. Thus, the traditions established in concert music of the 17th century developed throughout the 18th century.

The creators of a new type of instrumental concert were representatives of Viennese classicism. It is in the work of the Viennese classics that the instrumental concert becomes a new genre of concert music, different from the previous Concerto Grosso, as well as from the solo concert of the 17th century. In the classical style, the appearance of cyclic compositions changes, a strict normative three-part cycle is established, with accentuation of the first part of the sonata Allegro.

The concert works of J. Haydn, W. A. ​​Mozart, L. van Beethoven in their sound and in the scale of development of thematic material are not inferior to their symphonies and combine the principles of solo and concert-symphonic music, which is characteristic of this genre as a whole.

Despite the fact that the instrumental concerto of the Viennese classics was related to symphonies, the genre under study is not a type of symphony. The concert in the era of classicism acts as an independent established genre with certain features. The composition of the orchestra is very important, where the fundamental string group, it is supplemented by a group of woodwinds and brass, and percussion instruments are occasionally used. The practice of continuo is practically being eliminated - keyboard instruments are leaving the main composition of the orchestra. The solo instrument (violin or piano) becomes an equal participant in the concert competition and concert dialogue. The soloist and the orchestra become closer in their performing techniques, thereby creating conditions for closer interaction. The inclusion of new themes and the variability of functions in the presentation of one theme indicate the formation of a new type of interaction between the soloist and the orchestra.

The novelty of the classical piano concerto also lay in the method of showing emotion. If the baroque instrumental concert recorded a motionless emotion, then the concert of the classical era demonstrated the transfer of affects in movement, development, and internal contrast. The stable baroque concert was replaced by a dynamic classical concert.

The depiction of the process of experiences, changes in affect, pictures of mental movements, required a special musical form. The implementation of the given semantic task was the sonata form, the functions of which were to strengthen, sharpen the initial instability and only at the end achieve equilibrium. The scale, the choice of atypical orchestral compositions, and the monumentality of the classical piano concerto cycles contributed to the intensification of the process of liberating the boundaries of the concert genre. As a result of such innovative assumptions, composers were given more opportunities to realize their own artistic ideas. It should be noted that in addition to musical dramaturgy and form, the classical piano concerto demonstrates an attitude towards cadence and thematics that is not typical for concerts of previous eras; the relationship between the soloist and the orchestra is transformed.

As researchers testify, the genre of the classical piano concert can be compared with a theatrical performance, in which the musical game logic acts as the logic of game situations, turns into the logic stage action, which allows the use of the concert genre to realize complex dramaturgy and hidden authorial subtext.

The innovation that determined the appearance of the piano concert of the classical era was also the attitude of composers and performers to cadenzas. As researchers testify, in the concert genre of the eras preceding classicism, special attention was paid to cadenzas. In the 18th century, when the art of free improvisation flourished, cadenzas were considered the “highlight” of performance. It was the cadenzas that demonstrated the creative ingenuity, as well as the virtuosity of the performer. The cadence had to correspond to the general mood of the work and include its most important themes. Every high-class virtuoso had to master this art. The ability to improvise was not only a musician’s responsibility, but also a right that he enjoyed when performing other people’s (author’s) compositions.

It should be noted that the cadenzas found in baroque instrumental concerts caused a lot of torment for inexperienced performers inexperienced in improvisation. Many performers learned the cadences in advance. Gradually, inserted cadences began to be forced out of concerts. It was during the period of Viennese classicism that a cardinal change occurred in the nature of cadence structures, which completed the transition of cadences from the framework of improvisational culture into a purely written tradition. In the established classical concert form, the cadenza, as a virtuoso solo by the performer, was an obligatory part of the form. The first step in this direction was taken by L. van Beethoven, who wrote the entire cadenza entirely in notes in his Fifth Concerto. In the piano concerto of the classical era, virtuosic, complex cadenzas were common. The beginning of the cadenza, most often, was emphasized either by a bright chord or a virtuosic passage. While this fragment of the concert was playing, the listener’s attention was sharpened many times over. The principles by which the cadence was built are concretized by elements of surprise, a bright virtuoso beginning, and showiness. When exploring the features of the formation and development of a cadence in a piano concerto, it is advisable to quote the rules from D. G. Turk’s “Piano School”: “The cadence must not only support the impression made musical piece, but, as far as possible, strengthen it. The surest way to achieve this is to present the most important main thoughts in an extremely concise manner in a cadence or to remind them with the help of turns. Therefore, the cadence should be closely connected with the piece being performed and, moreover, it should mainly draw its material from it. A cadence, like any free ornamentation, should not consist of deliberately introduced difficulties, but rather of such thoughts as correspond to the main character of the play."

