Musical culture of classicism: aesthetic issues, Viennese musical classics, main genres. Luxury and severity of classicism

Classicism — art style And aesthetic direction V European art XVII-XIX centuries

Classicism is based on the ideas of rationalism, which were formed simultaneously with the same ideas in the philosophy of Descartes. A work of art, from the point of view of classicism, should be built on the basis of strict canons, thereby revealing the harmony and logic of the universe itself. Of interest to classicism is only the eternal, the unchangeable - in each phenomenon it strives to recognize only essential, typological features, discarding random individual characteristics. The aesthetics of classicism attaches great importance to the social and educational function of art. Classicism takes many rules and canons from ancient art (Aristotle, Horace).

Classicism establishes a strict hierarchy of genres, which are divided into high (ode, tragedy, epic) and low (comedy, satire, fable). Each genre has strictly defined characteristics, the mixing of which is not allowed.

How a certain direction was formed in France, in the 17th century. French classicism affirmed the personality of man as the highest value of existence, freeing him from religious and church influence. Russian classicism not only adopted Western European theory, but also enriched it national characteristics.

The founder of the poetics of classicism is the Frenchman Francois Malherbe (1555-1628), who carried out a reform of the French language and verse and developed poetic canons. The leading representatives of classicism in drama were the tragedians Corneille and Racine (1639-1699), whose main subject of creativity was the conflict between public duty and personal passions. “Low” genres also achieved high development: fable (J. Lafontaine), satire (Boileau), comedy (Molière 1622-1673).

Boileau became famous throughout Europe as the “legislator of Parnassus”, the largest theorist of classicism, who expressed his views in the poetic treatise “Poetic Art”. Under his influence in Great Britain were the poets John Dryden and Alexander Pope, who made the main form English poetry alexandrines. English prose of the classical era (Addison, Swift) is also characterized by a Latinized syntax.

Classicism of the 18th century developed under the influence of the ideas of the Enlightenment. The work of Voltaire (1694-1778) is directed against religious fanaticism, absolutist oppression, and is filled with the pathos of freedom. The goal of creativity is to change the world in better side, construction in accordance with the laws of classicism of society itself. From the standpoint of classicism, the Englishman Samuel Johnson reviewed contemporary literature, around whom a brilliant circle of like-minded people formed, including the essayist Boswell, the historian Gibbon and the actor Garrick.

In Russia, classicism originated in the 18th century, after the reforms of Peter I. Lomonosov carried out a reform of Russian verse and developed the theory of “three calms,” which was essentially an adaptation of French classical rules to the Russian language. Images in classicism are deprived individual traits, since they are intended primarily to capture stable generic characteristics that do not pass over time, acting as the embodiment of any social or spiritual forces.

Classicism in Russia developed under the great influence of the Enlightenment - the ideas of equality and justice have always been the focus of attention of Russian classic writers. Therefore, in Russian classicism, genres that require the author’s obligatory assessment of historical reality have received great development: comedy (D. I. Fonvizin), satire (A. D. Kantemir), fable (A. P. Sumarokov, I. I. Khemnitser), ode (Lomonosov, G. R. Derzhavin).

In connection with Rousseau’s proclaimed call for closeness to nature and naturalness, crisis phenomena were growing in classicism at the end of the 18th century; The absolutization of reason is replaced by the cult of tender feelings - sentimentalism. The transition from classicism to pre-romanticism was most clearly reflected in German literature of the era of Sturm and Drang, represented by the names of J. V. Goethe (1749-1832) and F. Schiller (1759-1805), who, following Rousseau, saw art main force human upbringing.

The main features of Russian classicism:

1. Appeal to the images and forms of ancient art.

2. Heroes are clearly divided into positive and negative.

3. The plot is usually based on a love triangle: the heroine - the hero-lover, the second lover.

4. At the end classic comedy Vice is always punished, and goodness triumphs.

5. The principle of three unities: time (the action lasts no more than a day), place, action.

Romanticism as a literary movement.

Romanticism (French romantisme) is a phenomenon of European culture in the 18th-19th centuries, representing a reaction to the Enlightenment and the scientific and technological progress stimulated by it; ideological and artistic direction in European and American culture of the late 18th century - the first half of the 19th century. It is characterized by an affirmation of the intrinsic value of the spiritual and creative life of the individual, the depiction of strong (often rebellious) passions and characters, spiritualized and healing nature.

Romanticism first arose in Germany, among writers and philosophers of the Jena school (W. G. Wackenroder, Ludwig Tieck, Novalis, brothers F. and A. Schlegel). The philosophy of romanticism was systematized in the works of F. Schlegel and F. Schelling. In further development German romanticism distinguished by an interest in fairy-tale and mythological motifs, which was especially clearly expressed in the works of the brothers Wilhelm and Jacob Grimm, and Hoffmann. Heine, starting his work within the framework of romanticism, later subjected it to critical revision.

In England it is largely due to German influence. In England, its first representatives are the poets of the “Lake School”, Wordsworth and Coleridge. They established the theoretical foundations of their direction, becoming familiar with the philosophy of Schelling and the views of the first German romantics during a trip to Germany. English romanticism is characterized by an interest in social problems: they contrast modern bourgeois society with old, pre-bourgeois relationships, glorification of nature, simple, natural feelings.

A prominent representative of English romanticism is Byron, who, according to Pushkin, “clothed himself in dull romanticism and hopeless egoism.” His work is imbued with the pathos of struggle and protest against modern world, praising freedom and individualism.

Romanticism became widespread in other European countries, for example, in France (Chateaubriand, J. Stael, Lamartine, Victor Hugo, Alfred de Vigny, Prosper Merimee, George Sand), Italy (N. U. Foscolo, A. Manzoni, Leopardi) , Poland (Adam Mickiewicz, Juliusz Słowacki, Zygmunt Krasiński, Cyprian Norwid) and in the USA (Washington Irving, Fenimore Cooper, W. C. Bryant, Edgar Poe, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Henry Longfellow, Herman Melville).

It is usually believed that in Russia romanticism appears in the poetry of V. A. Zhukovsky (although some Russian poetic works of the 1790-1800s are often attributed to the pre-romantic movement that developed from sentimentalism). In Russian romanticism, freedom from classical conventions appears, a ballad and romantic drama are created. A new idea is being established about the essence and meaning of poetry, which is recognized as an independent sphere of life, an expression of the highest, ideal aspirations of man; the old view, according to which poetry seemed to be empty fun, something completely serviceable, turns out to be no longer possible.

The early poetry of A. S. Pushkin also developed within the framework of romanticism. The poetry of M. Yu. Lermontov, the “Russian Byron,” can be considered the pinnacle of Russian romanticism. The philosophical lyrics of F. I. Tyutchev are both the completion and overcoming of romanticism in Russia.

Heroes are bright, exceptional individuals in unusual circumstances. Romanticism is characterized by impulse, extraordinary complexity, and the inner depth of human individuality. Denial of artistic authorities. There are no genre barriers or stylistic distinctions. Only the desire for complete freedom of creative imagination. For example, we can cite the greatest French poet and writer Victor Hugo and his worldwide famous novel"Notre Dame Cathedral"

Classicism is an artistic and architectural style that dominated Europe in the 17th-19th centuries. The same term served as the name for the aesthetic direction. The objects created during this period were intended to serve as examples of the ideal, “correct” style.

Classicism is based on the ideas of rationalism and adheres to certain canons, therefore almost all projects implemented in the era of classicism are characterized by harmony and logic.

Classicism in architecture

Classicism replaced Rococo, which was subject to public criticism for excessive complexity, pompousness, mannerism, and excess of decorative elements. At the same time, European society increasingly began to turn to the ideas of enlightenment, which was expressed in all aspects of activity, including architecture. The architects' attention was attracted by the simplicity, conciseness, clarity, calm and rigor characteristic of ancient architecture, primarily Greek. In fact, classicism became a natural result of the development of Renaissance architecture and its transformation.

