Brief description of the European Middle Ages. The essence of medieval culture and worldview. Medieval European culture

The Middle Ages in the history of Western Europe span more than a millennium - from the 5th to the 16th centuries. In this period, the stages of the early (V-IX centuries), mature, or classical (X-XIII centuries) and late (XIV-XVI centuries) Middle Ages are usually distinguished. From the point of view of socio-economic relations, this period corresponds to feudalism.

Until recently, the Middle Ages was often perceived as something dark and gloomy, filled with violence and cruelty. bloody wars and passions. It was associated with a certain savagery and backwardness, stagnation or failure in history, with a complete absence of anything bright and joyful.

Creating an image "Dark Middle Ages" The representatives of this era themselves contributed in many ways, and above all writers, poets, historians, religious thinkers and statesmen. In their works, writings and testimonies, they often depicted quite gloomy picture their modern life. In their descriptions there is no optimism and joy of being, no satisfaction from life, no desire to improve the existing world, no hope for the possibility of achieving happiness, peace and well-being in it.

On the contrary, there is deep pessimism, complaints are constantly heard about life, which brings only disasters and suffering, the motive of fear of it and fatigue prevails, a feeling of defenselessness and deprivation is expressed, a feeling of the approaching end of the world, etc. Hence special attention to the theme of death, which acts as a way to get rid of the unbearable hardships of life. Medieval authors write about a sincere desire to quickly leave this mortal earthly world and go to the other world, where only it is possible to achieve happiness, bliss and peace.

To an even greater extent, poets, writers, philosophers and thinkers contributed to the creation of the image of the “dark Middle Ages” . It was they who declared the Middle Ages a “dark night” in the history of mankind, and the Renaissance that followed it as a “dawn”, a “bright day”, an awakening to life after a thousand years of hibernation.

The Middle Ages for them appeared as completely fruitless, wasted centuries. They also accused the Middle Ages of only destroying and not preserving anything of the great achievements ancient culture. From here followed the logical conclusion about the complete rejection of the Middle Ages and the revival of Antiquity, about the restoration of the interrupted connection of times.

In fact, everything was much more complicated, not so simple, unambiguous and monochromatic. Recently, views and assessments of the Middle Ages have become more and more adequate and objective, although some authors go to the other extreme, idealizing the Middle Ages.

In the Middle Ages, as in other eras, complex and contradictory processes took place on the European continent, one of the main results of which was the emergence of European states and the entire West in its modern form. Of course, the leader of world history and culture in this era was not the Western world, but semi-eastern Byzantium and eastern China, however, important events also took place in the Western world. As for the relationship between ancient and medieval cultures, in certain areas (science, philosophy, art) the Middle Ages were inferior to Antiquity, but overall it meant undoubted progress.

It turned out to be the most difficult and stormy stage of the early Middle Ages, when the new, Western world was born. Its emergence was due to the collapse of the Western Roman Empire (5th century), which in turn was caused by its deep internal crisis, as well as the Great Migration of Peoples, or the invasion of barbarian tribes - the Goths, Franks, Alemanni, etc. From IV to IX centuries. there was a transition from the “Roman world” to the “Christian world”, with which Western Europe arose.

The Western, “Christian world” was born not as a result of the destruction of the “Roman world”, but in the process of merging the Roman and barbarian worlds, although it was accompanied by serious costs - destruction, violence and cruelty, the loss of many important achievements of ancient culture and civilization. In particular, the previously achieved level of statehood was seriously damaged, since those that arose in the 6th century. barbarian states - the kingdoms of the Visigoths (Spain), the Ostrogoths (northern Italy), the Franks (France), the Anglo-Saxon kingdom (England) - were fragile and therefore short-lived.

The most powerful of them was the Frankish state, founded at the end of the 5th century. King Clovis and transformed under Charlemagne (800) into a huge empire, which, however, by the middle of the 9th century. also broke up. However, at the stage of the mature Middle Ages (X-XI centuries) all the main European states took shape - England, Germany, France, Spain, Italy - in their modern form.

Many ancient cities were also seriously damaged: some of them were destroyed, while others faded away due to the decline of trade or due to changes in the directions of trade routes. At the early stage of the Middle Ages, the level of development of many crafts dropped noticeably, and the entire economy became agrarian, in which the subsistence type of economy predominated. A certain stagnation was observed in the development of science and philosophy.

At the same time, in some areas of life, already at the early stage of the Middle Ages, there were progressive changes. IN social development The main positive change was the abolition of slavery, which eliminated the unnatural situation in which a huge part of people were legally and actually excluded from the category of people.

If theoretical knowledge successfully developed in Antiquity, the Middle Ages opened up more scope for applications of machines and technical inventions. This was a direct consequence of the abolition of slavery. In Antiquity, the main source of energy was the muscular power of slaves. When this source disappeared, the question arose about searching for other sources. Therefore, already in the 6th century. Water energy begins to be used thanks to the use of a water wheel, and in the 12th century. A windmill using wind energy appears.

Water and windmills made it possible to perform a variety of types of work: grinding grain, sifting flour, raising water for irrigation, felting and beating cloth in water, sawing logs, using a mechanical hammer in a forge, drawing wire, etc. The invention of the steering wheel accelerated the progress of water transport, which in turn led to a revolution in trade. The development of trade was also facilitated by the construction of canals and the use of sluices with gates.

Positive changes occurred in other areas of culture. Most of them were somehow related to , which formed the foundation of the entire way of medieval life and permeated all its aspects. It proclaimed the equality of all people before God, which greatly contributed to the elimination of slavery.

Antiquity strove for the ideal of a person in which soul and body would be in harmony. However, the body was much more fortunate in realizing this ideal, especially if we keep in mind Roman culture. Taking into account the bitter lessons of Roman society, in which a peculiar cult of physical pleasures and pleasures had developed, Christianity gave clear preference to the soul, the spiritual principle in man. It calls a person to self-restraint in everything, to voluntary asceticism, to suppress the sensual, physical attractions of the body.

Proclaiming the unconditional primacy of the spiritual over the physical, placing emphasis on the inner world of man, Christianity did a lot to form a person’s deep spirituality and his moral elevation.

Main moral values Christianity are faith, hope and love. They are closely related to each other and transform into one another. However, the main one among them is Love, which means, first of all, a spiritual connection and love for God and which is opposed to physical and carnal love, which is declared sinful and base. At the same time, Christian love extends to all “neighbors,” including those who not only do not reciprocate, but also show hatred and hostility. Christ urges: “Love your enemies, bless those who curse you and persecute you.”

Love for God makes faith in Him natural, easy and simple, not requiring any effort. Faith means a special state of mind that does not require any evidence, arguments or facts. Such faith, in turn, easily and naturally turns into love for God. Hope in Christianity means the idea of ​​salvation, which is central to many religions.

In Christianity, this idea has several meanings: salvation from evil in earthly life in this world, deliverance from the fate of going to hell at the future Last Judgment, stay in paradise in the other world as a fair reward for faith and love. Not everyone will be worthy of salvation, but only the righteous. who strictly follows the commandments of Christ. Among commandments - suppression of pride and greed, which are the main sources of evil, repentance for sins, humility, patience, non-resistance to evil by violence, demands not to kill, not to take someone else’s, not to commit adultery, to honor parents and many other moral norms and laws, the observance of which gives hope for salvation from the torment of hell.

The dominance of religion did not make the culture completely homogeneous. On the contrary, one of the important features of medieval culture is precisely the emergence in it of very specific subcultures, caused by the strict division of society into three classes: the clergy, the feudal aristocracy and the third estate.

Clergy was considered the highest class, it was divided into white - the priesthood - and black - monasticism. He was in charge of “heavenly matters”, caring for faith and spiritual life. It was precisely this, especially monasticism, that most fully embodied Christian ideals and values. However, it was also far from unity, as evidenced by the differences in the understanding of Christianity between the orders that existed in monasticism.

Benedict of Nursia, the founder of the Benedictine Order, opposed the extremes of hermitage, abstinence and asceticism, was quite tolerant of property and wealth, highly valued physical wealth, especially agriculture and gardening, believing that the monastic community should not only fully provide itself with everything necessary, but also help in this entire district, showing an example of active Christian charity. Some communities of this order highly valued education and encouraged not only physical, but also mental work, in particular the development of agronomic and medical knowledge.

On the contrary, Francis of Assisi - the founder of the Franciscan Order, the order of mendicant monks - called for extreme asceticism, preached complete, holy poverty, because the ownership of any property requires its protection, i.e. the use of force, and this contradicts the moral principles of Christianity. He saw the ideal of complete poverty and carelessness in the life of birds.

The second most important layer was aristocracy, which acted mainly in the form of chivalry. The aristocracy was in charge of “earthly matters,” and, above all, state tasks to preserve and strengthen peace, protect the people from oppression, maintain the faith and the Church, etc. Although the culture of this layer is closely related to Christianity, it differs significantly from the culture of the clergy.

Like monastics, in the Middle Ages there were knightly orders. One of the main tasks facing them was the struggle for faith, which more than once took the form crusades. Knights also carried out other duties, to one degree or another related to faith.

However, a significant part of knightly ideals, norms and values ​​were secular in nature. For a knight, such virtues as strength, courage, generosity and nobility were considered mandatory. He had to strive for glory by performing feats of arms or achieving success in knightly tournaments. He was also required to have external physical beauty, which was at odds with the Christian disdain for the body. The main knightly virtues were honor, fidelity to duty and noble love for the Beautiful Lady. Love for a Lady presupposed refined aesthetic forms, but it was not at all platonic, which was also condemned by the Church and the clergy.

The lowest stratum of medieval society was third estate, which included peasants, artisans, and the trading and usurious bourgeoisie. The culture of this class also had a unique originality that sharply distinguished it from the culture of the upper classes. It was in it that the elements of barbaric paganism and idolatry were preserved for the longest time.

