Roman army in ancient rome. Armament of the army of ancient Rome (21 photos)

• 1st class: offensive - gladius, gasta and darts ( body), protective - helmet ( galea), shell ( lorica), bronze shield ( clipeus) and leggings ( ocrea);
• 2nd class - the same, without shell and scutum instead clipeus;
• 3rd class - the same, without leggings;
• 4th class - gasta and peak ( verum).

• offensive - spanish sword ( gladius hispaniensis)

• offensive - pilum (special throwing spear);
• protective - iron mail ( lorica hamata).

• offensive - dagger ( pugio).

At the beginning of the Empire:

• protective - shell lorica segmentata (Lorica Segmentata, segmented lorica), late plate armor from individual steel segments. Comes into use from the 1st c. The origin of the plate cuirass is not entirely clear. Perhaps it was borrowed by the legionnaires from the armament of the crupellari gladiators who participated in the rebellion of Flor Sacrovir in Germany (21). Chain mail also appeared during this period ( lorica hamata) with double chain mail on the shoulders, especially popular with cavalrymen. Lightweight (up to 5-6 kg) and shorter chain mail are also used in auxiliary infantry units. Helmets of the so-called imperial type.

• offensive - "Pompeian" sword, weighted pilums.

• protective - scale armor ( lorica squamata)

A uniform

• paenula(a short woolen dark cloak with a hood).

• tunic with long sleeves, sagum ( sagum) - a cloak without a hood, previously incorrectly considered a classic Roman military.

build

Manipulative tactics

It is practically generally accepted that during the period of their rule, the Etruscans introduced the phalanx among the Romans, and subsequently the Romans deliberately changed their weapons and formation. This opinion is based on reports that the Romans once used round shields and built a phalanx like Macedonian, however, in the descriptions of the battles of the 6th-5th centuries. BC e. the dominant role of the cavalry and the auxiliary role of the infantry are clearly visible - the first was often even located and acted ahead of the infantry.

If you want to be a tribune, or if, quite simply, you want to live, then restrain your soldiers. Let none of them steal another's hen, touch another's sheep; let no one carry away a bunch of grapes, an ear of bread, do not demand oil, salt, firewood. Let everyone be content with their rightful portion... Let their weapons be cleaned, honed, their shoes strong... Let the soldier's salary remain in his belt, and not in the tavern... Let him groom his horse and not sell its feed; let all the soldiers walk together behind the centurion mule. Let the soldiers... give nothing to fortune tellers... let the slanderers be beaten...

medical service

In various periods, there were 8 positions of military medical staff:

• medicus castrorum- camp doctor, subordinated to the prefect of the camp ( praefectus castrorum), and in his absence - to the legionary tribune;
• medicus legionis, medicus cohortis, optio valetudinarii- the last one is the head of a military hospital (valetudinarium), all 3 positions existed only under Trajan and Adrian;
• medicus duplicarius- a doctor on a double salary;
• medicus sesquiplicarius- doctor on one and a half salary;
• capsarius (deputy, eques capsariorum) - an equestrian orderly with a first-aid kit ( capsa) and with a saddle with 2 stirrups on the left side for the evacuation of the wounded, was part of a detachment of 8-10 people; presumably could be recruited from among the so-called. immunes
• Roemercohorte Opladen (German)

TODAY IS OUR ARMY DAY! HAPPY HOLIDAY TO YOU, MEN. AND, OF COURSE, LADIES - WHO IS INVOLVED!

Therefore, when discussing this topic, it is not at all necessary to talk only about the ancient Romans.

You can just talk about the history of military art. Because being a soldier and winning is art

MATERIAL FOR ALL SOLDIERS AND JUST INTERESTED!

Brief historical background

Ancient Rome is a state that conquered the peoples of Europe, Africa, Asia, Britain. Roman soldiers were famous all over the world for their iron discipline (but not always it was iron), brilliant victories. The Roman generals went from victory to victory (there were also cruel defeats), until all the peoples of the Mediterranean were under the weight of a soldier's boot.