The goal of all objects created in the classicism style is the desire for simplicity, rigor, and at the same time, harmony and perfection - which is why medieval masters often turned to monumental ancient architectural forms. Classical architecture is characterized by regularity of layout and clarity of forms. The basis of this style was the order of ancient times, in particular spatial compositions, restraint of decor, a planning system, according to which the buildings were located on wide straight streets, proportions and strict geometric shapes were observed.

The aesthetics of classicism were favorable for the creation of large-scale projects within entire cities. In Russia, many cities were replanned in accordance with the principles of classicist rationalism.

The tectonics of walls and vaults continued to influence the character of architecture. During the period of classicism, the vaults became flatter and a portico appeared. As for the walls, they began to be separated by cornices and pilasters. In the classic composition, following the composition of antiquity, symmetry prevails. Color range are composed predominantly of light pastel colors, which serve to highlight architectural elements.

The most large-scale projects of the late 18th and first half of the 19th centuries are associated with classicism: new cities, parks, and resorts appear.

In the 20s of the 19th century, along with classicism, the eclectic style was popular, which at that time had a romantic overtones. In addition, classicism was diluted with elements of the Renaissance and (beaux-arts).

Development of classicism in the world

Classicism arose and developed under the influence of educational progressive trends social thought. The key ideas were the ideas of patriotism and citizenship, as well as the idea of ​​the value of the human person. In antiquity, supporters of classicism found an example of an ideal government system and harmonious relations man with nature. Antiquity is perceived as a free era, when the individual developed spiritually and physically. From the point of view of classicists, this was an ideal time in history without social contradictions and social conflicts. Cultural monuments have also become role models.

Three stages in the development of classicism in the world can be distinguished:

• Early classicism (1760s - early 1780s).
• Strict classicism (mid-1780s - 1790s).
• Empire style

These periods are valid for both Europe and Russia, but Russian classicism can be considered a separate architectural movement. In fact, like European classicism, it became the opposite of Baroque and quickly supplanted it. In parallel with classicism, there were other architectural (and cultural) movements: rococo, pseudo-gothic, sentimentalism.

It all started with the accession of Catherine the Great. Classicism harmoniously fit into the framework of strengthening the cult of statehood, when the priority of public duty over personal feelings was proclaimed. A little later, the ideas of the Enlightenment were reflected in the theory of classicism, so that the “class classicism” of the 17th century was transformed into “enlightenment classicism.” As a result, architectural ensembles appeared in the centers of Russian cities, in particular St. Petersburg, Tver, Kostroma, and Yaroslavl.

Features of classicism

Classicism is characterized by a desire for clarity, certainty, unambiguity, and logical consistency. Monumental structures of rectangular shapes predominate.

Another feature and fundamental task was to imitate nature, harmonious and at the same time modern. Beauty was understood as something born of nature and at the same time surpassing it. She must portray truth and virtue and engage in moral education.

Architecture and art are intended to promote personal development so that man becomes enlightened and civilized. The stronger the connection between different types of arts, the more effective their action and the easier it is to achieve this goal.

Predominant colors: white, blue, as well as rich shades of green, pink, purple.

Following ancient architecture, classicism uses strict lines and smooth patterns; the elements are repeating and harmonious, and the shapes are clear and geometric. The main decorations are bas-reliefs in medallions, statues on roofs, rotundas. Antique ornaments were often present in the exterior. In general, the decor is restrained, without frills.

Representatives of classicism

Classicism has become one of the most widespread styles throughout the world. Throughout the entire period of its existence, many talented craftsmen appeared and a large number of projects were created.

Main features architectural classicism in Europe were formed thanks to the works of the Venetian master Palladio and his follower Scamozzi.

In Paris, one of the most influential architects of the classicism period was Jacques-Germain Soufflot - he was looking for optimal solutions for organizing space. Claude-Nicolas Ledoux anticipated many of the principles of modernism.

In general, the main features of classicism in France manifested themselves in such a style as the Empire style - the “imperial style”. This is the style of late classicism in architecture and art, which is also called high. It originated in France during the reign of Napoleon I and developed until the 30s of the 19th century. after which it was replaced by eclectic movements.

In Britain, the equivalent of the Empire style was the "Regency style" (in particular, John Nash made a major contribution). Inigo Jones, an architect, designer and artist, is considered one of the founders of the British architectural tradition.

The most characteristic interiors in the classicist style were designed by the Scot Robert Adam. He tried to abandon parts that did not perform a constructive function.

In Germany, thanks to Leo von Klenze and Karl Friedrich Schinkel, public buildings in the spirit of the Parthenon appeared.

In Russia, Andrei Voronikhin and Andreyan Zakharov showed special skill.

Classicism in the interior

The requirements for an interior in the classicist style were actually the same as for architectural objects: monolithic structures, precise lines, conciseness and at the same time grace. The interior becomes lighter and more restrained, and the furniture becomes simpler and lighter. Egyptian, Greek or Roman motifs are often used.

Furniture from the Classical era was made from valuable types of wood; texture, which began to serve a decorative function, acquired great importance. Wooden carved inserts were often used as decoration. In general, the decor has become more restrained, but of higher quality and more expensive.

The shapes of objects are simplified, the lines become straight. In particular, the legs are straightened and the surfaces become simpler. Popular colors: mahogany plus light bronze finish. Chairs and armchairs are upholstered in fabrics with floral patterns.

Chandeliers and lamps are equipped with crystal pendants and are quite massive in design.

The interior also contains porcelain, mirrors in expensive frames, books, and paintings.

The colors of this style often have clear, almost primary yellows, blues, as well as purple and green tones, the latter being used with black and gray flowers, as well as with bronze and silver jewelry. White color is popular. Colored varnishes (white, green) are often used in combination with light gilding of individual parts.

Currently, the classicism style can be successfully used both in spacious halls and in small rooms, but it is desirable that they have high ceilings - then this method of decoration will have a greater effect.

Fabrics may also be suitable for such an interior - as a rule, these are bright, rich varieties of textiles, including tapestries, taffeta and velvet.

Architecture examples

Let's look at the most significant works of architects of the 18th century - this period marked the peak of the heyday of classicism as an architectural movement.

In Classical France, various public institutions were built, including business buildings, theaters, and commercial buildings. The largest building of those times was the Pantheon in Paris, created by Jacques-Germain Soufflot. Initially, the project was conceived as the Church of St. Genevieve, patroness of Paris, but in 1791 it was turned into the Pantheon - the burial place of great people of France. It became an example of architecture in the spirit of classicism. The Pantheon is a cruciform building with a grandiose dome and a drum surrounded by columns. Main facade decorated with a portico and pediment. The parts of the building are clearly demarcated; one can notice the transition from heavier to lighter forms. The interior is dominated by clear horizontal and vertical lines; the columns support the system of arches and vaults and at the same time create the perspective of the interior.

The Pantheon became a monument to enlightenment, reason and citizenship. Thus, the Pantheon became not only an architectural, but also an ideological embodiment of the era of classicism.

The 18th century was the heyday of English architecture. One of the most influential English architects of the time was Christopher Wren. His work combined functionality and aesthetics. He offered own plan the rebuilding of downtown London after the fire of 1666; St. Paul's Cathedral also became one of his most ambitious projects, work on which lasted about 50 years.

St. Paul's Cathedral is located in the City - the business part of London - in one of the oldest areas, and is the largest Protestant temple. It has an elongated shape, like a Latin cross, but the main axis is located similar to the axes in Orthodox churches. The English clergy insisted that the building be based on a design typical of medieval churches in England. Wren himself wanted to create a structure closer to the forms of the Italian Renaissance.

The main attraction of the cathedral is its wooden dome covered with lead. Its lower part is surrounded by 32 Corinthian columns (height - 6 meters). At the top of the dome there is a lantern topped with a ball and a cross.