Ordinary people were not too scrupulous in observing strict Christian frameworks; they quite often mixed the “divine” with the “human.” They knew how to sincerely and carefreely rejoice and have fun, giving themselves to this with all their soul and body. The common people created a special laughter culture, the originality of which was especially clearly manifested during folk holidays and carnivals, when the seething streams of general fun, jokes and games, bursts of laughter leave no room for anything official, serious and lofty.

Along with religion, other areas of spiritual culture existed and developed in the Middle Ages, including philosophy and science. The highest medieval science was theology, or theology. It was theology that possessed the truth, which rested on Divine Revelation.

Philosophy was declared the handmaiden of theology. But even under these conditions, philosophical thought moved forward. Two trends can be distinguished in its development.

The first sought to bring together as much as possible and even dissolve philosophy in theology. This philosophy is called scholastics, since its main task was not the search and increment of new knowledge, but the “school” development of what had already been accumulated. However, this approach brought tangible benefits, thanks to it, the heritage of ancient thinkers was preserved, it contributed to the improvement and deepening logical thinking. At the same time, theology itself became more and more rational: it was not content with simple faith in the dogmas of religion, but sought to logically substantiate and prove them. One of the main representatives of this trend was the Dominican Thomas Aquinas (13th century). who developed the Christian concept of Aristotle's philosophy, formulated five proofs of the existence of God.

The second tendency, on the contrary, sought to take philosophy beyond the scope of theology, to assert the independence and intrinsic value of science in general and natural science in particular. A prominent representative of this trend was the Franciscan Roger Bacon (13th century). who made significant contributions to the development of philosophy, mathematics and natural science. We can say that he did the same thing three centuries earlier than his more famous namesake Francis Bacon, who became the founder of modern science and philosophy.

Fine artistic culture achieved greater success in the Middle Ages, where architecture was the leading and synthesizing art.

The evolution of medieval art marked by profound changes. IN early Middle Ages The leading position is occupied by the art of the Franks, since the Frankish state occupied almost the entire territory of Europe during this period. Art of the V-VIII centuries. often called Merovingian art, since the Merovingian dynasty was in power at that time.

By its nature, this art was still barbaric, pre-Christian, for elements of paganism and idolatry clearly predominated in it. The greatest development during this period was naturalart, associated with the manufacture of clothing, weapons, horse harness and other products decorated with buckles, pendants, patterns and ornaments. The style of such jewelry is called animalistic, since its peculiarity is that images of strange animals are woven into intricate patterns.

Also becoming widespread miniature - book illustrations. The monasteries had special workshops - “scriptoria”, where books - liturgical books and Gospels - were written and decorated. Books of secular content were rare. The miniatures were primarily ornamental rather than pictorial in nature.

As for architecture, little has survived from the Frankish architects of this time: several small churches on the territory of modern France. In general, among the earliest surviving monuments of barbarian architecture, the tomb of the Ostrogothic king Theodoric (520-530), built in Ravenna, stands out. It is a small two-story round building in which laconicism and simplicity of appearance are combined with severity and majesty.

The art of the early Middle Ages reached its greatest flowering under the Carolingians (8th-9th centuries), who replaced the Merovingian dynasty, and especially under Charlemagne, the legendary hero of the epic poem “The Song of Roland.”

During this period, medieval art actively turned to the ancient heritage, consistently overcoming the barbaric character. That's why this time is sometimes called "Carolingian Revival". Charlemagne played a special role in this process. He created a real cultural and educational center at his court, calling it Academy, surrounded himself with outstanding scientists, philosophers, poets and artists, with whom he mastered and developed science and art. Karl contributed in every possible way to the restoration of strong ties with ancient culture.

A significant number of architectural monuments have been preserved from the Carolingian era. One of them is the wonderful Charlemagne Cathedral in Aachen (800), which is an octagonal structure covered with an octagonal dome.

In this era, book miniatures continue to develop successfully. which is distinguished by decorative pomp and bright colors, generous use of gold and purple. The content of the miniatures remains mainly religious, although at the end of the early Middle Ages narrative subjects are increasingly encountered: hunting, plowing, etc. After the collapse of the Carolingian Empire and the formation of England and France. In Germany and Italy, as independent states, medieval art entered a new era.

Start mature period of the Middle Ages- The 10th century turned out to be extremely difficult and difficult, which was caused by the invasions of the Hungarians, Saracens and especially the Normans. Therefore, the emerging new states experienced a deep crisis and decline. Art was in the same situation. However, by the end of the 10th century. the situation is gradually returning to normal, feudal relations finally win, and revival and growth are observed in all spheres of life, including art.

In the XI-XII centuries. The role of monasteries, which become the main centers of culture, increases significantly. It is under them that schools, libraries and book workshops are created. Monasteries are the main customers of works of art. Therefore, all the culture and art of these centuries is sometimes called monastic.

In general, the stage of the new rise of art received the conventional name "Romanesque period". It occurs in the 11th-12th centuries, although in Italy and Germany it also extends to the 13th century, and in France in the second half of the 12th century. Gothic already reigns supreme. In this period architecture finally becoming the leading form of art - with a clear predominance of religious, church and temple buildings. It develops on the basis of the achievements of the Carolingians, being influenced by ancient and Byzantine architecture. The main type of building is the increasingly complex basilica.

The essence of the Romanesque style is geometricism, the dominance of vertical and horizontal lines, the simplest figures of geometry in the presence of large planes. Arches are widely used in buildings, and windows and doors are made narrow. Appearance the buildings are distinguished by clarity and simplicity, majesty and severity, which are complemented by severity and sometimes gloom. Columns without stable orders are often used, which also perform a decorative rather than constructive function.

The Romanesque style was most widespread in France. Here, the most outstanding monuments of Romanesque architecture include the Church of Cluny (11th century), as well as the Church of Notre-Dame du Port in Clermont-Ferrand (12th century). Both buildings successfully combine simplicity and grace, severity and splendor.

Secular architecture of the Romanesque style is clearly inferior to church architecture. Its shape is too simple and there are almost no decorative ornaments. Here the main type of building is a castle-fortress, which serves both as a home and a defensive shelter for the feudal knight. Most often this is a courtyard with a tower in the center. The appearance of such a structure looks warlike and wary, gloomy and threatening. An example of such a building is the castle of Chateau Gaillard on the Seine (XII century), which has reached us in ruins.

In Italy, a wonderful monument of Romanesque architecture is the cathedral ensemble in Pisa (XII-XIV centuries). It includes a grandiose five-nave basilica with a flat roof, the famous "Falling tower", as well as a baptistery intended for baptisms. All buildings of the ensemble are distinguished by their severity and harmony of forms. Another magnificent monument is the Church of Sant'Ambrogio in Milan, which has a simple yet impressive façade.

IN Germany Romanesque architecture develops under the influence of French and Italian. Its peak flourished in the 12th century. The most remarkable cathedrals were concentrated in the cities of the Middle Rhine: Worms. Mainz and Speyer. Despite all the differences, their appearance has many common features, and above all, the upward direction created by the high towers located on the western and eastern sides. The cathedral in Worms stands out in particular; it looks like a ship: in the center there is the largest tower, in the east it has a protruding semicircle of the apse, and in the western and eastern parts there are four more tall towers.

TO beginning of XIII V. the Romanesque period of medieval culture ends and gives way Gothic period. The term “Gothic” is also conventional. It arose during the Renaissance and expressed a rather contemptuous attitude towards Gothic as the culture and art of the Goths, i.e. barbarians.

In the 13th century the city, and with it the entire culture of the urban burghers, began to play a decisive role in the life of medieval society. Scientific and creative activity is moving from monasteries to secular workshops and universities, which already exist in almost all European countries. By this time, religion begins to gradually lose its dominant position. In all areas of social life, the role of the secular, rational principle is increasing. This process did not pass by art, in which two important features emerged - the increasing role of rationalistic elements and the strengthening of realistic tendencies. These features were most clearly manifested in the architecture of the Gothic style.

Gothic architecture represents an organic unity of two components - design and decor. The essence of the Gothic design is to create a special frame, or skeleton, that ensures the strength and stability of the building. If in Romanesque architecture the stability of a building depends on the massiveness of the walls, then in Gothic architecture it depends on the correct distribution of gravity forces. The Gothic design includes three main elements: 1) a vault on ribs (arches) of a lancet shape; 2) a system of so-called flying buttresses (half-arches); 3) powerful buttresses.

The originality of the external forms of the Gothic structure lies in the use of towers with pointed spiers. As for the decor, it took the most various shapes. Since the walls in Gothic style ceased to be load-bearing, this made it possible to widely use windows and doors with stained glass windows, which allowed free access of light into the room. This circumstance was extremely important for Christianity, because it gives light a divine and mystical meaning. Colored stained glass windows evoke an exciting play of colored light in the interior of Gothic cathedrals.

Along with stained glass windows, Gothic buildings were decorated with sculptures, reliefs, abstract geometric patterns, and floral patterns. To this should be added the skillful church utensils of the cathedral, beautiful items of applied art donated by wealthy townspeople. All this turned the Gothic cathedral into a place of genuine synthesis of all types and genres of art.

Became the cradle of Gothic France. Here she was born in the second half of the 12th century. and then for three centuries it developed along the path of increasing lightness and decorativeness. In the 13th century she has reached her true peak. In the XIV century. the increase in decorativeness comes mainly due to the clarity and clarity of the constructive principle, which leads to the appearance of a “radiant” Gothic style. The 15th century gives birth to “flaming” Gothic, so named because some decorative motifs resemble flames.