The Roman army at different times had different numbers, the number of legions, and different formations. With the improvement of military art, weapons, tactics and strategy changed.

In Rome, there was universal conscription. Young men began to serve in the army from the age of 17 and up to 45 in field units, after 45 to 60 they served in fortresses. Persons who participated in 20 campaigns in the infantry and 10 in the cavalry were exempted from service. Service life also changed over time.

At one time, due to the fact that everyone wanted to serve in light infantry (weapons were cheap, they were purchased at their own expense), the citizens of Rome were divided into ranks. This was done under Servius Tullius. The 1st category included people who possessed property, which was estimated at no less than 100,000 copper asses, the 2nd - at least 75,000 asses, the 3rd - 50,000 asses, the 4th - 25,000 asses, the 5th -mu - 11.500 ass. All the poor were included in the 6th category - proletarians, whose wealth was only offspring ( proles). Each property category exhibited a certain number of military units - centuries (hundreds): 1st category - 80 centuries of heavy infantry, which were the main fighting force, and 18 centuries of horsemen; a total of 98 centuries; 2nd - 22; 3rd - 20; 4th - 22; 5th - 30 centuries of lightly armed and 6th category - 1 century, a total of 193 centuries. Lightly armed warriors were used as convoy servants. Thanks to the division into ranks, there was no shortage of heavily armed, lightly armed foot soldiers and horsemen. Proletarians and slaves did not serve because they were not trusted.

Over time, the state took over not only the maintenance of the warrior, but also withheld from him from the salary for food, weapons and equipment.

After a severe defeat at Cannes and in a number of other places, after the Punic Wars, the army was reorganized. Salaries were sharply increased, and proletarians were allowed to serve in the army.

Continuous wars required many soldiers, changes in weapons, formation, training. The army became mercenary. Such an army could be led anywhere and against anyone. This is what happened when Lucius Cornellius Sulla (1st century BC) came to power.

Organization of the Roman army

After the victorious wars of the IV-III centuries. BC. All the peoples of Italy fell under the rule of Rome. To keep them in obedience, the Romans gave some nations more rights, others less, sowing mutual distrust and hatred between them. It was the Romans who formulated the law “divide and rule”.

And for this, numerous troops were needed. Thus, the Roman army consisted of:

a) legions in which the Romans themselves served, consisting of heavy and light infantry and cavalry attached to them;

b) Italian allies and allied cavalry (after granting citizenship rights to Italians who joined the legion);

c) auxiliary troops recruited from the inhabitants of the provinces.

The main tactical unit was the legion. At the time of Servius Tullius, the legion numbered 4,200 men and 900 cavalry, not counting the 1,200 lightly armed soldiers who were not part of the legion's line-up.

Consul Mark Claudius changed the order of the legion and weapons. This happened in the 4th century BC.

The legion was divided into maniples (in Latin - a handful), centuriae (hundreds) and decuria (tens), which resembled modern companies, platoons, squads.

Light infantry - velites (literally - fast, mobile) went ahead of the legion in a loose storyu and started a fight. In case of failure, she retreated to the rear and to the flanks of the legion. In total there were 1200 people.

Hastati (from the Latin "hasta" - spear) - spearmen, 120 people in a maniple. They formed the first line of the legion. Principles (first) - 120 people in the maniple. Second line. Triaria (third) - 60 people in the maniple. Third line. The triarii were the most experienced and experienced fighters. When the ancients wanted to say that the decisive moment had come, they said: "It came to the triarii."

Each maniple had two centuries. There were 60 people in the centurion of hastati or principes, and there were 30 people in the centurion of triarii.

The legion was given 300 horsemen, which amounted to 10 tours. The cavalry covered the flanks of the legion.