The portico, located on the western facade, has a height of 30 meters and is divided into two tiers with columns: six pairs of columns in the lower and four pairs in the upper. On the bas-relief you can see statues of the apostles Peter, Paul, James and the four evangelists. On the sides of the portico there are two bell towers: in the left tower there are 12, and in the right there is the “Great Floor” - the main bell of England (its weight is 16 tons) and a clock (the diameter of the dial is 15 meters). At the main entrance to the cathedral there is a monument to Anne, an English queen from a previous era. At her feet you can see allegorical figures of England, Ireland, France and America. The side doors are surrounded by five columns (which were not originally part of the architect's plan).

The scale of the cathedral is another distinctive feature: its length is almost 180 meters, the height from the floor to the dome inside the building is 68 meters, and the height of the cathedral with the cross is 120 meters.

The openwork grilles by Jean Tijou, made of wrought iron (late 17th century) and the carved wooden benches in the choir, which are considered the most valuable decoration of the cathedral, are still preserved.

As for the masters of Italy, one of them was the sculptor Antonio Canova. He performed his first works in the Rococo style. Then he began to study ancient literature and gradually became a supporter of classicism. The debut work was called Theseus and the Minotaur. The next work was the tombstone of Pope Clement XIV, which brought fame to the author and contributed to the establishment of the classicism style in sculpture. In the master's later works one can observe not only an orientation towards antiquity, but also a search for beauty and harmony with nature, ideal forms. Canova actively borrowed mythological subjects, creating portraits and tombstones. Among his most famous works are the statue of Perseus, several portraits of Napoleon, a portrait of George Washington, and the tombstones of Popes Clement XIII and Clement XIV. Canova's customers included popes, kings and wealthy collectors. From 1810 he served as director of the Academy of St. Luke in Rome. In the last years of his life, the master built his own museum in Possagno.

In Russia, the era of classicism was created by many talented architects - both Russian and those who came from abroad. Many foreign architects who worked in Russia were only able to fully demonstrate their talent here. Among them are the Italians Giacomo Quarenghi and Antonio Rinaldi, the Frenchman Wallen-Delamot and the Scotsman Charles Cameron. All of them mainly worked at the court in St. Petersburg and its environs. According to the designs of Charles Cameron, the Agate Rooms, Cold Baths and Cameron Gallery were built in Tsarskoe Selo. He proposed a number of interior solutions in which he used artificial marble, glass with foil, faience, and precious stones. One of his most famous works - the palace and park in Pavlovsk - was an attempt to combine the harmony of nature with the harmony of creativity. The main facade of the palace is decorated with galleries, columns, a loggia and a dome in the center. At the same time, the English park begins with an organized palace part with alleys, paths and sculptures and gradually turns into the forest.

If at the beginning of a new architectural period While the still unfamiliar style was represented predominantly by foreign masters, by the middle of the century original Russian architects appeared, such as Bazhenov, Kazakov, Starov and others. The works show a balance of classic Western forms and fusion with nature. In Russia, classicism went through several stages of development; its heyday occurred during the reign of Catherine II, who supported the ideas of the French Enlightenment.

The Academy of Arts is reviving the tradition of training its best students abroad. Thanks to this, it became possible not only to master the traditions of architectural classics, but also to introduce Russian architects to foreign colleagues as equal partners.

This was a big step forward in the organization of systematic architectural education. Bazhenov got the opportunity to create Tsaritsyn’s buildings, as well as Pashkov’s house, which is still considered one of the most beautiful buildings in Moscow. A rational compositional solution is combined with exquisite details. The building stands on the top of a hill, its façade faces the Kremlin and the embankment.

St. Petersburg was more fertile ground for the emergence of new architectural ideas, tasks and principles. At the beginning of the 19th century, Zakharov, Voronikhin and Thomas de Thomon implemented a number of significant projects. The most famous building of Andrei Voronikhin is the Kazan Cathedral, which some call a copy of St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome, but in its plan and composition it is an original work.

Another organizing center of St. Petersburg was the Admiralty of the architect Adrian Zakharov. The main avenues of the city tend towards it, and the spire becomes one of the most important vertical landmarks. Despite the colossal length of the Admiralty facade, Zakharov brilliantly coped with the task of its rhythmic organization, avoiding monotony and repetition. The Exchange building, which Thomas de Thomon built on the spit of Vasilievsky Island, can be considered a solution to a complex problem - preserving the design of the spit of Vasilievsky Island, and at the same time being combined with the ensembles of previous eras.

1. Introduction.Classicism as an artistic method...................................2

2. Aesthetics of classicism.

2.1. Basic principles of classicism.........................…………….….....5

2.2. Picture of the world, concept of personality in the art of classicism......5

2.3. The aesthetic nature of classicism.................................................... ........9

2.4. Classicism in painting......................................................... .........................15

2.5. Classicism in sculpture......................................................... .......................16

2.6. Classicism in architecture................................................................... .....................18

2.7. Classicism in literature................................................................... .......................20

2.8. Classicism in music......................................................... ...............................22

2.9. Classicism in the theater................................................... ...............................22

2.10. The originality of Russian classicism.................................................... ....22

3. Conclusion……………………………………...…………………………...26

Bibliography..............................…….………………………………….28

Applications ........................................................................................................29

1. Classicism as an artistic method

Classicism is one of the artistic methods that actually existed in the history of art. Sometimes it is referred to by the terms “direction” and “style”. Classicism (French) classicisme, from lat. classicus- exemplary) - artistic style and aesthetic direction in European art of the 17th-19th centuries.

Classicism is based on the ideas of rationalism, which were formed simultaneously with the same ideas in the philosophy of Descartes. A work of art, from the point of view of classicism, should be built on the basis of strict canons, thereby revealing the harmony and logic of the universe itself. Of interest to classicism is only the eternal, the unchangeable - in each phenomenon it strives to recognize only essential, typological features, discarding random individual characteristics. The aesthetics of classicism attaches great importance to the social and educational function of art. Classicism takes many rules and canons from ancient art (Aristotle, Horace).

Classicism establishes a strict hierarchy of genres, which are divided into high (ode, tragedy, epic) and low (comedy, satire, fable). Each genre has strictly defined characteristics, the mixing of which is not allowed.

The concept of classicism as creative method presupposes in its content a historically determined method of aesthetic perception and modeling of reality in artistic images: a picture of the world and a concept of personality, the most common for the mass aesthetic consciousness of a given historical era, are embodied in ideas about the essence of verbal art, its relationship with reality, its own internal laws.

Classicism arises and is formed in certain historical and cultural conditions. The most common research belief connects classicism with the historical conditions of the transition from feudal fragmentation to a unified national-territorial statehood, in the formation of which the centralizing role belongs to the absolute monarchy.

Classicism is an organic stage in the development of any national culture, despite the fact that the classicist stage is different national cultures take place at different times, due to the individuality of the national version of the formation of a general social model of a centralized state.

Chronological framework of the existence of classicism in different European cultures ah are defined as the second half of the 17th - the first thirty years of the 18th century, despite the fact that early classicist trends are noticeable at the end of the Renaissance, at the turn of the 16th-17th centuries. Within these chronological limits, French classicism is considered the standard embodiment of the method. Closely connected with the heyday of French absolutism in the second half of the 17th century, it gave European culture not only great writers - Corneille, Racine, Moliere, La Fontaine, Voltaire, but also a great theorist of classicist art - Nicolas Boileau-Dépreau. Being himself a practicing writer who earned fame during his lifetime for his satires, Boileau was mainly famous for the creation of the aesthetic code of classicism - the didactic poem “Poetic Art” (1674), in which he gave a coherent theoretical concept of literary creativity, derived from the literary practice of his contemporaries. Thus, classicism in France became the most self-conscious embodiment of the method. Hence its reference value.

The historical prerequisites for the emergence of classicism connect the aesthetic problematics of the method with the era of aggravation of the relationship between the individual and society in the process of the formation of autocratic statehood, which, replacing the social permissiveness of feudalism, seeks to regulate by law and clearly delimit the spheres of social and privacy and the relationship between the individual and the state. This determines the meaningful aspect of art. Its basic principles are motivated by the system of philosophical views of the era. They form a picture of the world and a concept of personality, and these categories are embodied together artistic techniques literary creativity.