Notre Dame Cathedral(XII-XIII centuries) became a true masterpiece of early Gothic. It is a five-nave basilica, which is distinguished by a rare proportionality of structural forms. The cathedral has two towers in the western part, decorated with stained glass windows, sculptures on the facades, and columns in the arcades. It also has amazing acoustics. What was achieved in the Cathedral of Notre Dame is developed by the cathedrals of Amiens and Reims (XIII century), as well as the Upper Church of Sainte-Chapelle (XIII century), which served as a church for the French kings and is distinguished by rare perfection of forms.

IN Germany Gothic style became widespread under the influence of France. One of the most famous monuments here is Cathedral in Cologne(XI11-XV. XIX centuries). In general, he develops the concept of Amiens Cathedral. At the same time, thanks to the pointed towers, it most clearly and fully expresses the verticalism and skyward thrust of Gothic structures.

English Gothic also largely continues French models. The recognized masterpieces here are Westminster Abbey(XIII-XVI centuries), where the tomb of English kings and prominent people of England is located: as well as the chapel of King's College in Cambridge (XV-XVI centuries), representing late Gothic.

Late Gothic, like the entire culture of the late Middle Ages, contains an ever-increasing number of features of the next era - the Renaissance. There are disputes about the work of such artists as Jan van Eyck, K. Sluter and others: some authors attribute them to the Middle Ages, others to the Renaissance.

The culture of the Middle Ages - with all the ambiguity of its content - occupies a worthy place in the history of world culture. The Renaissance gave the Middle Ages a very critical and harsh assessment. However, subsequent eras made significant amendments to this assessment. Romanticism of the 18th-19th centuries. drew his inspiration from medieval chivalry, seeing in it truly human ideals and values. Women of all subsequent eras, including ours, experience an inescapable nostalgia for real male knights, for knightly nobility, generosity and courtesy. The modern crisis of spirituality encourages us to turn to the experience of the Middle Ages, again and again to solve the eternal problem of the relationship between spirit and flesh.

Medieval European culture covers the period from the fall of the Roman Empire to the active formation of the culture of the Renaissance and is divided into the culture of the early period (V-XI centuries) and the culture of the classical Middle Ages (XII-XIV centuries). The appearance of the term “Middle Ages” is associated with the activities of Italian humanists of the 15th-16th centuries, who, by introducing this term, sought to separate the culture of their era - the culture of the Renaissance - from the culture of previous eras. The Middle Ages brought with it new economic relations, a new type of political system, as well as global changes in people's worldview.

The entire culture of the early Middle Ages had a religious overtones. The basis of the medieval picture of the world was images and interpretations of the Bible. The starting point for explaining the world was the idea of ​​a complete and unconditional opposition between God and nature, Heaven and Earth, soul and body. The man of the Middle Ages imagined and understood the world as an arena of confrontation between good and evil, as a kind of hierarchical system, including God, angels, people, and otherworldly forces of darkness. Along with the strong influence of the church, the consciousness of medieval man continued to remain deeply magical. This was facilitated by the very nature of medieval culture, filled with prayers, fairy tales, myths, and magic spells. In general, the cultural history of the Middle Ages is a history of the struggle between church and state. The position and role of art in this era were complex and contradictory, but nevertheless, throughout the entire period of development of European medieval culture, there was a search for the semantic support of the spiritual community of people. All classes of medieval society recognized the spiritual leadership of the church, but nevertheless, each of them developed its own special culture, in which it reflected its moods and ideals.


The main periods of development of the Middle Ages.

The beginning of the Middle Ages is associated with the great migration of peoples that began at the end of the 4th century. The territory of the Western Roman Empire was invaded by Vandals, Goths, Huns and other nationalities. After the collapse in 476 The Western Roman Empire formed a number of short-lived states on its territory, which consisted of foreign tribes mixed with the indigenous population, which consisted mainly of Celts and the so-called Romans. The Franks settled in Gaul and Western Germany, the Visigoths in northern Spain, the Osgoths in northern Italy, and the Anglo-Saxons in Britain. The barbarian peoples who created their states on the ruins of the Roman Empire found themselves either in a Roman or Romanized environment. However, the culture of the ancient world experienced a deep crisis during the period of the barbarian invasion, and this crisis was aggravated by the barbarians introducing their mythological thinking and worship of the elemental forces of nature. All this was reflected in the cultural process of the early Middle Ages. Medieval culture developed in line with the period of early (V-XIII centuries) feudalism in the countries of Western Europe, the formation of which was accompanied by the transition from barbarian empires to the classical states of medieval Europe. This was a period of serious social and military upheaval. At the stage of late feudalism (XI-XII centuries), craft, trade, and city life had quite low level development. The dominance of feudal lords - landowners - was undivided. The figure of the king was decorative in nature, and did not personify strength and state power. However, from the end of the 11th century. (especially France) the process of strengthening royal power begins and centralized feudal states are gradually created, in which the feudal economy rises, contributing to the formation of the cultural process. The Crusades carried out at the end of this period were important. These trips contributed to the acquaintance of Western Europe with the rich culture Arab East and accelerated the growth of crafts. During the second development of the mature (classical) European Middle Ages (11th century), there was a further growth of the productive forces of feudal society. A clear division is established between city and countryside, and intensive development of crafts and trade occurs. Royal power assumes significant importance. This process was facilitated by the elimination of feudal anarchy. The royal power was supported by knighthood and wealthy citizens. A characteristic feature of this period is the emergence of city-states, for example, Venice and Florence.

1. Features of the art of medieval Europe.

The development of medieval art includes the following three stages: 1. Pre-Romanesque art (V-X centuries), which is divided into three periods: early Christian art, the art of the barbarian kingdoms and the art of the Carolingian and Ottonian empires. In the early Christian period, Christianity became the official religion. The appearance of the first Christian churches dates back to this time. Separate buildings of a centric type (round, octagonal, cruciform), called baptisteries or baptisteries. The interior decoration of these buildings were mosaics and frescoes. They reflected all the main features of medieval painting, although they were greatly divorced from reality. Symbolism and convention prevailed in the images, and the mysticism of the images was achieved through the use of such formal elements as enlarged eyes, disembodied images, prayer poses, and the use of different scales in the depiction of figures according to the spiritual hierarchy. The art of the barbarians played a positive role in the development of the ornamental and decorative direction, which later became the main part artistic creativity classical Middle Ages. And which no longer had a close connection with ancient traditions. A characteristic feature of the art of the Carolingian and Ottonian empires is the combination of ancient, early Christian, barbarian and Byzantine traditions, which were most clearly manifested in the ornament. The architecture of these kingdoms is based on Roman designs and includes centric stone or wooden temples, the use of mosaics and frescoes in the interior decoration of the temples.
A monument of pre-Romanesque architecture is the Chapel of Charlemagne in Aachen, created around 800. During the same period, the development of monastery construction was actively underway. In the Carolingian Empire, 400 new monasteries were built and 800 existing monasteries were expanded. 2. Romanesque art (XI-XII centuries) Arose during the reign of Charles the Great. This style of art is characterized by a semicircular vaulted arch that came from Rome. Instead of wooden coverings, stone ones, usually having a vaulted shape, begin to predominate. Painting and sculpture were subordinated to architecture and were mainly used in temples and monasteries. Sculptural images were brightly colored, and monumental and decorative painting, on the contrary, was represented as temple paintings of restrained color. An example of this style is the Church of Mary on the island of Laak in Germany. Italian architecture occupies a special place in Romanesque architecture, which, thanks to the strong ancient traditions present in it, immediately stepped into the Renaissance. The main function of Romanesque architecture is defense. In the architecture of the Romanesque era, precise mathematical calculations were not used, however, thick walls, narrow windows and massive towers, being stylistic features of architectural structures, simultaneously carried a defensive function, allowing the civilian population to take refuge in the monastery during feudal strife and wars. This is explained by the fact that the formation and strengthening of the Romanesque style took place in the era of feudal fragmentation and its motto is the saying “My home is my fortress.” In addition to religious architecture, secular architecture was also actively developing; an example of this is the feudal castle - house - tower of a rectangular or multifaceted shape. 3. Gothic art (XII-XV centuries) Arose as a result of the development of cities and the emerging urban culture. The cathedral becomes the symbol of medieval cities, gradually losing its defensive functions. The stylistic changes in the architecture of this era were explained not only by changes in the functions of buildings, but by the rapid development of construction technology, which by that time was already based on precise calculations and verified design. Abundant convex details - statues, bas-reliefs, hanging arches were the main decorations of the buildings, both inside and outside. The world masterpieces of Gothic architecture are Notre Dame Cathedral and Milan Cathedral in Italy. Gothic is also used in sculpture. Three-dimensional, diverse plastic forms, portrait individuality, and real anatomy of figures appear. Monumental Gothic painting is mainly represented by stained glass. Window openings are significantly increased. Which now serve not only for lighting, but more for decoration. Thanks to glass duplication, the finest nuances of color are conveyed. Stained glass windows are beginning to acquire more and more realistic elements. The French stained glass windows of Chartres and Rouen were especially famous. The Gothic style also begins to predominate in book miniatures, a significant expansion of the scope of its application occurs, and mutual influence of stained glass and miniatures occurs. The art of book miniatures was one of the greatest achievements of Gothic art. This type of painting evolved from the "classical" style to realism. Among the most outstanding achievements of Gothic book miniatures are the psalter of Queen Ingeborg and the psalter of Saint Louis. A remarkable monument of the German school of the early 14th century. is the “Manesse Manuscript”, which is a collection of the most famous songs of the German Minesingers, decorated with portraits of singers, scenes of tournaments and court life, and coats of arms.