At the very beginning of the application of the manipulative order, the legion went into battle in three lines, and if an obstacle was encountered that the legionnaires were forced to flow around, this resulted in a break in the battle line, the maniple from the second line hurried to close the gap, and the place of the maniple from the second line was occupied by the maniple from the third line . During the fight with the enemy, the legion represented a monolithic phalanx.

Over time, the third line of the legion began to be used as a reserve, deciding the fate of the battle. But if the commander incorrectly determined the decisive moment of the battle, the legion was waiting for death. Therefore, over time, the Romans switched to the cohort system of the legion. Each cohort numbered 500-600 people and, with an attached cavalry detachment, acting separately, was a legion in miniature.

Commanding staff of the Roman army

In tsarist times, the king was the commander. In the days of the republic, the consuls commanded, dividing the troops in half, but when it was necessary to unite, they commanded in turn. If there was a serious threat, then a dictator was chosen, to whom the head of the cavalry was subordinate, in contrast to the consuls. The dictator had unlimited rights. Each commander had assistants who were entrusted with individual parts of the army.

Individual legions were commanded by tribunes. There were six of them per legion. Each pair commanded for two months, replacing each other every day, then giving up their place to the second pair, and so on. The centurions were subordinate to the tribunes. Each centuria was commanded by a centurion. The commander of the first hundred was the commander of the maniple. The centurions had the right of a soldier for misdemeanors. They carried with them a vine - a Roman rod, this tool was rarely left idle. The Roman writer Tacitus spoke of one centurion, whom the whole army knew under the nickname: “Pass another!” After the reform of Marius, an associate of Sulla, the centurions of the Triarii gained great influence. They were invited to the military council.

As in our time, the Roman army had banners, drums, timpani, pipes, horns. The banners were a spear with a crossbar, on which a banner made of a single-color material hung. The maniples, and after the reform of Maria the cohorts, had banners. Above the crossbar there was an image of an animal (a wolf, an elephant, a horse, a boar…). If the unit performed a feat, then it was awarded - the award was attached to the flagpole; this custom has been preserved to this day.

The badge of the legion under Mary was a silver eagle or a bronze one. Under the emperors, it was made of gold. The loss of the banner was considered the greatest shame. Each legionnaire had to defend the banner to the last drop of blood. In a difficult moment, the commander threw the banner into the midst of enemies to encourage the soldiers to return it back and scatter the enemies.

The first thing the soldiers were taught was to relentlessly follow the badge, the banner. The standard-bearers were selected from strong and experienced soldiers and enjoyed great honor and respect.

According to the description of Titus Livius, the banners were a square cloth, laced to a horizontal bar, mounted on a pole. The color of the cloth was different. They were all monochromatic - purple, red, white, blue.

Until the allied infantry merged with the Romans, it was commanded by three prefects, chosen from among Roman citizens.

Great importance was attached to the quartermaster service. The head of the commissary service is the quaestor, who was in charge of fodder and food for the army. He oversaw the delivery of everything needed. In addition, each centuria had its own foragers. A special official, like a captain in the modern army, distributed food to the soldiers. At the headquarters there was a staff of scribes, bookkeepers, cashiers who gave out salaries to soldiers, priests-fortunetellers, military police officials, spies, signal trumpeters.

All signals were given by a pipe. The sound of the trumpet was rehearsed with curved horns. At the changing of the guard, they blew a fucina trumpet. The cavalry used a special long pipe, curved at the end. The signal to assemble the troops for the general meeting was given by all the trumpeters gathered in front of the commander's tent.

Training in the Roman army

The training of the fighters of the Roman manipulative legion, first of all, was to learn the soldiers to go forward on the orders of the centurion, to fill gaps in the battle line at the moment of collision with the enemy, to hasten to merge into the general mass. The execution of these maneuvers required more complex training than in the training of a warrior who fought in the phalanx.