The most general philosophical concepts present in all philosophical movements of the second half of the 17th - late 18th centuries. and directly related to the aesthetics and poetics of classicism are the concepts of “rationalism” and “metaphysics”, relevant for both idealistic and materialistic philosophical teachings of this time. The founder of the philosophical doctrine of rationalism is the French mathematician and philosopher René Descartes (1596-1650). The fundamental thesis of his doctrine: “I think, therefore I exist” - was realized in many philosophical movements of that time, united common name“Cartesianism” (from the Latin version of the name Descartes - Cartesius), In essence, this is an idealistic thesis, since it derives material existence from the idea. However, rationalism, as the interpretation of reason as the primary and highest spiritual ability of man, is equally characteristic of the materialist philosophical movements of the era - such, for example, as the metaphysical materialism of the English philosophical school of Bacon-Locke, which recognized experience as a source of knowledge, but put it below the generalizing and analytical activity of the mind, extracting from the multitude of facts obtained by experience the highest idea, a means of modeling the cosmos - the highest reality - from the chaos of individual material objects.

The concept of “metaphysics” is equally applicable to both varieties of rationalism - idealistic and materialistic. Genetically, it goes back to Aristotle, and in his philosophical teaching it denoted a branch of knowledge that explores the highest and unchangeable principles of all things, inaccessible to the senses and only rationally and speculatively comprehended. Both Descartes and Bacon used the term in the Aristotelian sense. In modern times, the concept of “metaphysics” has acquired additional meaning and has come to mean an anti-dialectical way of thinking that perceives phenomena and objects without their interrelation and development. Historically, this very accurately characterizes the peculiarities of thinking of the analytical era of the 17th-18th centuries, the period of differentiation of scientific knowledge and art, when each branch of science, standing out from the syncretic complex, acquired its own separate subject, but at the same time lost connection with other branches of knowledge.

2. Aesthetics of classicism

2.1. Basic principles of classicism

1. Cult of reason 2. Cult of civic duty 3. Appeal to medieval subjects 4. Abstraction from the depiction of everyday life, from historical national identity 5. Imitation of ancient models 6. Compositional harmony, symmetry, unity of a work of art 7. Heroes are bearers of one main feature, given outside of development 8. Antithesis as the main technique for creating a work of art

2.2. Picture of the world, concept of personality

in the art of classicism

The picture of the world generated by the rationalistic type of consciousness clearly divides reality into two levels: empirical and ideological. The external, visible and tangible material-empirical world consists of many separate material objects and phenomena that are in no way connected with each other - it is a chaos of individual private entities. However, above this disorderly multitude of individual objects, there is their ideal hypostasis - a harmonious and harmonious whole, a universal idea of ​​the universe, which includes the ideal image of any material object in its highest, purified from particulars, eternal and unchanging form: in the way it should be according to the original plan of the Creator. This universal idea can only be comprehended rationally and analytically by gradually purifying an object or phenomenon from its specific forms and appearance and penetrating into its ideal essence and purpose.

And since design precedes creation, and thinking is an indispensable condition and source of existence, this ideal reality has the highest primary character. It is easy to notice that the main patterns of such a two-level picture of reality are very easily projected onto the main sociological problem of the period of transition from feudal fragmentation to autocratic statehood - the problem of the relationship between the individual and the state. The world of people is a world of individual private human beings, chaotic and disorderly, the state is a comprehensive harmonious idea that creates a harmonious and harmonious ideal world order out of chaos. It is this philosophical picture of the world of the 17th-18th centuries. determined such substantive aspects of the aesthetics of classicism as the concept of personality and the typology of conflict, universally characteristic (with the necessary historical and cultural variations) for classicism in any European literature.

In the field of human relations with the outside world, classicism sees two types of connections and positions - the same two levels from which the philosophical picture of the world is formed. The first level is the so-called “natural man,” a biological being who stands alongside all objects of the material world. This is a private entity, possessed by selfish passions, disorderly and unrestricted in its desire to ensure its personal existence. At this level of human connections with the world, the leading category that determines the spiritual appearance of a person is passion - blind and unrestrained in its desire for realization in the name of achieving individual good.

The second level of the concept of personality is the so-called “social person”, harmoniously included in society in his highest, ideal image, aware that his good is an integral part of the good of the general. A “social man” is guided in his worldview and actions not by passions, but by reason, since reason is the highest spiritual ability of a person, giving him the opportunity for positive self-determination in the conditions of human community, based on the ethical norms of consistent community life. Thus, the concept of human personality in the ideology of classicism turns out to be complex and contradictory: a natural (passionate) and a social (reasonable) person is one and the same character, torn by internal contradictions and in a situation of choice.

Hence the typological conflict of the art of classicism, which directly follows from such a concept of personality. It is quite obvious that the source of a conflict situation is precisely the character of a person. Character is one of the central aesthetic categories of classicism, and its interpretation differs significantly from the meaning that modern consciousness and literary criticism puts into the term “character”. In the understanding of the aesthetics of classicism, character is precisely the ideal hypostasis of a person - that is, not the individual makeup of a specific human personality, but a certain universal appearance human nature and psychology, timeless in its essence. Only in this form of an eternal, unchanging, universal attribute could character be an object of classicist art, unambiguously attributed to the highest, ideal level of reality.

The main components of character are passions: love, hypocrisy, courage, stinginess, sense of duty, envy, patriotism, etc. It is by the predominance of one passion that a character is determined: “lover”, “miserly”, “envious”, “patriot”. All these definitions are precisely “characters” in the understanding of classicist aesthetic consciousness.

However, these passions are unequal to each other, although according to the philosophical concepts of the 17th-18th centuries. all passions are equal, since they are all from human nature, they are all natural, and no passion on its own can decide which passion is consistent with the ethical dignity of a person and which is not. These decisions are made only by reason. Despite the fact that all passions are equally categories of emotional spiritual life, some of them (such as love, stinginess, envy, hypocrisy, etc.) are less and more difficult to agree with the dictates of reason and are more associated with the concept of selfish good. Others (courage, sense of duty, honor, patriotism) are more subject to rational control and do not contradict the idea of ​​the common good, the ethics of social relations.

So it turns out that rational and unreasonable passions, altruistic and selfish, personal and social, collide in conflict. And reason is the highest spiritual ability of a person, a logical and analytical tool that allows one to control passions and distinguish good from evil, truth from lies. The most common type of classic conflict is a conflict situation between personal inclination (love) and a sense of duty to society and the state, which for some reason excludes the possibility of realizing love passion. It is quite obvious that by its nature this conflict is psychological, although a necessary condition for its implementation is a situation in which the interests of man and society collide. These most important ideological aspects of the aesthetic thinking of the era found their expression in the system of ideas about the laws of artistic creativity.

2.3. The aesthetic nature of classicism

The aesthetic principles of classicism have undergone significant changes during its existence. A characteristic feature of this trend is admiration for antiquity. Art of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome was considered by classicists as an ideal model of artistic creativity. “Poetics” of Aristotle and “The Art of Poetry” of Horace had a huge influence on the formation of the aesthetic principles of classicism. Here we find a tendency to create sublimely heroic, ideal, rationalistically clear and plastically completed images. As a rule, in the art of classicism, modern political, moral and aesthetic ideals are embodied in characters, conflicts, situations borrowed from the arsenal ancient history, mythology or directly from ancient art.

The aesthetics of classicism guided poets, artists, and composers to create works of art distinguished by clarity, logic, strict balance and harmony. All this, according to classicists, was fully reflected in ancient artistic culture. For them, reason and antiquity are synonymous. The rationalistic nature of the aesthetics of classicism manifested itself in the abstract typification of images, strict regulation of genres, forms, in the interpretation of the ancient artistic heritage, in the appeal of art to reason rather than to feelings, in the desire to subordinate the creative process to unshakable norms, rules and canons (norm - from the Latin. norma – guiding principle, rule, pattern; generally accepted rule, pattern of behavior or action).