1. Literature and music of the Middle Ages.

During the period of mature feudalism, along with and as an alternative to church literature, which had priority, secular literature also developed rapidly. Thus, the literature of chivalry, which included the epic of chivalry, the romance of chivalry, the poetry of French troubadours and the lyrics of German minisingers, received the greatest distribution and even some approval from the church. They sang the war for the Christian faith and glorified the feat of chivalry in the name of this faith. An example of the chivalric epic of France is the Song of Roland. Its plot was the campaigns of Charlemagne in Spain, and the main character was Count Roland. At the end of the 7th century. Under the patronage of Charlemagne, a book-writing workshop was founded, where a special Gospel was produced. In the 12th century. Knightly novels written in the prose genre appeared and quickly became widespread. They told about the various adventures of the knights. In contrast to the chivalric romance, urban literature is developing. A new genre is being formed - a poetic short story, which contributes to the formation of townspeople as a single whole. During the development of Gothic, changes also occurred in music. A separate group in the music of the Middle Ages represented the art of the Celts. The court singers of the Celts were bards who performed heroic songs - ballads, satirical, fighting and other songs to the accompaniment of a string instrument - moles. Since the end of the 11th century. In the south of France, the musical and poetic creativity of troubadours began to spread. Their songs sang knightly love and heroic deeds during the Crusades. The creativity of the troubadours evoked many imitations, the most fruitful being the German minnesang. The songs of the Minnesingers - "singers of love" - ​​were not only the glorification of beautiful ladies, but also the glorification of influential dukes. Minnesingers served in the courts of rulers, participated in numerous competitions, and traveled throughout Europe. The heyday of their creativity came in the 12th century, but already in the 14th century. they were replaced by Meistersingers, or “singing masters,” united in professional guilds. The development of these vocal workshops marked a new stage in medieval singing art. In the 9th century. there was polyphony, but by the end of the 11th century. voices are becoming more independent. With the advent of polyphony in Catholic churches, an organ becomes necessary. The development of professional church polyphony was greatly facilitated by numerous singing schools at large European monasteries. XIII century in the history of music is called the century of old art, while the art of the 14th century. is usually called new, and it was at this time that the musical art of the Renaissance began to revive.

1. Conclusion. The most important feature European medieval culture is the special role of Christian doctrine and christian church. Only the church for many centuries remained the only social institution that united all European countries, tribes and states. It was she who had a huge influence on the formation of people’s religious worldview and spread her main values ​​and ideas. All classes of medieval society recognized the spiritual kinship of the church, but nevertheless, each of them developed its own special culture, in which it reflected its moods and ideals. The dominant class of secular feudal lords in the Middle Ages was knighthood. It was the knightly culture that included a complex ritual of customs, manners, secular, court and military knightly entertainment, of which knightly tournaments were especially popular. The knightly culture created its own folklore, its own songs, poems, and in its depths a new literary genre arose - the knightly novel. Love lyrics occupied a large place. With all the diversity artistic means and stylistic features, the art of the Middle Ages also has some common features: religious in nature, because the church was the only principle uniting the scattered kingdoms; the leading place was given to architecture. Nationality, because the people themselves were the creator and spectator; the emotional beginning is deep psychologism, the task of which was to convey the intensity of religious feeling and the drama of individual plots. Along with the dominance of Christian morality and the comprehensive power of the church, which manifested itself in all spheres of life in medieval society, including art and culture, nevertheless, this era was a unique and interesting stage in the development of European culture and civilization. Some elements of modern civilization were laid down precisely in the Middle Ages, which in many ways prepared the age of the Renaissance and Enlightenment.

Medieval European culture covers the period from the fall of the Roman Empire to the active formation of the culture of the Renaissance. Divided into 3 periods: 1. 5-10 in the Early Middle Ages; 2. 11th-13th century – Classical; 3. 14-16 – Later.

The essence of it is Christianity, human self-improvement. The birthplace of Christianity is Palestine. Originated in the 1st century AD. This is the teacher's religion - Jesus Christ. The symbol is a cross. The struggle between light and dark forces is constant, with man at the center. He was created by the Lord to manifest his created image, to live with him in unity, to rule the whole world, fulfilling the role of high priest in it.

The appearance of the term “Middle Ages” is associated with the activities of Italian humanists of the 15th-16th centuries, who, by introducing this term, sought to separate the culture of their era - the culture of the Renaissance - from the culture of previous eras. The Middle Ages brought with it new economic relations, a new type of political system, as well as global changes in people's worldview.

The entire culture of the early Middle Ages had a religious overtones. The social structure had three main groups: peasants, clergy and warriors.

The peasants were the bearers and exponents folk culture, which developed on the basis of a contradictory combination of pre-Christian and Christian worldviews. Secular feudal lords monopolized the right to military affairs. The concept of a warrior and a noble person merged in the word “knight”. Chivalry turned into a closed caste. But with the advent of the fourth social stratum - the townspeople - chivalry and knightly culture fell into decline. The key concept of knightly behavior was nobility. The activities of monasteries brought exceptional value to medieval culture as a whole.

The development of medieval art includes the following three stages:

pre-Romanesque art (V-X centuries),

Romanesque art (XI-XII centuries),

Gothic art (XII-XV centuries).

Ancient traditions provided impetus for the development of medieval art, but in general the entire medieval culture was formed in polemics with ancient tradition.

The Dark Ages of the 5th-10th century - the destruction of the ancient world, writing was lost, the church put pressure on life. If in antiquity man was a hero, a creator, now he is a lower being. The meaning of life is serving God. Science is scholastic, connected with the church, it is proof of the existence of God. The Church dominated the minds of people and fought against dissent. Urban literature has a special place in satirical everyday scenes. The heroic epic “The Song of Roland”, “Beowulf”, “The Saga of Eric the Red”, the novel “Tristan and Isolde”. Poetry: Bertrand Deborn and Arnaud Daniel. A TV of jugglers and traveling actors is born. The main genres are theaters: drama, comedy, morality plays. Architecture main styles: A. Romanesque - stylization, formalism, narrow windows, example - Notre Damme Cathedral in Poitiers, B. Gothic - high lancet windows, stained glass windows, high columns, thin walls, buildings reaching into the sky, example - Westmines Abbey in London. Flaming Gothic (in France) is the finest stone carving. Brick Gothic is typical for the North. Europe.

General characteristics of the culture of Byzantium.

Byzantium is the eastern Roman Empire. Initially, the main center was the colony of Byzantium, then Constantinople became it. Byzantium included the territories of the Balkan Peninsula, Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, India and Palestine, etc. This empire existed from the 4th century BC. - mid 15th century, until it was destroyed by the Seljuk Turks. She is the heir of the Greco-Roman culture. The culture is contradictory, because. tried to combine the ideals of antiquity and Christianity.

Periods 4-7 centuries. - early period (formation Byzantine culture and its heyday); 2nd floor 7th century - 12th century middle (iconoclasm); 12-15 late (began with the invasion of the Crusaders, ended with the fall of Constantinople). V. is the heiress of Greco-Roman culture. However, Byzantine culture also developed under the influence of the Hellenistic culture of the Mediterranean and Eastern cultures. Greek dominated. All this was based on the Christian religion.

The culture continued to remain faithful to traditions, canons, determined religious traditions. In education, ancient forms were preserved.

The ancient tradition prevailed in the art of the early period; Christianity was just beginning to develop its own symbolism and iconography, to form its own canons. The architecture inherited Roman traditions. The predominance of painting over sculpture, perceived as pagan art.

CVIv. In fact, a medieval culture arose. BVI century Under Emperor Justinian, Byzantine culture flourished.

New traditions of temple construction - combining the basilica with a centric building. In parallel, the idea of ​​multiple chapters. In fine art, mosaics, frescoes, and icons predominated.

The turning point and turn are associated with the period of iconoclasm (8th century). There was a certain ambivalence regarding the image of God. The imperial power supported the iconoclasts (for the sake of power). During this period, damage was caused to the visual arts. Iconoclasm went far beyond the scope of the problem of Christian representation. 19th century icon veneration was restored. After this, the second flowering begins.

Cultural influence on other nations is increasing. Rus. The cross-domed architecture of churches is taking shape. In the X century. the art of enamel reaches its highest level.

X-XI centuries characterized by duality. The flourishing of culture and the decline of statehood. Byzantium loses its territories. Church split, crusades. After this, the Byzantine revival begins.

Byzantium and Western Europe: two paths of cultural development. Catholicism and Orthodoxy.

Let's consider differences between Catholicism and Orthodoxy.

general characteristics

Ecumenical Orthodoxy (Orthodoxy - i.e. “right” or “correct”, which has come without distortion) is a collection of local Churches that have the same dogmas and a similar canonical structure, recognize each other’s sacraments and are in communion. Orthodoxy consists of 15 autocephalous and several autonomous Churches.

Unlike Orthodox churches, Roman Catholicism is distinguished primarily by its monolithic nature. The principle of organization of this Church is more monarchical: it has a visible center of its unity - the Pope. The apostolic power and teaching authority of the Roman Catholic Church is concentrated in the image of the Pope.

The very name of the Catholic Church literally means “conciliar” in Greek, however, in the interpretation of Catholic theologians, the concept of conciliarity, so important in Orthodox tradition, is replaced by the concept of “university,” that is, the quantitative breadth of influence (indeed, the Roman Catholic confession is widespread not only in Europe, but also in North and South America, Africa and Asia).

Christianity, which arose as a religion of the lower classes, by the end of the 3rd century. spread quite widely throughout the empire.

All aspects of life were determined by Orthodoxy, which was formed in the 4th – 8th centuries. AD Christianity was born as a single universal teaching. However, with the division of the Roman Empire into Western and Eastern (Byzantium) in 395, Christianity gradually became divided into two directions: Eastern (Orthodoxy) and Western (Catholicism). Popes already from the end of the 6th century. did not submit to Byzantium. They were patronized by the Frankish kings, and later by the German emperors. Byzantine and Western European Christianity diverged further and further, ceasing to understand each other. The Greeks completely forgot Latin, and Western Europe did not know Greek. Gradually, the rituals of worship and even the basic tenets of the Christian faith began to differ. Several times the Roman and Greek churches quarreled and reconciled again, but it became increasingly difficult to maintain unity. In 1054 Roman Cardinal Humbert arrived in Constantinople for negotiations on overcoming differences. However, instead of the expected reconciliation, a final split occurred: the papal envoy and Patriarch Michael Kirularius anathematized each other. Moreover, this split (schism) remains in force to this day. Western Christianity was constantly changing; it is characterized by the presence of different directions (Catholicism, Lutheranism, Anglicanism, Baptistism, etc.) and an orientation towards social reality.
Orthodoxy proclaimed fidelity to antiquity, the immutability of ideals. The basis of the Orthodox faith is the Holy Scripture (Bible) and Holy Tradition.