The piano concerto of the classical era is a genre in which the musical theme is established, not only as a carrier of a certain expressiveness, but also as an artistic image that contains potential opportunities development. It was in piano concertos that the composers of Vienna classical school achieve the highest mastery in the field of thematic development, development, using a variety of techniques - changing tonality, harmonization, rhythm, elements of melody. Also characteristic is the division of the theme into individual motifs, which themselves undergo various transformations and are combined with each other in different ways. The thematic material of the piano concertos of the Viennese classics is distinguished by its figurative relief and individual character.

Among the most important musical sources is folk music. Relying on the riches of folk song art, representatives of the Viennese classical school came to a new understanding of melody, its functions and capabilities.

The musical themes of the piano concerts of the Viennese classics, influenced by the Italian bel canto style, are particularly unique. As G. F. Telemann stated: “Singing is the universal basis of music. Whoever undertakes the composition must sing in each part. Whoever plays instruments must be versed in singing.” Since bel canto involves a combination of a beautiful cantilena and virtuoso ornamentation, in classical piano concertos there are two types of themes: themes close to the vocal cantilena and virtuoso thematic complexes. In this regard, the soloist appears in two roles - as an inspired musician and a virtuoso performer.

Representatives of the Viennese classical school realized themselves in the genre of the piano concerto in quite interesting and diverse ways, thereby arousing interest and development of this genre in the era of romanticism, as well as in the work of composers of the 20th century.

Researchers traditionally identify the following as the most important specific properties of the piano concerto genre: game logic, virtuosity, improvisation, competition, concerto.

Genre-forming principle classical concert is a game. It is in the instrumental concert that the key components of the game are most fully realized - the opposition of different principles and competition. In musicology, the concept of game musical logic was used by E. V. Nazaikinsky. The scientist’s brilliant work (“The Logic of Musical Composition”) presents a definition of the definition under study as the logic of concert performance, the collision of various instruments and orchestral groups, various components of the musical fabric, different lines of behavior, together forming a “stereophonic”, theatrical picture of the developing action. Since the concept of play is decisive for the concert genre, let us dwell in more detail on its characteristics.

The encyclopedic literature presents the following definition of game: “game is a type of meaningful unproductive activity, where the motive lies both in its result and in the process itself.”

The game is an attribute of any musical and theatrical performance. Among modern concepts of the game, a special place is occupied by the theory of the Dutch cultural historian J. Huizinga, who considered the cultural function of the game in its historical development. The scientist’s works say that “game” is, first of all, a free activity. Playing by order is no longer a game. J. Huizinga finds the relationship between music and play through attempts to find terms common to both concepts. “The game is outside the prudence of practical life, outside the sphere of need and benefit. The same applies to musical expression and musical forms. The laws of the game operate outside the norms of reason, duty and truth. The same is true for music... In any musical activity there is a game. Whether music serves entertainment and joy, or seeks to express sublime beauty, or has a sacred liturgical purpose, it always remains a game.”

The game unfolds before the listener as a fascinating chain of events, each of which, being a response to the previous one, in turn gives rise to new responses or a new stream of thought. Game logic develops in music as playing an instrument. As the great German composer R. Schumann, “the word “play” is a very good one, since playing an instrument should be the same as playing with it. If we don’t play an instrument, we don’t play it either.”

In the concert genre, game logic is of great importance. The gradation of dynamics in the microcosm of game logic often acts as a means of contrasting comparisons, intrusions, and unexpected accents. As E.V. Nazaikinsky notes, at the compositional level, game logic can manifest itself in a special interpretation of form. Syntactically, in special “game figures.” As such “game figures”, the scientist identifies the following: change of mode, intonation trap, invasion, contestation, second cue, imperceptibly creeping repetition, cutting off blow, revolution, overlap, merger, overcoming an obstacle, stuck tone, variant pick-up, game error etc. It should be noted that participants in the game action can act as certain thematic structures, as well as small motives and short musical cues. Their combination forms the basis of instrumental game logic.