Just as the aesthetic principles of the Renaissance found their most typical expression in Italy, so in France in the 17th century. – aesthetic principles of classicism. By the 17th century Italian artistic culture has largely lost its former influence. But the innovative spirit of French art clearly emerged. At this time, an absolutist state was formed in France, which united society and centralized power.

The strengthening of absolutism meant the victory of the principle of universal regulation in all spheres of life, from economics to spiritual life. Debt is the main regulator of human behavior. The state personifies this duty and acts as a kind of entity alienated from the individual. Submission to the state, fulfillment of public duty is the highest virtue of an individual. Man is no longer thought of as free, as was typical of the Renaissance worldview, but as subject to norms and rules alien to him, limited by forces beyond his control. The regulating and limiting force appears in the form of the impersonal mind, to which the individual must submit and act according to its commands and instructions.

The high rise in production contributed to the development of the exact sciences: mathematics, astronomy, physics, and this, in turn, led to the victory of rationalism (from the Latin ratio - reason) - a philosophical trend that recognizes reason as the basis of human cognition and behavior.

Ideas about the laws of creativity and structure work of art are determined to the same extent by the epochal type of worldview as the picture of the world and the concept of personality. Reason, as the highest spiritual ability of man, is conceived not only as an instrument of knowledge, but also as an organ of creativity and a source of aesthetic pleasure. One of the most striking leitmotifs of Boileau’s “Poetic Art” is the rational nature of aesthetic activity:

French classicism affirmed the personality of man as the highest value of existence, freeing him from religious and church influence.

Interest in art ancient Greece and Rome appeared back in the Renaissance, which, after centuries of the Middle Ages, turned to the forms, motifs and subjects of antiquity. The greatest theorist of the Renaissance, Leon Batista Alberti, back in the 15th century. expressed ideas that foreshadowed certain principles of classicism and were fully manifested in Raphael’s fresco “The School of Athens” (1511).

The systematization and consolidation of the achievements of the great artists of the Renaissance, especially the Florentine ones led by Raphael and his student Giulio Romano, formed the program of the Bolognese school of the late 16th century, the most typical representatives of which were the Carracci brothers. In their influential Academy of Arts, the Bolognese preached that the path to the heights of art lay through a scrupulous study of the heritage of Raphael and Michelangelo, imitation of their mastery of line and composition.

Following Aristotle, classicism considered art to be an imitation of nature:

However, nature was by no means understood as a visual picture of the physical and moral world, appearing to the senses, but rather as the highest intelligible essence of the world and man: not a specific character, but its idea, not a real historical or modern plot, but a universal human conflict situation, not given landscape, but an idea harmonious combination natural realities in ideally beautiful unity. Classicism found such an ideally beautiful unity in ancient literature - it was precisely this that was perceived by classicism as the already achieved pinnacle of aesthetic activity, the eternal and unchanging standard of art, which recreated in its genre models that very highest ideal nature, physical and moral, which art should imitate. It so happened that the thesis about imitation of nature turned into a prescription to imitate ancient art, where the term “classicism” itself came from (from the Latin classicus - exemplary, studied in class):

Thus, nature in classic art appears not so much reproduced as modeled on a high model - “decorated” with the generalizing analytical activity of the mind. By analogy, one can recall the so-called “regular” (i.e., “correct”) park, where the trees are trimmed in the form of geometric shapes and symmetrically planted, the paths have the correct shape, sprinkled with multi-colored pebbles, and the water is enclosed in marble pools and fountains. This style of gardening art reached its peak precisely in the era of classicism. The desire to present nature as “decorated” also results in the absolute predominance in literature of classicism of poetry over prose: if prose is identical to simple material nature, then poetry, as a literary form, is certainly an ideal “decorated” nature.”

In all these ideas about art, namely as a rational, ordered, standardized, spiritual activity, the hierarchical principle of thinking of the 17th-18th centuries was realized. Within itself, literature also turned out to be divided into two hierarchical series, low and high, each of which was thematically and stylistically associated with one - material or ideal - level of reality. Low genres included satire, comedy, and fable; to the highest - ode, tragedy, epic. In low genres, everyday material reality is depicted, and a private person appears in social connections (while, of course, both the person and reality are still the same ideal conceptual categories). In high genres, man is presented as a spiritual and social being, in the existential aspect of his existence, alone and along with the eternal fundamentals of questions of existence. Therefore, for high and low genres, not only thematic, but also class differentiation turned out to be relevant based on the character’s belonging to one or another social stratum. The hero of low genres is a middle-class person; high hero - a historical figure, a mythological hero or a fictional high-ranking character - usually a ruler.

In low genres, human characters are formed by base everyday passions (stinginess, hypocrisy, hypocrisy, envy, etc.); in high genres, passions acquire a spiritual character (love, ambition, vindictiveness, a sense of duty, patriotism, etc.). And if everyday passions are clearly unreasonable and vicious, then existential passions are divided into reasonable - social and unreasonable - personal, and the ethical status of the hero depends on his choice. He is unambiguously positive if he prefers a reasonable passion, and unambiguously negative if he chooses an unreasonable one. Classicism did not allow halftones in ethical assessment - and this also reflected the rationalistic nature of the method, which excluded any confusion of high and low, tragic and comic.

Since in the genre theory of classicism those genres that reached the greatest flourishing in ancient literature were legitimized as the main ones, and literary creativity was thought of as a reasonable imitation of high models, to the extent that the aesthetic code of classicism acquired a normative character. This means that the model of each genre was established once and for all in a clear set of rules, from which it was unacceptable to deviate, and each specific text was aesthetically assessed according to the degree of compliance with this ideal genre model.

The source of the rules were ancient examples: the epic of Homer and Virgil, the tragedy of Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides and Seneca, the comedy of Aristophanes, Menander, Terence and Plautus, the ode of Pindar, the fable of Aesop and Phaedrus, the satire of Horace and Juvenal. The most typical and illustrative case of such genre regulation is, of course, the rules for the leading classic genre, tragedy, drawn both from the texts of ancient tragedians and from Aristotle’s Poetics.

For the tragedy, a poetic form was canonized (“Alexandrian verse” - iambic hexameter with paired rhyme), a mandatory five-act structure, three unities - time, place and action, High style, a historical or mythological plot and conflict, suggesting an obligatory situation of choice between reasonable and unreasonable passion, and the choice process itself was supposed to constitute the action of the tragedy. It was in the dramatic section of the aesthetics of classicism that the rationalism, hierarchy and normativity of the method were expressed with the greatest completeness and obviousness:

Everything that was said above about the aesthetics of classicism and the poetics of classicist literature in France applies equally to almost any European variety of the method, since French classicism was historically the earliest and aesthetically most authoritative embodiment of the method. But for Russian classicism, these general theoretical principles found a unique refraction in artistic practice, since they were determined by the historical and national characteristics of the formation of the new Russian culture of the 18th century.

2.4. Classicism in painting

IN early XVII century, young foreigners flock to Rome to get acquainted with the heritage of antiquity and the Renaissance. The most prominent place among them was occupied by the Frenchman Nicolas Poussin, in his paintings, mainly on the themes of ancient antiquity and mythology, which provided unsurpassed examples of geometrically precise composition and thoughtful relationships between color groups. Another Frenchman, Claude Lorrain, in his antique landscapes of the environs of the “eternal city”, organized the pictures of nature by harmonizing them with the light of the setting sun and introducing peculiar architectural scenes.

Poussin's coldly rational normativism won the approval of the Versailles court and was continued by court artists like Le Brun, who saw in classicist painting the ideal artistic language for praising the absolutist state of the "sun king." Although private clients favored various versions of Baroque and Rococo, the French monarchy kept classicism afloat by funding such academic institutions, like the School of Fine Arts. The Rome Prize provided the most talented students with the opportunity to visit Rome for direct acquaintance with the great works of antiquity.