The true head of the Byzantine church was the emperor, although formally he was not one.

The Orthodox Church lived an intense spiritual life, which ensured an unusually vibrant flowering of Byzantine culture. Byzantium has always remained the center of a unique and truly brilliant culture. Byzantium managed to spread the Orthodox faith and bring the message of Christianity to other peoples, especially to the Slavs. The enlighteners Cyril and Methodius, brothers from Thessaloniki, who created the first Slavic alphabet - Cyrillic and Glagolitic, based on the Greek alphabet - became famous in this righteous deed.

The main reason for the division of the general Christian church into the western (Roman Catholic) and eastern (Eastern Catholic, or Greek Orthodox) was the rivalry between the popes and the patriarchs of Constantinople for supremacy in the Christian world. The first break occurred around 867 (liquidated at the turn of the 9th-10th centuries), and occurred again in 1054 (see. Division of churches ) and was completed in connection with the capture of Constantinople by the crusaders in 1204 (when the Polish patriarch was forced to leave it).
As a type of Christian religion, Catholicism recognizes its basic dogmas and rituals; at the same time, it has a number of features in its doctrine, cult, and organization.
The organization of the Catholic Church is characterized by strict centralization, monarchical and hierarchical character. According to religion Catholicism, the Pope (Roman high priest) is the visible head of the church, the successor of the Apostle Peter, the true vicar of Christ on earth; his power is higher than that of power Ecumenical Councils .

The Catholic Church, like the Orthodox Church, recognizes seven sacraments , but there are some differences in their dispatch. Thus, Catholics perform baptism not by immersion in water, but by pouring it over; Confirmation (confirmation) is not performed simultaneously with baptism, but for children no younger. 8 years and, as a rule, a bishop. Catholics have unleavened communion bread, not leavened bread (like the Orthodox). A lay marriage is indissoluble, even if one of the spouses is convicted of adultery.

Pre-Christian culture of the Eastern Slavs. Russia's adoption of Christianity. Paganism and Christianity in Rus'.

At the end of the 5th - mid-6th centuries, the great migration of the Slavs to the south began. The territory developed by the Slavs is an open space between Ural mountains and the Caspian Sea, through which waves of nomadic peoples poured into the southern Russian steppes in a continuous stream.

Before the formation of the state, the life of the Slavs was organized according to the laws of patriarchal or tribal life. All matters in the community were governed by a council of elders. The typical form of Slavic settlements were small villages - one, two, three courtyards. Several villages united into unions (“verves” of “Russian Pravda”). The religious beliefs of the ancient Slavs represented, on the one hand, the worship of natural phenomena, and on the other, the cult of ancestors. They had neither temples nor a special class of priests, although there were magi and magicians who were revered as servants of the gods and interpreters of their will.

The main pagan gods: Rain-god; Perun - god of thunder and lightning; Mother Earth was also revered as a kind of deity. Nature was imagined to be animate or inhabited by many small spirits.

The places of pagan cult in Rus' were sanctuaries (temples), where prayers and sacrifices took place. In the center of the temple there was a stone or wooden image of the god, and sacrificial fires were burned around it.

Belief in the afterlife forced everyone to put into the grave with the deceased everything that could be useful to him, including sacrificial food. At the funerals of people belonging to the social elite, their concubines were burned. The Slavs had an original writing system - the so-called knotted writing.

The agreement concluded by Igor with Byzantium was signed by both pagan warriors and “Baptized Rus'”, i.e. Christians occupied high positions in Kiev society.

Olga, who ruled the state after the death of her husband, also received baptism, which is considered by historians to be a tactical move in a complex diplomatic game with Byzantium.

Gradually Christianity acquired the status of a religion.

Around 988 Kyiv prince Vladimir was baptized himself, baptized his squad and boyars, and, under pain of punishment, forced the people of Kiev and all Russians in general to be baptized. Formally, Rus' became Christian. The funeral pyres went out, the lights of Perun faded, but for a long time remnants of paganism were still found in the villages.

Rus' began to adopt Byzantine culture.

The Russian church adopted the iconostasis from Byzantium, but it changed it by increasing the size of the icons, increasing their number and filling all the voids with them.

The historical significance of the Baptism of Rus' lies in introducing the Slavic-Finnish world to the values ​​of Christianity, creating conditions for cooperation between Rus' and other Christian states.

The Russian Church has become a force uniting different lands of Rus', cultural and political communities.

Paganism- a phenomenon of the spiritual culture of ancient peoples, which is based on belief in many gods. A striking example of paganism is “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign. Christianity- one of the three world religions (Buddhism and Islam), named after its founder Christ.

Old Russian art.

The most important event of the 9th century. is the adoption of Christianity by Russia. Before the adoption of Christianity, in the second half of the 9th century. was created by the brothers Cyril and Methodius - Slavic writing based on the Greek alphabet. After the baptism of Rus', it became the basis of Old Russian writing. They translated the Holy Scripture into Russian.

Russian literature was born in the first half of the 11th century. The church played the leading role. Secular and ecclesiastical literature. It existed within the framework of a manuscript tradition. The parchment material is calfskin. They wrote with ink and cinnabar, using goose quills. In the 11th century Luxurious books with cinnabar letters and artistic miniatures appeared in Rus'. Their binding was bound in gold or silver, decorated with precious stones (Gospel (XI century) and Gospel (XII century). Books of the Holy Scripture were translated into Old Church Slavonic by Cyril and Methodius. All Old Russian literature is divided into translated and original. The first original works include by the end of the 11th - beginning of the 12th centuries (“The Tale of Bygone Years”, “The Tale of Boris and Gleb”). Genre diversity - chronicle writing, life and word. The central place is the chronicle, it was carried out by specially trained monks. The oldest “Tale of Bygone Years” ". Another genre of hagiography - biographies of famous bishops, patriarchs, monks - “hagiography", Nestor “2 lives of the first Christian martyrs Boris and Gleb”, “life of abbot Theodosius”. Another genre of Teaching - “Teaching of Vladimir Monomakh”. Solemn eloquence - “the word about law and grace” by Hilarion.

Architecture. With the advent of Christianity, the construction of churches and monasteries began (the Kiev-Pechersk monastery in the mid-11th century. Anthony and Fedosy of the Pechersk, the Ilyinsky underground monastery in the thickness of Boldinskaya Mountain). Underground monasteries were centers of hesychia (silence) in Rus'.

At the end of the 10th century. stone construction began in Rus' (989 in Kyiv Tithe Church Dormition of the Virgin Mary). In the 30s of the 11th century. The stone Golden Gate with the Gate Church of the Annunciation was built. Outstanding work Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod (1045 - 1050) became the centerpiece of the architecture of Kievan Rus.

Crafts were highly developed in Kievan Rus: pottery, metalworking, jewelry, etc. In the 10th century, the potter's wheel appeared. By the middle of the 11th century. refers to the first sword. Jewelry technology was complex, Russian products were used in great demand on the world market. Painting - Icons, frescoes and mosaics. Musical art - church singing, secular music. The first ancient Russian buffoon actors appeared. There were epic storytellers, they told epics to the sound of the gusli.

Russian culture: characteristic features. Features of the Russian national mentality.

The Russian nation has experienced the greatest historical trials, but also the greatest upsurges of spirituality, the reflection of which has become Russian culture. During the 16th-19th centuries, the Russians had the opportunity to create the greatest power in the history of the planet, which included the geopolitical core of Eurasia.

At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, the Russian Empire occupied a vast territory, including 79 provinces and 18 regions, inhabited by dozens of peoples of different religions.

But for the contribution of any people to the treasury of world culture, the decisive role is played not by their numbers or role in political history, but by the assessment of their achievements in the history of civilization, determined by the level of material and spiritual culture. “We can speak about the global character of a people’s culture if it has developed a system of values ​​that have universal significance... Undoubtedly, Russian culture also has a global character in the form in which it was developed before the Bolshevik revolution. To agree with this, one only has to remember the names of Pushkin, Gogol, Turgenev, Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, or the names of Glinka, Tchaikovsky, Mussorgsky, Rimsky-Korsakov, or the value of Russian stage art in drama, opera, ballet. In science, it is enough to mention the names of Lobachevsky, Mendeleev, Mechnikov. The beauty, richness and sophistication of the Russian language give it the undoubted right to be considered one of the world languages.”

For the building of any national culture, the main supporting support is the national character, spirituality, and intellectual makeup (mentality) of a given people. The character and mentality of an ethnic group are formed in the early stages of its history under the influence of the country’s nature, its geopolitical situation, a certain religion, socio-economic factors. However, once formed, they themselves become decisive for the further development of national culture and national history. This was the case in Russia as well. It is not surprising that disputes about the national character of Russians, about the Russian mentality are primary in discussions both about the fate of our Fatherland and about the nature of Russian culture.

The main features of the Russian mentality:

Russian people are gifted and hardworking. He is characterized by observation, theoretical and practical intelligence, natural ingenuity, ingenuity, and creativity. The Russian people are great workers, creators and creators, and have enriched the world with great cultural achievements.

Love of freedom is one of the main, deep-seated properties of the Russian people. The history of Russia is the history of the struggle of the Russian people for their freedom and independence. For the Russian people, freedom is above all.