The training also consisted in the fact that the Roman soldier was sure that he would not be left alone on the battlefield, that his comrades would rush to his aid.

The appearance of legions divided into cohorts, the complication of maneuver required more complex training. It is no coincidence that after the reform of Marius, one of his associates, Rutilius Rufus, introduced a new training system in the Roman army, reminiscent of the training system for gladiators in gladiatorial schools. Only well-trained soldiers (trained) could overcome fear and get close to the enemy, attack from the rear on a huge mass of the enemy, feeling only a cohort nearby. Only a disciplined soldier could fight like that. Under Mary, a cohort was introduced, which included three maniples. The legion had ten cohorts, not counting the light infantry, and between 300 and 900 cavalry.

Fig. 3 - Cohort battle order.

Discipline

The Roman army, famous for its discipline, unlike other armies of that time, was entirely in the power of the commander.

The slightest violation of discipline was punishable by death, as well as failure to comply with the order. So, in 340 BC. the son of the Roman consul Titus Manlius Torquata, during reconnaissance without the order of the commander-in-chief, entered into battle with the head of the enemy detachment and defeated him. He talked about this in the camp with enthusiasm. However, the consul condemned him to death. The sentence was carried out immediately, despite the pleas of the entire army for mercy.

Ten lictors always walked in front of the consul, carrying bundles of rods (fascia, fascines). In wartime, an ax was inserted into them. The symbol of the consul's authority over his subordinates. First, the offender was flogged with rods, then they cut off their heads with an ax. If part or all of the army showed cowardice in battle, then decimation was carried out. Decem translated into Russian means ten. This is what Crassus did after the defeat of several legions by Spartacus. Several hundred soldiers were flogged and then executed.

If a soldier fell asleep at his post, he was put on trial and then beaten to death with stones and sticks. For minor infractions, they could be flogged, demoted, transferred to hard work, reduced salaries, deprived of citizenship, sold into slavery.

But there were also awards. They could be promoted in rank, increase salaries, reward with land or money, freed from camp work, awarded with insignia: silver and gold chains, bracelets. The award was given by the commander himself.

The usual awards were medals (falers) depicting the face of a god or a commander. Wreaths (crowns) were the highest insignia. Oak was given to a soldier who saved a comrade - a Roman citizen in battle. A crown with a battlement - to the one who first climbed the wall or rampart of an enemy fortress. A crown with two golden prows of ships, to the soldier who was the first to step onto the deck of an enemy ship. The siege wreath was given to the commander who lifted the siege from the city or fortress or liberated them. But the highest award - a triumph - was given to the commander for an outstanding victory, while at least 5,000 enemies were to be killed.

The victor rode in a gilded chariot, robed in purple and embroidered with palm leaves. The chariot was drawn by four white horses. War booty was carried in front of the chariot and prisoners were led. Relatives and friends, songwriters, soldiers followed the victor. There were triumphal songs. Every now and then the cries of “Io!” and "Triumph!" (“Io!” corresponds to our “Hurrah!”). The slave standing behind the victor on the chariot reminded him that he was a mere mortal and that he should not be arrogant.

For example, the soldiers of Julius Caesar, who were in love with him, followed him, joking and laughing at his baldness.

Roman camp

The Roman camp was well thought out and fortified. The Roman army was said to drag the fortress behind them. As soon as a halt was made, the construction of the camp immediately began. If it was necessary to move on, the camp was abandoned unfinished. Even broken for a short time, it differed from the one-day one by more powerful fortifications. Sometimes the army stayed in the camp for the winter. Such a camp was called a winter camp; houses and barracks were built instead of tents. By the way, on the site of some Roman tagers, cities such as Lancaster, Rochester and others arose. Cologne (the Roman colony of Agripinna), Vienna (Vindobona) grew out of the Roman camps… Cities, at the end of which there is “…chester” or “…kastr”, arose on the site of Roman camps. "Castrum" - camp.