The discovery of “genuine” ancient painting during the excavations of Pompeii, the deification of antiquity by the German art critic Winckelmann and the cult of Raphael, preached by the artist Mengs, who was close to him in views, breathed new breath into classicism in the second half of the 18th century (in Western literature this stage is called neoclassicism). The largest representative of the “new classicism” was Jacques-Louis David; its extremely laconic and dramatic artistic language served with equal success to promote the ideals of the French Revolution (“Death of Marat”) and the First Empire (“Dedication of Emperor Napoleon I”).

In the 19th century, classicist painting entered a period of crisis and became a force holding back the development of art, not only in France, but also in other countries. David's artistic line was successfully continued by Ingres, who, while maintaining the language of classicism in his works, often turned to romantic stories with oriental flavor (“Turkish Baths”); his portrait works are marked by a subtle idealization of the model. Artists in other countries (like, for example, Karl Bryullov) also filled works that were classic in form with the spirit of romanticism; this combination was called academicism. Numerous art academies served as its breeding grounds. IN mid-19th century, the young generation, gravitating towards realism, represented in France by the Courbet circle, and in Russia by the Wanderers, rebelled against the conservatism of the academic establishment.

2.5. Classicism in sculpture

The impetus for the development of classicist sculpture in the mid-18th century was the writings of Winckelmann and archaeological excavations of ancient cities, which expanded the knowledge of contemporaries about ancient sculpture. In France, such sculptors as Pigalle and Houdon vacillated on the verge of Baroque and Classicism. Classicism reached its highest embodiment in the field of plastic art in the heroic and idyllic works of Antonio Canova, who drew inspiration mainly from the statues of the Hellenistic era (Praxiteles). In Russia, Fedot Shubin, Mikhail Kozlovsky, Boris Orlovsky, and Ivan Martos gravitated towards the aesthetics of classicism.

Public monuments, which became widespread in the era of classicism, gave sculptors the opportunity to idealize military valor and the wisdom of statesmen. Fidelity to the ancient model required sculptors to depict models naked, which conflicted with accepted moral norms. To resolve this contradiction, modern figures were initially depicted by classicist sculptors in the form of naked ancient gods: Suvorov as Mars, and Polina Borghese as Venus. Under Napoleon, the issue was resolved by moving to the depiction of modern figures in ancient togas (these are the figures of Kutuzov and Barclay de Tolly in front of the Kazan Cathedral).

Private customers of the Classical era preferred to immortalize their names in tombstones. The popularity of this sculptural form was facilitated by the arrangement of public cemeteries in the main cities of Europe. In accordance with the classic ideal of the figure on tombstones, as a rule, are in a state of deep rest. The sculpture of classicism is generally alien to sudden movements and external manifestations of emotions such as anger.

Late, Empire classicism, represented primarily by the prolific Danish sculptor Thorvaldsen, is imbued with a dryish pathos. Purity of lines, restraint of gestures, and dispassionate expressions are especially valued. In choosing role models, the emphasis shifts from Hellenism to the archaic period. Religious images are coming into fashion, which, in Thorvaldsen’s interpretation, produce a somewhat chilling impression on the viewer. Tombstone sculpture of late classicism often bears a slight touch of sentimentality.

2.6. Classicism in architecture

The main feature of the architecture of classicism was the appeal to the forms of ancient architecture as a standard of harmony, simplicity, rigor, logical clarity and monumentality. The architecture of classicism as a whole is characterized by regularity of layout and clarity of volumetric form. The basis of the architectural language of classicism was the order, in proportions and forms close to antiquity. Classicism is characterized by symmetrical axial compositions, restraint of decorative decoration, and a regular system of city planning.

The architectural language of classicism was formulated at the end of the Renaissance by the great Venetian master Palladio and his follower Scamozzi. The Venetians absolutized the principles of ancient temple architecture to such an extent that they even applied them in the construction of such private mansions as Villa Capra. Inigo Jones brought Palladianism north to England, where local Palladian architects followed Palladian principles with varying degrees of fidelity until the mid-18th century.

By that time, satiety with the “whipped cream” of the late Baroque and Rococo began to accumulate among the intellectuals of continental Europe. Born of the Roman architects Bernini and Borromini, Baroque thinned out into Rococo, a predominantly chamber style with an emphasis on interior decoration and decorative arts. This aesthetics was of little use for solving large urban planning problems. Already under Louis XV (1715-74), urban planning ensembles were built in Paris in the “ancient Roman” style, such as Place de la Concorde (architect Jacques-Ange Gabriel) and the Church of Saint-Sulpice, and under Louis XVI (1774-92) a similar “noble Laconism" is already becoming the main architectural direction.

The most significant interiors in the classicist style were designed by the Scot Robert Adam, who returned to his homeland from Rome in 1758. He was greatly impressed by both the archaeological research of Italian scientists and the architectural fantasies of Piranesi. In Adam’s interpretation, classicism was a style hardly inferior to rococo in the sophistication of its interiors, which gained it popularity not only among democratically minded circles of society, but also among the aristocracy. Like his French colleagues, Adam preached a complete rejection of details devoid of constructive function.

The Frenchman Jacques-Germain Soufflot, during the construction of the Church of Sainte-Geneviève in Paris, demonstrated the ability of classicism to organize vast urban spaces. The massive grandeur of his designs foreshadowed the megalomania of the Napoleonic Empire style and late classicism. In Russia, Bazhenov moved in the same direction as Soufflot. The French Claude-Nicolas Ledoux and Etienne-Louis Boullé went even further towards developing a radical visionary style with an emphasis on abstract geometrization of forms. In revolutionary France, the ascetic civic pathos of their projects was of little demand; Ledoux's innovation was fully appreciated only by the modernists of the 20th century.

The architects of Napoleonic France drew inspiration from the majestic images of military glory left behind by imperial Rome, such as the triumphal arch of Septimius Severus and Trajan's Column. By order of Napoleon, these images were transferred to Paris in the form triumphal arch Carrousel and Vendôme Column. In relation to monuments of military greatness from the era of the Napoleonic wars, the term “imperial style” is used - Empire style. In Russia, Carl Rossi, Andrei Voronikhin and Andreyan Zakharov proved themselves to be outstanding masters of the Empire style. In Britain, the empire style corresponds to the so-called. “Regency style” (the largest representative is John Nash).

The aesthetics of classicism favored large-scale urban planning projects and led to the streamlining of urban development on the scale of entire cities. In Russia, almost all provincial and many district cities were replanned in accordance with the principles of classicist rationalism. Cities such as St. Petersburg, Helsinki, Warsaw, Dublin, Edinburgh and a number of others have turned into genuine open-air museums of classicism. A single architectural language, dating back to Palladio, dominated throughout the entire space from Minusinsk to Philadelphia. Ordinary development was carried out in accordance with albums of standard projects.

In the period following the Napoleonic Wars, classicism had to coexist with romantically colored eclecticism, in particular with the return of interest in the Middle Ages and the fashion for architectural neo-Gothic. In connection with Champollion's discoveries, Egyptian motifs are gaining popularity. Interest in ancient Roman architecture is replaced by reverence for everything ancient Greek (“neo-Greek”), which was especially clearly manifested in Germany and the USA. German architects Leo von Klenze and Karl Friedrich Schinkel built up, respectively, Munich and Berlin with grandiose museum and other public buildings in the spirit of the Parthenon. In France, the purity of classicism is diluted with free borrowings from the architectural repertoire of the Renaissance and Baroque (see Beaux Arts).

2.7. Classicism in literature

The founder of the poetics of classicism is the Frenchman Francois Malherbe (1555-1628), who carried out a reform of the French language and verse and developed poetic canons. The leading representatives of classicism in drama were the tragedians Corneille and Racine (1639-1699), whose main subject of creativity was the conflict between public duty and personal passions. “Low” genres also achieved high development - fable (J. Lafontaine), satire (Boileau), comedy (Molière 1622-1673).

Boileau became famous throughout Europe as the “legislator of Parnassus”, the largest theorist of classicism, who expressed his views in the poetic treatise “Poetic Art”. Under his influence in Great Britain were the poets John Dryden and Alexander Pope, who made alexandrines the main form of English poetry. English prose of the classical era (Addison, Swift) is also characterized by a Latinized syntax.