Possessing a freedom-loving character, the Russian people repeatedly defeated the invaders and achieved great success in peaceful construction.

The characteristic features of Russian people are kindness, humanity, a penchant for repentance, cordiality and spiritual gentleness.

Tolerance is one of the characteristic features of the Russian people, which has become literally legendary. In Russian culture, patience and the ability to endure suffering are the ability to exist, the ability to respond to external circumstances, this is the basis of personality.

Russian hospitality It is well known: “Even though he is not rich, he is glad to have guests.” The best treat is always ready for the guest.

A distinctive feature of the Russian people is its responsiveness, the ability to understand another person, the ability to integrate with the culture of other peoples, to respect it. Russians pay special attention to their attitude towards their neighbors: “It’s a bad thing to offend a neighbor,” “A close neighbor is better than distant relatives.”

One of the deepest features of the Russian character is religiosity; this has been reflected since ancient times in folklore, in proverbs: “To live is to serve God,” “God’s hand is strong - these proverbs say that God is omnipotent and helps believers in everything. In the minds of believers, God is the ideal of perfection; he is merciful, selfless, and wise: “God has much mercy.” God has a generous soul, he is glad to accept any person who turns to him, his love is immeasurably great: “Whoever is to God, to him is God,” “Whoever does good, God will repay him.”

Medieval art. Christianity and art.

In the western artistic culture The first two significant trends differ in the Middle Ages.

1) The first direction is Romanesque art (10th-12th centuries). The concept “Romanesque” comes from the word “Roman”; in the architecture of religious buildings, the Romanesque era borrowed the fundamental principles of civil architecture. Romanesque art was distinguished by its simplicity and majesty.

The main role in the Romanesque style was given to harsh, fortress-like architecture: monastery complexes, churches, and castles were located on elevated places, dominating the area. Churches were decorated with paintings and reliefs, expressing the power of God in conventional, expressive forms. At the same time, semi-fairy tales, images of animals and plants went back to folk art. Metal and wood processing, enamel, and miniatures have reached a high level of development.

In contrast to the Eastern centric type, a type of temple called a basilica developed in the West. The most important feature of Romanesque architecture is the presence of a stone vault. Its characteristic features are also thick walls cut through by small windows designed to absorb the thrust from the dome, if any, the predominance of horizontal divisions over vertical ones, mainly circular and semi-circular arches. (Liebmurg Cathedral in Germany, Abbey Maria Laach, Germany, Romanesque churches in Val-de-Boy)

2) The second direction is Gothic art. The concept of Gothic comes from the concept of barbarian. Gothic art was distinguished by its sublimity; Gothic cathedrals were characterized by a desire to rise upward and were characterized by rich external and internal decorum. Gothic art was distinguished by its mystical character and rich and complex symbolism. External wall system, a large area of ​​the wall was occupied by windows, fine detailing.

Gothic architecture originated in France in the 12th century. In an effort to unload the interior space as much as possible, Gothic builders came up with a system of flying buttresses (inclined support arches) and buttresses placed outside, i.e. Gothic frame system. Now the space between the grasses was filled with thin walls covered with “stone lace” or colored stained glass windows in the form of pointed arches. The columns that now support the vaults have become thin and clustered. Main facade(a classic example is the Cathedral in Amiens) was usually framed on the sides by 2 towers, not symmetrical, but slightly different from each other. Above the entrance, as a rule, there is a huge stained glass rose window. (Cathedral in Chartres, France; Cathedral in Reims, France; Cathedral of Notre-Dame de Paris)

The influence of the church, which tried to subjugate the entire spiritual life of society, determined the appearance of medieval art in Western Europe. The main examples of medieval fine art were monuments of church architecture. The main task of the artist was to embody the divine principle, and of all human feelings, preference was given to suffering, because, according to the teachings of the church, this is a fire that purifies the soul. With unusual brightness, medieval artists depicted scenes of suffering and disaster. During the period from the 11th to the 12th centuries. In Western Europe, two architectural styles changed - Romanesque and Gothic. Romanesque monastic churches in Europe are very diverse in their structure and decoration. But they all remain the same architectural style, the church resembles a fortress, which is natural for the turbulent, troubled times of the early Middle Ages. The Gothic style in architecture is associated with the development of medieval cities. The main phenomenon of Gothic art is the ensemble of the city cathedral, which was the center of the social and ideological life of the medieval city. Not only were religious rituals performed here, but public debates took place, the most important state acts were performed, lectures were given to university students, and cult dramas and mysteries were played out.

Romanesque and Gothic are two styles, two stages in the development of European architecture.

The architecture of the Middle Ages was dominated by two main styles: Romanesque (during the early Middle Ages) and Gothic - from the 12th century.

Gothic, Gothic style (from Italian gotico-Goths) is an artistic style in Western European art of the 12th-15th centuries. It arose on the basis of the folk traditions of the Germans, the achievements of Romanesque culture and the Christian worldview. It manifested itself in the construction of cathedrals with pointed roofs and the associated art of stone and wood carving, sculpture, stained glass, and became widespread in painting.

Romanesque style (French) gotap from lat. romanus - Roman) - a style direction in Western European art of the 10th-12th centuries, originating in ancient Roman culture; in architecture, the R. style is characterized by the use of vaulted and arched structures in buildings; simple strict and massive forms of serf character. Expressive multi-figured designs were used in the decoration of large cathedrals. sculptural compositions on New Testament themes. Is different high level development of metal, wood, and enamel processing.

Romanesque architecture. In feudal agrarian Europe of that time, the knight's castle, monastery ensemble and temple were the main types of architectural structures. The emergence of the fortified dwelling of the ruler was a product of the feudal era. Wooden citadels began to be replaced by stone dungeons in the 11th century. These were tall rectangular towers that served the lord both as a home and a fortress. The leading role began to be played by towers connected by walls and grouped in the most vulnerable areas, which allowed even a small garrison to fight. Square towers were replaced by round ones, which provided a better firing radius. The castle included utility buildings, water supply and water collection tanks.

A new word in the art of the Western Middle Ages was spoken in France in the middle of the 12th century. Contemporaries called the innovation “French style”; descendants began to call it Gothic. The time of the rise and flowering of Gothic - the second half of the 12th and 13th centuries - coincided with the period when feudal society reached the apogee in its development.

Gothic as a style was the product of a combination of social changes of the era, its political and ideological aspirations. Gothic was introduced as a symbol of the Christian monarchy. The cathedral was the most important public place in the city and remained the personification of the “divine universe.” In the relationship of its parts there is a similarity with the construction of scholastic “sums”, and in the images there is a connection with knightly culture.

The essence of Gothic is the juxtaposition of opposites, the ability to unite abstract ideas and life. The most important achievement of Gothic architecture was the emphasis on the building frame. In Gothic, the ribbed vault laying system changed. The ribs no longer completed the construction of the vault, but preceded it. The Gothic style rejects the ponderous, fortress-like Romanesque cathedrals. The attributes of the Gothic style were pointed arches and slender towers rising to the sky. Gothic cathedrals are grandiose structures.

Gothic architecture was a single whole with sculpture, painting, and applied arts subordinate to it. Particular emphasis was placed on the numerous statues. The proportions of the statues were greatly elongated, the expressions on their faces were spiritual, and their poses were noble.

Gothic cathedrals were intended not only for worship, but also for public meetings, holidays, and theatrical performances. The Gothic style extends to all areas of human life. This is how shoes with curved toes and cone-shaped hats become fashionable in clothing.

Medieval science and education in Western Europe.

Educational schemes in medieval Europe were based on the principles of ancient school tradition and academic disciplines.

2 stages: the initial level included grammar, dialectics and rhetoric; Level 2 - study of arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and music.

At the beginning of the 9th century. Charlemagne ordered the opening of schools in every diocese and monastery. They began to create textbooks, and opened access to schools for the laity.

In the 11th century parish and cathedral schools appeared. Due to the growth of cities, non-church education became an important cultural factor. It was not controlled by the church and provided more opportunities.

In the 12-13th century. universities are emerging. They consisted of a number of faculties: aristocratic, legal, medical, theological. Christianity determined the specifics of knowledge.

Medieval knowledge is not systematized. Theology or theology was central and universal. The mature Middle Ages contributed to the development of natural science knowledge. Interest in medicine appears, chemical compounds, instruments and installations are obtained. Roger Bacon - English philosopher and naturalist, believed possible creation flying and moving vehicles. IN late period Geographical works, updated maps and atlases appear.

Theology, or theology- a set of religious doctrines on the essence and existence of God. Theology arises exclusively within the framework of such a worldview

Christianity is one of the three world religions (along with Buddhism and Islam), named after its founder Christ.

Inquisition - in the Catholic Church of the XIII-XIX centuries. church-police institution to combat heresy. The proceedings were conducted in secret, with the use of torture. Heretics were usually sentenced to be burned at the stake. The Inquisition was especially rampant in Spain.

Copernicus proposed a heliocentric system for constructing planets, according to which the center of the Universe was not the Earth (which corresponded to church canons), but the Sun. In 1530, he completed his work “On the Conversion of the Heavenly Spheres,” in which he outlined this theory, but, being a skilled politician, did not publish it and thus avoided accusations of heresy from the Inquisition. For more than a hundred years, Copernicus’s book was secretly circulated in manuscript, and the church pretended not to know about its existence. When Giordano Bruno began to popularize this work of Copernicus at public lectures, she could not remain silent.

Before early XIX centuries, inquisitorial tribunals intervened in literally all spheres of human activity.

In the 15th century, the Spanish Inquisition executed the mathematician Valmes just because he solved an equation of incredible complexity. And this, according to church authorities, was “inaccessible to human reason.”

The actions of the Inquisition set medicine back thousands of years. For centuries, the Catholic Church opposed surgery.