The playful nature of the piano concerto is realized through virtuosity. We focus on the fact that the defining element of virtuosity is the performing skill of the musician, who must be much better than the average performer. Virtuoso (from Italian virtuoso - from Latin Virtus - valor, talent) - a performer who masterfully masters the technique of art. The first mention of “virtuosos” is associated with Italy in the 16th – 17th centuries. This term was intended for a person who has distinguished himself in any intellectual or artistic field. The term has evolved over time, simultaneously expanding and contracting in scope. Initially, musicians were awarded this classification by being composers, theorists or famous maestros, which was more important than masterful performance.

The concert as a genre involves a publicly demonstrative manifestation of the skill of the performing musician and his virtuosity. At the same time, virtuosity is subordinated to the internal content of music and is an organic element of the artistic image. It should also be noted that virtuosity expresses nothing more than the artistic principle human personality and is part of the performing style of the musician himself. For the first time, the concert genre embodies the organic unity of virtuosity and melodiousness. Virtuosity in the soloist’s role, on the one hand, makes him a leader in dialogue with the orchestra, and on the other, contributes to the “sociability” of the concert genre itself.

An equally important principle that determines the genre nature of a piano concert is the principle of competition. It should be noted that the idea of ​​competition goes back to ancient Greece, where Olympic Games. Until now, competition determines almost all spheres of human life, contributes to creative expression, as well as creative self-realization of the individual. The principle of competition in music, in particular in an instrumental concert, does not imply confrontation “seriously”. Concert competition is a conditional situation where an atmosphere of dialogue is felt, expressed in the “communication” of the main participants in the competition. Therefore, competition in a concert is only an idealized picture of the confrontation between solo and orchestra. Competitiveness involves an alternating alternation of the soloist's remarks and the orchestra's performances, therefore some thoughts can appear both in the part of the leading participant in the competition, and in a purely orchestral presentation together with the soloist or without his participation. It should be noted that in a concert competition, as in any game action, what is important is not so much the result (who is first?), but the action itself, as the fact of the existence of such a confrontation.

Various types of relationships between orchestra and soloist, which determine specific ways of textural organization of musical material, as well as the instrumentation of a concert, are specified by the principles of concert performance. We focus on the fact that the principle of concertizing was first applied in Italy, at the turn of the 16th – 17th centuries, in the interpretation of vocal and instrumental concerts. However, based on the scientific research of the German music historian A. Schering, we can talk about a more ancient origin of this principle. According to the researcher, its origins "...can be traced back to antiquity, to the switch chant in Greek tragedy and to the psalms of the ancient Jews, which are then rediscovered in the Middle Ages as antiphora in Catholic ritual." This is an indication of the musical and dramatic origin of the concert. According to B.V. Asafiev, it is through concertizing that the instrumental dialogue characteristic of a concert is realized, based on the disclosure of impulses embedded in the thesis, the role of which can be played by a variety of elements, up to singing or “the simplest pairing of sounds,” not to mention about expanded constructions such as a melodic theme.

The concert technology, namely the interaction of the soloist with the orchestra in the concert genre, originated in the concerts of A. Vivaldi. The fundamental points are the alternation of tutti and solo, genre and programming, the use of timbre, dynamic and rhythmic means of expression. The combination of these features, in harmonious combination, increases the significance and relevance of the concert principle. It should be noted that in the era of the Viennese classics this principle changes significantly. Concerting becomes closely linked to thematic development. Improvisation by the soloist (cadence) is provided. The soloist's part has the character of ornamental virtuosity.

The implementation of free, creative self-expression in a piano concert is the principle of improvisation. This principle symbolizes the highest manifestation of the playful nature of a piano concerto. Improvization is a consequence of the spontaneous creative initiative of the performing musician. The essence of improvisation lies in new elements of interpretation of the work and aspects of musical expressiveness.