Classicism of the 18th century developed under the influence of the ideas of the Enlightenment. The work of Voltaire (1694-1778) is directed against religious fanaticism, absolutist oppression, and is filled with the pathos of freedom. The goal of creativity is to change the world for the better, to build society itself in accordance with the laws of classicism. From the standpoint of classicism, the Englishman Samuel Johnson reviewed contemporary literature, around whom a brilliant circle of like-minded people formed, including the essayist Boswell, the historian Gibbon and the actor Garrick. Dramatic works are characterized by three unities: unity of time (the action takes place on one day), unity of place (in one place) and unity of action (one storyline).

In Russia, classicism originated in the 18th century, after the reforms of Peter I. Lomonosov carried out a reform of Russian verse, developed the theory of “three calms,” which was essentially an adaptation of French classical rules to the Russian language. The images in classicism are devoid of individual features, since they are designed primarily to capture stable generic characteristics that do not pass over time, acting as the embodiment of any social or spiritual forces.

Classicism in Russia developed under the great influence of the Enlightenment - the ideas of equality and justice have always been the focus of attention of Russian classic writers. Therefore, in Russian classicism, genres that require the author’s obligatory assessment of historical reality have received great development: comedy (D. I. Fonvizin), satire (A. D. Kantemir), fable (A. P. Sumarokov, I. I. Khemnitser), ode (Lomonosov, G. R. Derzhavin).

In connection with Rousseau’s proclaimed call for closeness to nature and naturalness, crisis phenomena were growing in classicism at the end of the 18th century; The absolutization of reason is replaced by the cult of tender feelings - sentimentalism. The transition from classicism to pre-romanticism was most clearly reflected in German literature of the era of Sturm and Drang, represented by the names of J. W. Goethe (1749-1832) and F. Schiller (1759-1805), who, following Rousseau, saw art as the main force of education person.

2.8. Classicism in music

The concept of classicism in music is steadily associated with the works of Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven, called Viennese classics and determined the direction of further development of musical composition.

The concept of "music of classicism" should not be confused with the concept of "classical music", which has a more general meaning as the music of the past that has stood the test of time.

The music of the Classical era glorifies the actions and deeds of man, the emotions and feelings he experiences, and the attentive and holistic human mind.

2.10. The originality of Russian classicism

Russian classicism arose in similar historical conditions - its prerequisite was the strengthening of autocratic statehood and national self-determination of Russia starting from the era of Peter I. The Europeanism of the ideology of Peter's reforms aimed Russian culture at mastering the achievements of European cultures. But at the same time, Russian classicism arose almost a century later than French: by the middle of the 18th century, when Russian classicism was just beginning to gain strength, in France it reached the second stage of its existence. The so-called “Enlightenment classicism” - a combination of classicist creative principles with the pre-revolutionary ideology of the Enlightenment - in French literature flourished in the work of Voltaire and acquired an anti-clerical, socially critical pathos: several decades before the Great French Revolution, the times of apology for absolutism were already distant history. Russian classicism, due to its strong connection with secular cultural reform, firstly, initially set itself educational tasks, seeking to educate its readers and guide monarchs on the path of public good, and secondly, acquired the status of a leading trend in Russian literature by the time Peter I was no longer alive, and the fate of his cultural reforms was jeopardized in the second half 1720 - 1730s

Therefore, Russian classicism begins “not with the spring fruit - ode, but with the autumn fruit - satire,” and social-critical pathos is inherent in it from the very beginning.

Russian classicism also reflected a completely different type of conflict than Western European classicism. If in French classicism the socio-political principle is only the ground on which the psychological conflict of rational and unreasonable passion develops and the process of free and conscious choice between their dictates is carried out, then in Russia, with its traditionally anti-democratic conciliarity and the absolute power of society over the individual, the situation was completely different. otherwise. For Russian mentality, who had just begun to comprehend the ideology of personalism, the need for humility of the individual before society, the individual before power was not at all such a tragedy as for the Western worldview. The choice, relevant for the European consciousness as an opportunity to prefer one thing, in Russian conditions turned out to be imaginary, its outcome was predetermined in favor of society. Therefore, the situation of choice itself in Russian classicism lost its conflict-forming function, and was replaced by another.

The central problem of Russian life in the 18th century. There was a problem of power and its succession: not a single Russian emperor after the death of Peter I and before the accession of Paul I in 1796 came to power by legal means. XVIII century - this is an age of intrigue and palace coups, which too often led to absolute and uncontrolled power of people who did not at all correspond not only to the ideal of an enlightened monarch, but also to ideas about the role of the monarch in the state. Therefore, Russian classic literature immediately took a political-didactic direction and reflected precisely this problem as the main tragic dilemma of the era - the inconsistency of the ruler with the duties of the autocrat, the conflict of the experience of power as an egoistic personal passion with the idea of ​​power exercised for the benefit of his subjects.

Thus, the Russian classic conflict, having preserved the situation of choice between reasonable and unreasonable passion as an external plot pattern, was entirely realized as socio-political in nature. The positive hero of Russian classicism does not humble his individual passion in the name of the common good, but insists on his natural rights, defending his personalism from tyrannical attacks. And the most important thing is that this national specificity of the method was well understood by the writers themselves: if the plots of French classic tragedies are drawn mainly from ancient mythology and history, then Sumarokov wrote his tragedies based on plots from Russian chronicles and even on plots from not so distant Russian history.

Finally, one more specific feature Russian classicism was that it did not rely on such a rich and continuous tradition of national literature as any other national European variety of method. What anyone had European literature by the time the theory of classicism arose - namely, literary language with an orderly stylistic system, principles of versification, a defined system of literary genres - all this had to be created in Russian. Therefore, in Russian classicism, literary theory was ahead of literary practice. Regulatory acts of Russian classicism - reform of versification, reform of style and regulation genre system- were carried out between the mid-1730s and the end of the 1740s. - that is, mainly before a full-fledged literary process in line with classicist aesthetics unfolded in Russia.

3. Conclusion

For the ideological premises of classicism, it is essential that the individual’s desire for freedom is considered here to be as legitimate as the need of society to bind this freedom by laws.

The personal principle continues to retain that immediate social significance, that independent value with which the Renaissance first endowed it. However, in contrast, now this principle belongs to the individual, along with the role that society now receives as a social organization. And this implies that any attempt by an individual to defend his freedom in spite of society threatens him with the loss of the fullness of life connections and the transformation of freedom into an empty subjectivity devoid of any support.

The category of measure is a fundamental category in the poetics of classicism. It is unusually multifaceted in content, has both a spiritual and plastic nature, is in contact with, but does not coincide with, another typical concept of classicism - the concept of norm - and is closely connected with all aspects of the ideal affirmed here.

Classical reason, as the source and guarantor of balance in nature and the life of people, bears the stamp of poetic faith in the original harmony of all things, trust in the natural course of things, confidence in the presence of an all-encompassing correspondence between the movement of the world and the formation of society, in the humanistic, human-oriented nature of this communications.

I am close to the period of classicism, its principles, poetry, art, creativity in general. The conclusions that classicism makes regarding people, society, and the world seem to me to be the only true and rational ones. Measure, as the middle line between opposites, order of things, systems, and not chaos; a strong relationship between man and society against their rupture and enmity, excessive genius and selfishness; harmony against extremes - in this I see the ideal principles of existence, the foundations of which are reflected in the canons of classicism.

List of sources

Classicism as an art movement originated in France at the end of the 17th century. In his treatise “Poetic Art” Boileau outlined the basic principles of this literary movement. He believed that literary work is created not by feelings, but by reason; Classicism in general is characterized by a cult of reason, caused by the conviction that only an enlightened monarchy, absolute power, can change life for the better. Just as in the state there must be a strict and clear hierarchy of all branches of power, so in literature (and in art) everything must be subject to uniform rules and strict order.