The Holy Inquisition could not ignore historians, philosophers, writers and even musicians. Cervantes, Beaumarchais, Molière, and even Raphael Santi, who painted numerous Madonnas and, at the end of his life, was appointed architect of St. Peter's Cathedral, had certain problems with the church.

The era of the Middle Ages was considered by advanced thinkers of modern times as a dark time that gave nothing to the world: narrow religious worldview, imposed by the Catholic Church, hindered the development of science and art. In today's lesson we will try to challenge this statement and prove that the Middle Ages, which lasted a thousand years, left a rich cultural heritage for future generations.

In the 11th century, chivalric poetry arose in the south of France, in Provence. Provençal poet-singers were called troubadours (Fig. 1). The imagination of the poets created the image of an ideal knight - brave, generous and fair. The poetry of the troubadours glorified the service of the Beautiful Lady, the Madonna (“my lady”), which combined the worship of the Mother of God and the earthly, living and beautiful woman. In Northern France, Italy, Spain, and Germany, knightly poets were called trouvères and minnesingers (translated as singers of love).

Rice. 1. Troubadour ()

In these same centuries, poetic chivalric novels and stories arose. The legends of King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table were especially widely reflected in the novels. Arthur's court was seen as a place where the best qualities of knighthood flourished. The novels transported the reader to fantasy world, where at every step one met fairies, giants, wizards, oppressed beauties, waiting for help from brave knights.

In the 12th century, urban literature began to flourish. The townspeople loved short stories in verse and fables on everyday topics. Their heroes were most often a clever, cunning burgher or a cheerful, resourceful peasant. They invariably left their opponents - arrogant knights and greedy monks - in the cold. Poems by va-gants (translated from Latin as tramps) are associated with urban literature. Vagants were schoolchildren and students who, in the 12th-13th centuries, wandered around the cities and universities of Europe in search of new teachers.

The most outstanding figure of the Middle Ages was Dante Alighieri (1265-1321) (Fig. 2). Dante was born in Florence into an old noble family. He studied at a city school, and then spent his entire life studying philosophy, astronomy, and ancient literature. At the age of 18, he experienced love for young Beatrice, who later married another man and died early. Dante spoke about his experiences with unprecedented frankness for those times in a small book “New Life”; she glorified his name in literature. Dante wrote a great work in verse, which he called “Comedy”. Descendants called it “The Divine Comedy” as a sign of the highest praise. Dante describes a journey to the afterlife: hell for sinners, heaven for the righteous and purgatory for those to whom God has not yet pronounced his sentence. At the gates of hell, located in the north, there is an inscription that has become popular: “Abandon hope, all who enter here.” In the center of the southern hemisphere there is a huge mountain in the form of a truncated cone, on the ledges of the mountain there is purgatory, and on its flat top there is an earthly paradise. Accompanied by the great Roman poet Virgil, Dante visits hell and purgatory, and Beatrice leads him through heaven. There are 9 circles in hell: the more severe the sins, the lower the circle and the more severe the punishment. In hell, Dante placed bloodthirsty power-hungers, cruel rulers, criminals, and misers. In the center of hell is the devil himself, gnawing at the traitors: Judas, Brutus and Cassius. Dante also placed his enemies in hell, including several popes. In his depiction, sinners are not disembodied shadows, but living people: they conduct conversations and disputes with the poet, political strife rages in hell. Dante talks with the righteous in paradise and finally contemplates the Mother of God and God. The pictures of the afterlife are drawn so vividly and convincingly that it seemed to contemporaries that the poet saw it with his own eyes. And he described, in essence, the diverse earthly world, with its contradictions and passions. The poem was written in Italian: the poet wanted it to be understood by the widest circle of readers.

Rice. 2. Domenico Petarlini. Dante Alighieri)

Since the 11th century, great construction began in Western Europe. The rich church expanded the number and size of churches and rebuilt old buildings. Until the 11th-12th centuries, the Romanesque style dominated in Europe. The Romanesque temple is a massive building with almost smooth walls, high towers and laconic decoration. The outlines of the semicircular arch are repeated everywhere - on the vaults, window openings, and entrances to the temple (Fig. 3).

Rice. 3. Church of San Martin in Fromista (1066) - one of the best Romanesque monuments in Spain)

From the middle of the 12th century, trading premises, halls for meetings of workshops and guilds, hospitals, and hotels were built in free cities. The main decorations of the city were the town hall and especially the cathedral. The buildings of the 12th-15th centuries were later called Gothic. Now the light and high pointed vault is supported inside by bundles of narrow, tall columns, and outside by massive supporting pillars and connecting arches. The halls are spacious and high, they receive more light and air, they are richly decorated with paintings, carvings, and bas-reliefs. Thanks to wide passages and through galleries, many huge windows and lace stone carvings, Gothic cathedrals seem transparent (Fig. 4).

Rice. 4. Notre Dame Cathedral (

In the Middle Ages, sculpture was inseparable from architecture. Temples were decorated inside and out with hundreds, or even thousands, of reliefs and statues depicting God and the Virgin Mary, apostles and saints, bishops and kings. For example, in the cathedral in Chartres (France) there were up to 9 thousand statues, not counting the reliefs. Church art was supposed to serve as a “Bible for the illiterate” - to depict scenes described in Christian books, to strengthen in faith and to terrify with the torments of hell. Unlike ancient art, which glorified the beauty of the human body, the artists of the Middle Ages sought to reveal the richness of the soul, thoughts and feelings of man, his intense inner life. In Gothic statues, in their flexible, elongated figures, the appearance of people is especially vividly conveyed, body shapes appear more clearly under the folds of clothing, and there is more movement in poses. The idea of ​​harmony between the external and internal appearance of a person is becoming more and more noticeable; The female images are especially beautiful - Mary in Reims Cathedral, Uta in Naumburg.

The walls of Romanesque churches were covered with paintings. A great achievement in painting was the book miniature. The whole life of people was reflected in many bright drawings. Domestic scenes were also depicted on frescoes, which is especially typical for German and Scandinavian churches of the 14th-15th centuries.

Considering the cultural heritage of the Middle Ages, let us dwell on scientific achievements. Astrology and alchemy flourished in the Middle Ages. Observations and experiments of astrologers and alchemists contributed to the accumulation of knowledge in astronomy and chemistry. Alchemists, for example, discovered and improved methods for producing metal alloys, paints, medicinal substances, and created many chemical instruments and devices for conducting experiments. Astrologers studied the location of stars and luminaries, their movement and the laws of physics. She accumulated useful knowledge and medicine.

In the XIV-XV centuries, water mills began to be actively used in mining and crafts. The water wheel has long been the basis of mills that were built on rivers and lakes for grinding grain (Fig. 5). But later they invented a more powerful wheel, which was driven by the force of water falling on it. The energy of the mill was also used in cloth making, for washing (“enrichment”) and smelting metal ores, lifting weights, etc. The mill and mechanical watches were the first mechanisms of the Middle Ages.

Rice. 5. Top water wheel ()

The emergence of firearms. Previously, metal was melted in small furnaces, forcing air into them with hand-held bellows. Since the 14th century, they began to build blast furnaces - smelting furnaces up to 3-4 meters in height. The water wheel was connected to large bellows, which forcefully blew air into the furnace. Thanks to this, a very high temperature was reached in the blast furnace: the iron ore melted, liquid iron ore was formed. Various products were cast from cast iron, and iron and steel were obtained by melting it down. Much more metal was now smelted than before. For smelting metal in blast furnaces, they began to use not only charcoal, but also coal.

For a long time, few Europeans dared to embark on long voyages on the open sea. Without the correct maps and marine instruments, the ships sailed “coastally” (along the coast) along the seas washing Europe and along North Africa. Going out to the open sea became safer after sailors had a compass. Astrolabes were invented - devices for determining the location of a ship (Fig. 6).

Rice. 6. Astrolabe ()

With the development of the state and cities, science and navigation, the volume of knowledge increased and, at the same time, the need for educated people, in expanding learning and in books, including textbooks. In the 14th century, cheaper writing material - paper - began to be produced in Europe, but there were still not enough books. To reproduce the text, impressions were made from a wooden or copper board with letters carved on it, but this method was very imperfect and required a lot of labor. In the mid-15th century, the German Johannes Gutenberg (c. 1399-1468) invented printing. After long and persistent work and searches, he began to cast individual characters (letters) from metal; From these, the inventor composed lines and pages of type, from which he made an impression on paper. Using a collapsible font, you could type as many pages of any text as you wanted. Gutenberg also invented the printing press. In 1456, Guttenberg released the first printed book - the Bible (Fig. 7), which was artistically on par with the best handwritten books. The invention of printing is one of the greatest discoveries in human history. It contributed to the development of education, science and literature. Thanks to the printed book, the knowledge accumulated by people and all the necessary information began to spread faster. They were more fully preserved and passed on to subsequent generations of people. Successes in the dissemination of information, an important part of the development of culture and all sectors of society, took their next important step in the late Middle Ages - a step towards the New Age.

Rice. 7. The Bible of Johannes Guttenberg ()

Bibliography

1. Agibalova E.V., G.M. Donskoy. History of the Middle Ages. - M., 2012
2. Atlas of the Middle Ages: History. Traditions. - M., 2000
3. Illustrated world history: from ancient times to the 17th century. - M., 1999
4. History of the Middle Ages: book. For reading / Ed. V.P. Budanova. - M., 1999
5. Kalashnikov V. Mysteries of history: The Middle Ages / V. Kalashnikov. - M., 2002
6. Stories on the history of the Middle Ages / Ed. A.A. Svanidze. M., 1996

1. Liveinternet.ru ().
2. Pavluchenkov.ru ().
3. E-reading-lib.com ().
4. Countries.ru ().
5. Playroom.ru ().
6. Meinland.ru ().