The place for the camp was chosen on the southern dry slope of the hill. Nearby there should have been water and pasture for cart cattle, fuel.

The camp was a square, later a rectangle, the length of which was one third longer than the width. First of all, the place of the praetorium was planned. This is a square area, the side of which was 50 meters. The commander's tents, altars, and a platform for addressing the commander's soldiers were set up here; it was here that the court and the gathering of troops took place. To the right was the quaestor's tent, to the left the legates' tent. On both sides were placed the tents of the tribunes. In front of the tents, a street 25 meters wide passed through the entire camp, the main street was crossed by another, 12 meters wide. There were gates and towers at the ends of the streets. They were equipped with ballistas and catapults. (the same throwing weapon, got its name from a projectile, a ballista, a metal core, a catapult - arrows). Legionnaires' tents stood in regular rows on either side. From the camp, the troops could set out on a campaign without hustle and disorder. Each centuria occupied ten tents, maniples twenty. The tents had a plank frame, a gable plank roof and were covered with leather or coarse linen. Tent area from 2.5 to 7 sq. m. The decuria lived in it - 6-10 people, two of whom were constantly on guard. The tents of the Praetorian Guard and the cavalry were large. The camp was surrounded by a palisade, a wide and deep ditch and a rampart 6 meters high. There was a distance of 50 meters between the ramparts and the tents of the legionnaires. This was done so that the enemy could not light the tents. An obstacle course was arranged in front of the camp from several countervailing lines and barriers from pointed stakes, wolf pits, trees with pointed branches and woven together, forming an almost impassable obstacle.

Greaves have been worn by Roman legionnaires since ancient times. Under the emperors they were abolished. But the centurions continued to wear them. Leggings had the color of the metal from which they were made, sometimes they were painted.

In the time of Marius the banners were silver, in the time of the empire they were gold. The cloths were multicolored: white, blue, red, purple.

Rice. 7 - Weapons.

The cavalry sword is one and a half times longer than the infantry. The swords are single-edged, the handles were made of bone, wood, metal.

A pilum is a heavy spear with a metal tip and shaft. Serrated tip. Wooden tree. The middle part of the spear is wrapped tightly coil to coil with a cord. One or two tassels were made at the end of the cord. The tip of the spear and the rod were made of soft forged iron, up to iron - of bronze. The pilum was thrown at the enemy's shields. The spear that stuck into the shield pulled it to the bottom, and the warrior was forced to drop the shield, as the spear weighed 4-5 kg ​​and dragged along the ground, as the tip and rod were bent.

Rice. 8 - Scutums (shields).

Shields (scutums) acquired a semi-cylindrical shape after the war with the Gauls in the 4th century. BC e. Scutums were made from light, well-dried, aspen or poplar boards tightly fitted to each other, covered with linen, and bovine skin on top. Along the edge, the shields were bordered with a strip of metal (bronze or iron) and strips were placed in a cross through the center of the shield. In the center was placed a pointed plaque (umbon) - the pommel of the shield. Legionnaires kept in it (it was removable) a razor, money and other small things. On the inside there was a belt loop and a metal clip, the name of the owner and the number of the centurion or cohort were written. The skin could be dyed: red or black. The hand was pushed into the belt loop and taken by the bracket, thanks to which the shield hung tightly on the hand.

The helmet in the center is an earlier one, the one on the left is a later one. The helmet had three feathers 400 mm long; in ancient times, helmets were bronze, later iron. The helmet was sometimes decorated in the form of snakes on the sides, which at the top formed a place where feathers were inserted. In later times, the only decoration on the helmet was the crest. At the top of the Roman helmet was a ring through which a strap was threaded. The helmet was worn on the back or on the lower back, as a modern helmet is worn.

Rice. 11 - Pipes.