In Latin, classicus means exemplary or first-class. The model for classic writers was ancient culture and literature. The French classics, having studied the poetics of Aristotle, determined the rules of their works, which they subsequently adhered to, and this became the basis for the formation of the main genres of classicism.

Classification of genres in classicism

Classicism is characterized by a strict division of literary genres into high and low.

• Ode is a work glorifying and praising in poetic form;
• Tragedy is a dramatic work with a harsh ending;
• Heroic epic - narrative story about the events of the past, which shows the whole picture of time as a whole.

The heroes of such works could only be great people: kings, princes, generals, nobles who devote their lives to serving the fatherland. What comes first for them is not personal feelings, but civic duty.

Low genres:

• Comedy is a dramatic work that ridicules the vices of society or a person;
• Satire is a type of comedy distinguished by its harshness of storytelling;
• Fable – satirical work instructive in nature.

The heroes of these works were not only representatives of the noble class, but also commoners and servants.

Each genre had its own rules of writing, its own style (the theory of three styles), mixing of high and low, tragic and comic was not allowed.

Students of the French classics, diligently adopting their standards, spread classicism throughout Europe. The most prominent foreign representatives are: Moliere, Voltaire, Milton, Corneille, etc.

Main features of classicism

• Classical authors drew inspiration from the literature and art of ancient times, from the works of Horace and Aristotle, so the basis was imitation of nature.
• The works were built on the principles of rationalism. Clarity, clarity and consistency are also characteristic features.
• The construction of images is determined general features for time or era. Thus, each character is a thoughtful personification of a time period or segment of society.
• A clear division of heroes into positive and negative. Each hero embodies one basic trait: nobility, wisdom or stinginess, meanness. Often the heroes have “speaking” surnames: Pravdin, Skotinin.
• Strict adherence to the hierarchy of genres. Compliance of style with genre, avoiding mixing of different styles.
• Compliance with the rule of the “three unities”: place, time and action. All events take place in one place. The unity of time means that all events fit into a period of no more than a day. And the action - the plot was limited to one line, one problem that was discussed.

Features of Russian classicism

Like European, Russian classicism adhered to the basic rules of direction. However, he did not simply become a follower of Western classicism - complemented by his national spirit of originality, Russian classicism became an independent movement in fiction with features and peculiarities inherent only to it:

Satirical direction - such genres as comedy, fable and satire, telling about specific phenomena of Russian life (Kantemir’s satires, for example, “On those who blaspheme the teaching. To your mind”, Krylov’s fables);

• Classicist authors, instead of antiquity, took as a basis national-historical images of Russia (the tragedies of Sumarokov “Dmitry the Pretender”, “Mstislav”, Knyazhnin’s “Rosslav”, “Vadim Novgorodsky”);
• The presence of patriotic pathos in all works of this time;
• High level of development of ode as a separate genre (odes of Lomonosov, Derzhavin).

The founder of Russian classicism is considered to be A.D. Kantemir with his famous satires, which had political overtones and more than once became the cause of heated debates.

V. K. Trediakovsky did not particularly distinguish himself in the artistry of his works, but he had a lot of work in literary direction generally. He is the author of such concepts as “prose” and “poetry”. It was he who conditionally divided the works into two parts and was able to give them definitions and substantiate the system of syllabic-tonic versification.

A.P. Sumarokov is considered the founder of the dramaturgy of Russian classicism. He is considered the “father of Russian theater” and the creator of the national theatrical repertoire that time.

One of the most prominent representatives of Russian classicism is M. V. Lomonosov. In addition to his enormous scientific contribution, Mikhail Vasilyevich carried out a reform of the Russian language and created the doctrine of the “three calms”.

D.I. Fonvizin is considered the creator of Russian everyday comedy. His works “The Brigadier” and “The Minor” have not yet lost their significance and are studied in the school curriculum.

G. R. Derzhavin is one of the last major representatives of Russian classicism. He was able to incorporate vernacular language into strict rules in his works, thereby expanding the scope of classicism. He is also considered the first Russian poet.

Main periods of Russian classicism

There are several divisions into periods of Russian classicism, but, generalizing, they can be reduced to the main three:

1. 90 years of the 17th century – 20 years of the 18th century. Also called the Peter the Great era. During this period, there were no Russian works as such, but translated literature was actively developing. This is where Russian classicism originates as a consequence of reading translated works from Europe. (F. Prokopovich)
2. 30-50 years of the 17th century - a bright surge of classicism. A clear genre formation is taking place, as well as reforms in the Russian language and versification. (V.K. Trediakovsky, A.P. Sumarokov, M.V. Lomonosov)
3. The 60-90s of the 18th century are also called the Catherine's era or the Age of Enlightenment. Classicism is the main one, but at the same time the emergence of sentimentalism was already observed. (D. I. Fonvizin, G. R. Derzhavin, N. M. Karamzin).

Classicism (from the Latin classicus - “exemplary”) is an artistic movement (current) in the art and literature of the 17th - early 19th centuries, which is characterized by high civic themes and strict adherence to certain creative norms and rules. In the West, classicism was formed in the struggle against the magnificent Baroque. The influence of classicism on artistic life Europe XVII- XVIII centuries was widespread and long-lasting, and in architecture continued into the 19th century. Classicism as defined artistic direction It is common to reflect life in ideal images that gravitate toward the universal “norm” and model. Hence the cult of antiquity in classicism: classical antiquity appears in it as an example of perfect and harmonious art.

Writers and artists often turn to images ancient myths(see Ancient literature).

Classicism flourished in France in the 17th century: in drama (P. Corneille, J. Racine, J. B. Moliere), in poetry (J. Lafontaine), in painting (N. Poussin), in architecture. IN late XVII V. N. Boileau (in the poem “Poetic Art”, 1674) created a detailed aesthetic theory of classicism, which had a huge impact on the formation of classicism in other countries.

The clash of personal interests and civic duty underlies the French classic tragedy, which reached ideological and artistic heights in the works of Corneille and Racine. Corneille's characters (Sid, Horace, Cinna) are courageous, stern people, driven by duty, completely subordinating themselves to serving the interests of the state. Showing contradictory mental movements in their heroes, Corneille and Racine made outstanding discoveries in the field of depicting the inner world of man. Imbued with the pathos of research human soul, the tragedy contained a minimum of external action and easily fit into the famous rules of the “three unities” - time, place and action.

According to the rules of the aesthetics of classicism, which strictly adheres to the so-called hierarchy of genres, tragedy (along with ode and epic) belonged to the “high genres” and was supposed to develop especially important social problems, resorting to ancient and historical subjects, and reflect only the sublime heroic aspects. “High genres” were opposed to “low” ones: comedy, fable, satire, etc., designed to reflect modern reality. La Fontaine became famous in the fable genre in France, and Moliere in the comedy genre.

In the 17th century, permeated with the advanced ideas of the Enlightenment, classicism was imbued with passionate criticism of the orders of the feudal world, protection of natural human rights, and freedom-loving motives. It is also distinguished by its great attention to national historical subjects. The largest representatives Enlightenment classicism are Voltaire in France, J. W. Goethe and J. F. Schiller (in the 90s) in Germany.

Russian classicism originated in the second quarter XVIII century, in the works of A. D. Kantemir, V. K. Trediakovsky, M. V. Lomonosov, and reached development in the second half of the century, in the works of A. P. Sumarokov, D. I. Fonvizin, M. M. Kheraskov , V. A. Ozerova, Ya. B. Knyazhnina, G. R. Derzhavina. It presents all the most important genres - from ode and epic to fable and comedy. A remarkable comedian was D.I. Fonvizin, the author of the famous satirical comedies “The Brigadier” and “The Minor.” Russian classicist tragedy showed a keen interest in national history (“Dimitri the Pretender” by A.P. Sumarokov, “Vadim Novgorodsky” by Ya.B. Knyazhnin, etc.).

At the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries. classicism both in Russia and throughout Europe is experiencing a crisis. He increasingly loses touch with life and withdraws into a narrow circle of conventions. At this time, classicism was subjected to sharp criticism, especially from the romantics.