Homework

1. What genres of literature developed in medieval Europe?
2. Why is Dante considered the greatest poet of the Middle Ages?
3. What styles dominated in medieval architecture?
4. What technical inventions of the Middle Ages do you know?
5. Why is the invention of printing considered one of the most important discoveries in human history?

The term “Middle Ages” was introduced by humanists around 1500. This is how they designated the millennium that separated them from the “golden age” of antiquity.

Medieval culture is divided into periods:

1. V century AD - XI century n. e. - early Middle Ages.

2. End of the 8th century. AD - beginning of the 9th century AD - Carolingian revival.

Z. XI - XIII centuries. - culture of the mature Middle Ages.

4. XIV-XV centuries. - culture of the late Middle Ages.

The Middle Ages is a period the beginning of which coincided with the withering away of ancient culture, and the end with its revival in modern times. The early Middle Ages include two outstanding cultures - the culture of the Carolingian Renaissance and Byzantium. They gave rise to two great cultures - Catholic (Western Christian) and Orthodox (Eastern Christian).

Medieval culture spans more than a millennium and, in socio-economic terms, corresponds to the origin, development and decay of feudalism. In this historically long socio-cultural process of development of feudal society, a unique type of human relationship to the world was developed, qualitatively distinguishing it both from the culture of ancient society and from the subsequent culture of modern times.

The term "Carolingian Renaissance" describes the cultural upsurge in the empire of Charlemagne and the kingdoms of the Carolingian dynasty in the 8th-9th centuries. (mainly in France and Germany). He expressed himself in the organization of schools, the attraction of educated figures to the royal court, and the development of literature, fine arts, and architecture. Scholasticism (“school theology”) became the dominant direction of medieval philosophy.

The origins of medieval culture should be outlined:

The culture of the “barbarian” peoples of Western Europe (the so-called German origin);

Cultural traditions of the Western Roman Empire (Romanesque beginning: powerful statehood, law, science and art);

The Crusades significantly expanded not only economic, trade contacts and exchanges, but also contributed to the penetration of the more developed culture of the Arab East and Byzantium into barbarian Europe. At the height of the Crusades, Arab science began to play a huge role in the Christian world, contributing to the rise of medieval culture in 12th-century Europe. The Arabs passed on to Christian scholars Greek science, accumulated and preserved in eastern libraries, which was greedily absorbed by enlightened Christians. The authority of pagan and Arab scientists was so strong that references to them were almost obligatory in medieval science; Christian philosophers sometimes attributed their original thoughts and conclusions to them.

As a result of long-term communication with the population of the more cultured East, Europeans accepted many achievements of culture and technology of the Byzantine and Muslim world. This gave a strong impetus to the further development of Western European civilization, which was reflected primarily in the growth of cities and the strengthening of their economic and spiritual potential. Between the X and XIII centuries. There was a rise in the development of Western cities, and their image changed.

One function prevailed - trade, which revived the old cities and created a little later the craft function. The city became a hotbed of hatred for the lords economic activity, which led, to a certain extent, to population migration. From various social elements, the city created a new society, contributed to the formation of a new mentality, which consisted in choosing an active, rational life, rather than a contemplative one. The flourishing of the urban mentality was favored by the emergence of urban patriotism. Urban society was able to create aesthetic, cultural, and spiritual values, which gave new impetus to the development of the medieval West.

Romanesque art, which was an expressive manifestation of early Christian architecture, throughout the 12th century. began to transform. The old Romanesque churches became too crowded for the growing population of the cities. It was necessary to make the church spacious, full of air, while saving expensive space inside the city walls. Therefore, cathedrals stretch upward, often hundreds or more meters. For the townspeople, the cathedral was not just a decoration, but also an impressive evidence of the power and wealth of the city. Along with the town hall, the cathedral was the center and focus of all public life.

The town hall housed the business and practical part related to city government, and in the cathedral, in addition to divine services, university lectures were given, theatrical performances (mysteries) took place, and sometimes parliament met there. Many city cathedrals were so large that the entire population of the then city could not fill it. Cathedrals and town halls were erected by order of city communes. Due to the high cost of building materials and the complexity of the work itself, temples were sometimes built over several centuries. The iconography of these cathedrals expressed the spirit of urban culture.

In her, active and contemplative life sought balance. Huge windows with colored glass (stained glass) created a flickering twilight. Massive semicircular vaults gave way to pointed, rib vaults. In combination with a complex support system, this made it possible to make the walls light and openwork. The evangelical characters in the sculptures of the Gothic temple acquire the grace of courtly heroes, smiling coquettishly and suffering “subtly.”

Gothic - artistic style, predominantly architectural, which reached its greatest development in the construction of light, pointed, skyward cathedrals with pointed vaults and rich decorative decoration, became the pinnacle of medieval culture. Overall, it was a triumph of engineering and the dexterity of guild artisans, an invasion of catholic church secular spirit of urban culture. Gothic is associated with the life of a medieval city-commune, with the struggle of cities for independence from the feudal lord. Like Romanesque art, Gothic art spread throughout Europe, and its best creations were created in the cities of France.

Changes in architecture led to changes in monumental painting. The place of the frescoes was taken stained glass. The Church established canons in the image, but even through them the creative individuality of the masters made itself felt. In terms of their emotional impact, the subjects of stained glass paintings, conveyed through drawing, are in last place, and in the first place are color and, along with it, light. The design of the book has achieved great skill. In the XII-XIII centuries. manuscripts of religious, historical, scientific or poetic content are elegantly illustrated color miniature.

Of the liturgical books, the most common are books of hours and psalms, intended mainly for the laity. The artist had no concept of space and perspective, so the drawing is schematic and the composition is static. The beauty of the human body was not given any importance in medieval painting. Spiritual beauty came first, moral character person. The sight of a naked body was considered sinful. Particular importance was attached to the face in the appearance of a medieval person. The medieval era created grandiose artistic ensembles, solved gigantic architectural problems, created new forms of monumental painting and plastic arts, and most importantly, it was a synthesis of these monumental arts, in which it sought to convey a complete picture of the world .

The shift in the center of gravity of culture from monasteries to cities was especially clearly evident in the field of education. During the 12th century. City schools are decisively ahead of monastery schools. New training centers, thanks to their programs and methods, and most importantly - the recruitment of teachers and students, are very quickly coming forward.

Students from other cities and countries gathered around the most brilliant teachers. As a result, it begins to create high school - university. In the 11th century The first university was opened in Italy (Bologna, 1088). In the 12th century. Universities are also emerging in other Western European countries. In England, the first was the university in Oxford (1167), then the university in Cambridge (1209). The largest and first of the universities in France was Paris (1160).

Studying and teaching science becomes a craft, one of the many activities that have been specialized in urban life. The name university itself comes from the Latin “corporation”. Indeed, universities were corporations of teachers and students. The development of universities with their traditions of debate, as the main form of education and the movement of scientific thought, appeared in the 12th-13th centuries. A large amount of translated literature from Arabic and Greek became a stimulus for the intellectual development of Europe.

Universities represented the concentration of medieval philosophy - scholastics. The method of scholasticism consisted in the consideration and collision of all arguments and counterarguments of any position and in the logical development of this position. The old dialectics, the art of debate and argumentation, are receiving extraordinary development. A scholastic ideal of knowledge is emerging, where high status acquires rational knowledge and logical proof, based on the teachings of the church and on authorities in various branches of knowledge.

Mysticism, which had a significant influence in the culture as a whole, is accepted very cautiously in scholasticism, only in connection with alchemy and astrology. Until the 13th century. scholasticism was the only possible way to improve the intellect because science was subordinate to theology and served it. The scholastics were credited with developing formal logic and the deductive way of thinking, and their method of knowledge was nothing more than the fruit of medieval rationalism. The most recognized of the scholastics, Thomas Aquinas, considered science to be the “handmaiden of theology.” Despite the development of scholasticism, it was universities that became centers of a new, non-religious culture.

At the same time, there was a process of accumulation of practical knowledge, which was transferred in the form of production experience in craft workshops and workshops. Many discoveries and finds were made here, mixed with mysticism and magic. The process of technical development was expressed in the appearance and use of windmills and lifts for the construction of temples.

A new and extremely important phenomenon was the creation of non-church schools in cities: these were private schools, financially independent of the church. Since that time, there has been a rapid spread of literacy among the urban population. Urban non-church schools became centers of free thought. Poetry became the mouthpiece of such sentiments vagrants- wandering school poets, people from the lower classes. A feature of their work was the constant criticism of the Catholic Church and the clergy for greed, hypocrisy, and ignorance. The Vagantes believed that these qualities, common to the common man, should not be inherent in the holy church. The Church, in turn, persecuted and condemned the vagants.

The most important monument of English literature XII V. - famous Ballads of Robin Hood, who to this day remains one of the most famous heroes of world literature.

Developed urban culture. The poetic short stories depicted dissolute and selfish monks, dull peasant villans, and cunning burghers (“The Romance of the Fox”). Urban art was nourished by peasant folklore and was distinguished by great integrity and organicity. It was on urban soil that they appeared music and theater with their touching dramatizations of church legends and instructive allegories.

The city contributed to the growth of productive forces, which gave impetus to development natural sciences. English encyclopedist R. Bacon(XIII century) believed that knowledge should be based on experience, and not on authorities. But the emerging rationalistic ideas were combined with the search by alchemical scientists for the “elixir of life”, the “philosopher’s stone”, and with the aspirations of astrologers to predict the future by the movement of the planets. At the same time, they made discoveries in the field natural sciences, medicine, astronomy. Scientific research gradually contributed to changes in all aspects of the life of medieval society and prepared the emergence of a “new” Europe.

The culture of the Middle Ages is characterized by:

Theocentrism and creationism;

Dogmatism;

Ideological intolerance;

Suffering renunciation of the world and craving for a violent worldwide transformation of the world in accordance with the idea (crusades)