Roman velites were armed with javelins and shields. The shields were round, made of wood or metal. Velites were dressed in tunics, later (after the war with the Gauls) all legionnaires began to wear trousers. Some of the velites were armed with slings. The slingers had bags for stones on their right side, over the left shoulder. Some velites may have had swords. Shields (wooden) were covered with leather. The color of the clothes could be anything except purple and its shades. Velites could wear sandals or go barefoot. Archers in the Roman army appeared after the defeat of the Romans in the war with Parthia, where the consul Crassus and his son died. The same Crassus who defeated the troops of Spartacus under Brundisium.

The centurions had silver-plated helmets, no shields, and the sword was worn on the right side. They had leggings and, as a distinctive sign on the armor, on the chest they had the image of a vine folded into a ring. During the manipulative and cohort construction of the legions, the centurions were on the right flank of the centuries, maniples, cohorts. The cloak is red, and all the legionnaires wore red cloaks. Only the dictator and high commanders were allowed to wear purple cloaks.

Rice. 17 - Roman horseman.

Animal skins served as saddles. The Romans did not know stirrups. The first stirrups were rope loops. The horses were not forged. Therefore, the horses were very taken care of.

References

1. Military history. Razin, 1-2 vols., Moscow, 1987

2. On the seven hills (Essays on the culture of ancient Rome). M.Yu. German, B.P. Seletsky, Yu.P. Suzdal; Leningrad, 1960.

3. Hannibal. Titus Livius; Moscow, 1947.

4. Spartacus. Raffaello Giovagnoli; Moscow, 1985.

5. Flags of the states of the world. K.I. Ivanov; Moscow, 1985.

6. History of ancient Rome, under the general editorship of V.I. Kuzishchino

The history of Rome is almost continuous wars with neighboring tribes and peoples. First, all of Italy was under the rule of Rome, and then its rulers turned their eyes to neighboring lands. So, Carthage was a rival of Rome in the Mediterranean. The Carthaginian commander Hannibal, at the head of a huge army, in which war elephants made up a terrible force, almost took Rome, but his army was defeated in Africa by the legions of Scipio, who received the nickname African for this victory. As a result of the Punic Wars, which lasted twenty-three years, the Romans put an end to the power of Carthage. Greece and Macedonia soon became Roman provinces. Trophies captured in conquered cities adorned the streets of Rome and were erected in temples. Gradually, everything Greek became fashionable: the Greek language and Greek philosophical education, children were taught without fail by Greek teachers. Wealthy people sent their sons to Athens and other cities of Greece to listen to lectures by famous orators and learn oratory, because in order to win in People's meetings, courts or debates, one had to be able to convince. Famous Greek artists, sculptors and architects came to Rome and worked. In ancient Rome, there was a saying "Captured Greece captured its enemies." For many years, wars continued with the warlike tribes of the Gauls. It took Gaius Julius Caesar eight years to subjugate these lands to the power of Rome and turn Gaul into a Roman province.

Of course, the state needed a good army. “The fact that the Romans managed to conquer the whole world can only be explained by their military training, camp discipline and military practice,” wrote the Roman military historian Publius Flavius ​​Vegetius in his treatise on military affairs. The Roman army was divided into legions and auxiliary units: initially there were 4 legions, at the beginning of the 1st century. n. e. - already 25. Legions were completed exclusively by Roman citizens, persons who did not have Roman citizenship served in auxiliary units, and they were recruited on a national basis. In the time of Caesar, the auxiliaries were not part of the regular troops, but under Octavian Augustus they became part of the standing army, they were organized in the Roman manner. Over time, the distinctions between legions and auxiliaries faded.

The legion consisted of heavily armed and lightly armed warriors, as well as cavalry. The legion was divided into thirty maniples, which, in turn, were subdivided into two centuries of 60 and 30 people. Six centuries made up a cohort. In addition to the foot soldiers, the Roman army included cavalry, which provided communications and pursued the fugitives.