It is advisable to note that the role of performing improvisation was great in the activities of musicians of the 17th - first half of the 18th centuries. According to the practice of that time, the pianist was supposed to use the motives of previous music in a relaxed improvisation, but he could also weave new, extraneous themes into it. In instrumental concerts of this era, there are musical episodes where the orchestra is silent, and the soloist gets the opportunity to show his skill and imagination. It is known that both W. A. ​​Mozart and L. van Beethoven were great improvisers, which was reflected in their piano concertos.

The speed of artistic reaction, the brightness of suddenly appearing images, the ingenuity in their acute change are qualities that an improviser must have. The soloist's introductions, sudden variational coverage of themes, their comparisons, contrasts of harmony and orchestral color are marked by improvisational surprise. But these changes are held together by wise musical logic. The improvisational nature is also characteristic of the cadenzas of a classical concerto, but the principle of improvisation in the cadenzas of a classical piano concerto was strictly regulated.

Thus, having examined the features of the origin and development of the piano concert, as well as analyzing the specifics of its genre nature, we came to the conclusion that the piano concert is one of the largest monumental genres of instrumental music. The emergence of the genre under study is associated with the emergence of a homophonic style in music. The crystallization of the main genre features of the concert (multi-part contrasting structure, the principle of competition and improvisation, vivid imagery) was carried out in the Baroque era (the works of A. Vivaldi, A. Corelli, J. S. Bach, G. F. Handel). A new milestone in the history of the development of the piano concert genre was opened by the masters of “Viennese classicism” (J. Haydn, W. A. ​​Mozart, L. van Beethoven). The piano concert of these innovators of musical vocabulary is distinguished by the scale of its concept, the dramatization of musical images, the brightness of the melodies, the symphonic development of thematic material, and virtuosity with a great organic connection between the soloist and the orchestra. The genre essence of the piano concert is concretized by the following principles: game logic, virtuosity, improvisation, competition, concerto. The identified principles determine not only the features of the structure and content of the concert, but also form the field of tasks and methods for solving them in the pianist’s performing practice.

The results presented in the work do not claim to be a complete study of the analyzed problem and suggest further development. It is advisable to study the features of the implementation of the genre nature of the concert using specific examples of concert works by classical composers, as well as representatives of musical culture of the second half of the 19th – early 21st centuries.

LITERATURE

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2. Asafiev B.V. Musical form as a process / B.V. Asafiev. – Ed. 2nd. – M.: Music, Leningrad. department, 1971. – 373 p.
3. Badura-Skoda E. Interpretation of Mozart / E. Badura-Skoda, P. Badura-Skoda. – M.: Music, 1972. – 373 p.
4. Great Soviet Encyclopedia / ch. ed. B. A. Vvedensky. – Ed. 2nd, rev. and additional – M.: TSB, 1954. – T. 28. – 664 p.
5. Druskin M. S. Mozart’s piano concertos / M. S. Druskin. – Ed. 2nd. – M.: Muzgiz, 1959. – 63 p.
6. Musical encyclopedic dictionary / ch. ed. G. V. Keldysh. – M.: Sov. encycl., 1990. – 672 p.
7. Nazaikinsky E.V. Logic of musical composition / E.V. Nazaikinsky. – M.: Muzyka, 1982. – 320 p.
8. Rosenschild K. K. History foreign music: until the middle of the 18th century / K. K. Rosenschild. – Ed. 3rd, rev. and additional – Vol. 1. – M.: Muzyka, 1973. – 375 p.
9. Tarakanov M. E. Instrumental concert / M. E. Tarakanov. – M.: Knowledge, 1986. – 55 p.
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PRISCHEPA N. A. PIANO CONCERT: HISTORY, THEORY OF THE ISSUE

This publication presents an analysis of the piano concerto genre as a type of instrumental music. The features of the historical development of the genre under study are outlined. The structural and genre features of the concert are identified and analyzed.

Key words: piano concerto, genre, structure, musical form.

PRISCHEPA N. A. PIANO CONCERTO: HISTORY, THEORY OF THE QUESTION

The article deals with the analysis of the piano concerto genre as a form of instrumental music. The characteristics of the genre development are defined. Structural-and-genre characteristics of the piano concerto are analyzed.