Each Roman legion or centuria had its own distinctive signs. During the campaign, they were carried in front of a military unit. The sign of the legion was the image of an eagle, made of silver. If the "eagle" was captured in battle, then the legion was disbanded. Along with this, each legion had its own emblem. For the III legion of Gallica, it was the bull of Caesar, for the XIII legion of Geminus, the ibex of Augustus. The emblem of a maniple, cohort or ship was a signum, which was a spear or a silver-plated staff with a crossbar at the top, to which an image of an animal (wolf, minotaur, horse, boar), an open hand or a wreath was attached.

“The Roman army represents the most perfect system of infantry tactics invented during an era that did not know the use of gunpowder. It retains the predominance of heavily armed infantry in compact formations, but adds to it: the mobility of individual small units, the ability to fight on uneven terrain, the arrangement of several lines one behind the other, partly for support and partly as a strong reserve, and finally a system for training each individual warrior, even more expedient than the Spartan. Thanks to this, the Romans defeated any armed force that opposed them, both the Macedonian phalanx and the Numidian cavalry, ”this is how Friedrich Engels describes the Roman army (F. Engels. Articles on military history. Collected works. 2nd ed. T . eleven). Each legion was built in a certain order: in front were the hastati, armed with throwing spears and swords and delivering the first blow to the enemy, behind them were experienced heavily armed warriors - principles equipped with heavy spears and swords, in the last rows were triarii - battle-tested veterans, their weapons also consisted of spears and swords. Warriors wore helmets, copper breastplates or chain mail and metal leggings, they were protected by curved plank shields - scutums, covered with thick leather, with metal strips attached along the upper and lower edges. In the center of the shields, metal plates of a hemispherical or conical shape were fastened - umbons, which were used in battle, since their blows could stun the enemy. Legionnaires' shields were decorated with relief compositions indicating the rank of soldiers. The armament of the legionnaires consisted of short double-edged pointed swords gladius, heavy and light throwing spears. According to the treatise of Publius Flavius ​​​​Vegetius "On military affairs", swords were used for inflicting mainly stabbing, rather than chopping blows. In the time of Caesar, soft iron was used to make a throwing spear, and only the end of the point was hardened. A metal tip with small notches of a dart could pierce even a strong shield, and sometimes several. Crashing into the enemy's shield, the soft iron bent under the weight of the shaft, and the enemy could not use this spear again, and the shield became unusable. Helmets were made of metal (originally bronze, later iron) and often topped with a plume made of feathers or ponytail hair; lightly armed warriors could wear a leather cap. The metal helmet protected the shoulders and the back of the head of the warrior, the forward part of the forehead and cheek pads protected the face from the chopping blows of the enemy. Scale armor, whose metal plates were attached to a leather lining or canvas like fish scales, was worn over a shirt with sleeves made of canvas and, apparently, additionally lined with wool to soften the blows. During the reign of Emperor Tiberius, plate armor appeared, which were easier to manufacture and weighed much less than chain mail, but were less reliable.

Slingers and archers made up detachments of lightly armed warriors. They were armed, respectively, with slings (twice folded leather belts with which stones were thrown) and bows with arrows. The protective weapons of the riders were armor, leather leggings and greaves, shields; offensive - long spears and swords. In the period of the late Roman Empire, heavy cavalry appeared - cataphracts, dressed in scaly shells; moreover, the horses were also protected by the same blankets.

The best warriors were part of the Praetorian cohort based in Rome. It consisted of nine parts of 500 people each. By the beginning of the III century. n. e. their number grew to 1500. The service of the guards took place mainly in Rome, only if necessary, the emperors took the guards with them on military campaigns. As a rule, they entered the battle at the very last moments.

The Romans honored valiant soldiers with decorations. They made sure that such soldiers were visible to their commanders on the battlefield by wearing animal skins or crests and feathers. Among the awards for valor, which were awarded to legionnaires of all ranks, were torkves (neck hoops-hryvnias), falers (medals) worn on armor, and armille (bracers-bracelets) made of precious metals.