Key words: piano concerto, genre, structure, musical form.

Visitors to the halls of the Philharmonic are familiar with the special, upbeat atmosphere that reigns during a concert of instrumental music. The way a soloist competes with an entire orchestral group is captivating. The specificity and complexity of the genre lies in the fact that the soloist must constantly prove the superiority of his instrument over others participating in the concert.

The concept of an instrumental concert, specifics

Basically, concertos are written for instruments rich in their sound capabilities - violin, piano, cello. Composers try to give concerts a virtuosic character in order to maximize the artistic capabilities and technical virtuosity of the chosen instrument.

However, an instrumental concert assumes not only a competitive nature, but also precise coordination between the performers of the solo and accompanying parts. Contains contradictory tendencies:

• Unlocking the capabilities of one instrument versus a whole orchestra.
• Perfection and consistency of the complete ensemble.

Perhaps the specificity of the concept of “concert” has a double meaning, and all because of the dual origin of the word:

1. Concertare (from Latin) - “to compete”;
2. Concerto (from Italian), concertus (from Latin), koncert (from German) - “concord”, “harmony”.

Thus, an “instrumental concert” in the general sense of the concept is a musical work performed by one or more solo instruments with orchestral accompaniment, where a smaller part of those taking part opposes a larger part or the entire orchestra. Accordingly, instrumental “relationships” are built on partnership and competition in order to provide an opportunity for each of the soloists to demonstrate virtuosity in performance.

History of the genre

In the 16th century, the word “concert” was first used to denote vocal and instrumental works. The history of the concert as a form of ensemble playing has ancient roots. Joint performance on several instruments with a clear promotion of the solo “voice” is found in the music of many nations, but initially these were polyphonic sacred compositions with instrumental accompaniment, written for cathedrals and churches.

Until the middle of the 17th century, the concepts of “concert” and “concert” referred to vocal-instrumental works, and in the 2nd half of the 17th century strictly instrumental concerts already appeared (first in Bologna, then in Venice and Rome), and this name was assigned to chamber concerts. compositions for several instruments and changed its name to concerto grosso (“big concert”).

The first founder of the concert form is considered to be the Italian violinist and composer Arcangelo Corelli; he wrote a concert in three parts at the end of the 17th century, in which there was a division into solo and accompanying instruments. Then in the 18th-19th centuries there was a further development of the concert form, where the most popular were piano, violin, and cello performances.

Instrumental concert in the 19th-20th centuries

The history of the concert as a form of ensemble playing has ancient roots. The concert genre has gone through a long path of development and formation, obeying the stylistic trends of the time.

The concerto experienced its new birth in the works of Vivaldi, Bach, Beethoven, Mendelssohn, Rubinstein, Mozart, Servais, Handel and others. Vivaldi's concert work consists of three parts, of which the two extreme ones are quite fast, they surround the middle one - the slow one. Gradually, the harpsichord, occupying the solo position, is replaced by the orchestra. Beethoven in his works brought the concert closer to a symphony, in which the parts merged into one continuous composition.

Until the 18th century, the composition of the orchestra was, as a rule, random, mostly strings, and composer's creativity directly depended on the composition of the orchestra. Subsequently, the formation of permanent orchestras, the development and search for a universal orchestral composition contributed to the formation of the concert genre and symphony, and the musical works performed began to be called classical. Thus, when talking about an instrumental performance of classical music, we mean a concert of classical music.

Philharmonic Society

In the 19th century, symphonic music actively developed in the countries of Europe and America, and for its widespread public propaganda, state philharmonic societies began to be created, promoting the development musical art. The main task of such societies, in addition to propaganda, was to promote development and organize concerts.

The word "philharmonic" comes from two components of the Greek language:

The Philharmonic today is an institution, usually a state one, which sets itself the task of organizing concerts, promoting highly artistic musical works and performing skills. A concert at the Philharmonic is a specially organized event aimed at introducing classical music, symphony orchestras, instrumentalists and vocalists. Also in the philharmonic societies you can enjoy musical folklore, including songs and dances.

Concert as a musical genre

Concert (from lat. – competition)- a musical genre based on the contrasting opposition of the parts of a soloist, several soloists, and a minority of performers to the entire ensemble.

There are concerts for one or more instruments with orchestra, for orchestra, and for unaccompanied choir. Works called"concerts", first appeared at the endXVI century. In Italy. As a rule, these were vocal polyphonic pieces, but instruments could also participate in their performance. INXVIIV. was called a concert vocal works for voice accompanied by instrumental accompaniment. In Russia inXVII-XVIIIcenturies a special type of concert was formed -unaccompanied polyphonic choral work .

The principle of “competition” gradually penetrated into purely instrumental music. The juxtaposition of the entire ensemble (tutti) with several instruments (solo) became the basis of the concerto grosso - a genre that became widespread in the Baroque era (the pinnacle examples of the concerto grosso belong toA. Corelli, A. Vivaldi, J. S. Bach, G. F. Handel).

In the Baroque era, a type of solo concert for clavier, violin and other instruments accompanied by an orchestra also developed. In creativityW. A. ​​Mozart, L. Beethoventhe type of instrumental concerto for a solo instrument/common with an orchestra received its classical embodiment. In the first movement, the themes are first presented by the orchestra, then by the soloist and the orchestra; shortly before the end of the first movement, a cadenza appears - a free improvisation by the soloist. The tempo of the first movement is usually agile. The second part is slow. Her music expresses sublime thought and contemplation. The third part - the finale - is fast, cheerful, often associated with folk genre sources. This is how many concerts are built,created by composersXIX-XXcenturies

For example, P. I. Tchaikovsky in his famous1st concertfor piano and orchestra uses a three-part cycle form.In the first partpathetic and lyrical-dramatic images are combined. The composer based its main theme on the melody of the lyre players (blind singers accompanying themselves on the lyre). The second part is lyrical in nature. In the third, Tchaikovsky recreates a picture of festive fun, using the Ukrainian folk song-vesnyanka.

The development of the instrumental concert in the work of romantic composers went in two directions: on the one hand, the concert in its scale, musical images came closer to the symphony (for example, in I. Brahms), on the other hand, the purely virtuosic element intensified (in the violin concertos of N. Paganini).

In Russian classical music, the instrumental concert genre received a unique and deeply national interpretation in the piano concertos of Tchaikovsky andS.V. Rachmaninov, in the violin concertos of A.K. Glazunov and P.I. Tchaikovsky.

Abstract on the topic:

Concert (work)

Concert(Italian concerto from lat. concertus) - a musical composition written for one or more instruments, with orchestral accompaniment, in order to enable soloists to show virtuosity in performance. A concerto written for 2 instruments is called double, for 3 instruments it is called triple. In such Concerts the orchestra has secondary importance and only in acting out (tutti) does it acquire independent meaning. A concert in which the orchestra has great symphonic significance is called symphonic.

The concert usually consists of 3 parts (the outer parts are in fast motion). In the 18th century, a symphony in which many of the instruments played solo in places was called concerto grosso. Later, a symphony in which one instrument received more independent significance in comparison with others began to be called symphonique concertante, concertirende simfonie.

The word "concert", as the name of a musical composition, appeared in Italy at the end of the 16th century. The concert in three parts appeared at the end of the 17th century. The Italian Arcangelo Corelli is considered the founder of this form of the Concerto, from which it developed in the 18th and 19th centuries. K. for different instruments. The most popular are violin, cello and piano concertos. Later, Concertos were written by Bach, Mozart, Beethoven, Schumann, Mendelssohn, Tchaikovsky, Davydov, Rubinstein, Viotti, Paganini, Vietang, Bruch, Wieniawski, Ernst, Servais, Litolf and others.

A small-sized concert in which parts are merged is called concertina.

A classical concert is also a public meeting in halls with special sound acoustics, in which a number of vocal or instrumental works are performed. Depending on the program, the Concert receives the name: symphonic (in which mainly orchestral works are performed), spiritual, historical (composed of works from different eras). A concert is also called an academy when the performers, both solo and in the orchestra, are first-rate artists.

in the Concerto there are 2 “competing” parts between the soloist and the orchestra, this can be called a competition.

When writing this article, material from Encyclopedic Dictionary Brockhaus and Efron (1890-1907).