Roman soldiers (legionnaires) were tough and hardy. Often a warrior spent his whole life on distant campaigns. Veterans were the most experienced, battle-hardened and disciplined soldiers. All legionnaires were required to take a military oath, gave a solemn oath - sacramentum, which connected the soldier with the emperor and the state. The legionnaires repeated this oath from year to year on the day of the New Year holiday.

The Roman camp served as a reliable protection for the resting army. A description of the size of the Roman camp and its layout can be found in the military manuals and writings of Roman historians of the time. The marching orders of the Roman legions and the arrangement of the camp are described in detail by the historian and military leader Josephus Flavius ​​(c. 37 - c. 100 AD) in his "Jewish War". It should be noted that the layout of the camp was distinguished by deep thoughtfulness and logic. The camp was defended by a dug-out moat, which was about a meter deep and wide, a rampart and a palisade. Inside, the camp looked like a city: two main streets crossed it at right angles, forming a cross in plan; where the streets ended, they set up gates. The Roman army had a great influence on the life of the province. Legionnaires erected not only defensive structures, but also built roads and water pipes, public buildings. True, even the maintenance of a 400,000-strong army laid down a heavy burden on the population of the provinces.

Rome is the capital of the empire

The Romans were proud of their capital. The main temple in Rome was dedicated to the gods Jupiter, Juno and Minerva. The main square of the city was called the Forum, at the same time it served as a market square and was located at the foot of the Capitol - one of the seven hills on which Rome was founded. Around the forum were temples, the Senate building and other public buildings. It was decorated with statues of victors and monuments in honor of the victories of the Roman arms. The so-called rostral columns were installed here, decorated with the bows of the defeated enemy ships. All important events in the life of the city took place at the Forum: the Senate met, People's Assemblies were held, important decisions were announced.

During the time of the empire, several more forums were built in Rome, named after the emperors who built them - Caesar, Augustus, Vespasian, Nerva and Trajan.

The streets of Rome crossed each other at right angles. One of the first and most significant of the public roads in Rome was the Via Appia, straight as an arrow. Already in ancient times, she was called the “queen of the roads” (in Latin - regina viarum), a mention of this can be found in the work “Forest” by the Roman poet Publius Papinius Statius (40s AD - approximately 96 AD). e.). For the construction of the Roman road, a wide trench was first laid, into which sand was poured and flat stones were laid so that there was a reliable foundation. Then a layer of carefully compacted small stones and brick fragments mixed with clay or concrete was laid. The concrete consisted of so-called mine sand of volcanic origin, mixed with quicklime. It contained glass, which made it practically eternal. The top layer of the road was a large smooth stone. Small ditches were dug on both sides of the road, where rainwater flowed. It should be noted that the river water of the Tiber was, especially in summer, undrinkable, and the ancient city needed clean drinking water. To supply the city with clean water from mountain springs, Roman builders built aqueducts, the slender arches of which sometimes stretched for tens of kilometers. The invention by the Romans of a new building material - concrete - allowed them to quickly build strong and beautiful structures, and using arches to overcome large spaces.

Roman cities were connected by beautiful roads paved with stone blocks. Many of them have survived to this day. Bridges were built across rivers and deep ravines. Baths were built in the cities - public baths with lush gardens, pools with warm and cold water, gyms. The baths of imperial Rome were especially luxurious - they resembled palaces. Over time, the baths began to serve not only as a place for swimming, gymnastic exercises and swimming, but also as a place for meetings, easy communication, relaxation and entertainment. In Roman cities, they became real centers of public life. roman legion infantry antiquity

The palaces of the Roman emperors were especially luxurious. The Roman historian Lucius Annei Seneca (circa 4 BC - 65 AD), describing the "Golden House" of Emperor Nero, reported that it was so extensive that it had three porticos, it was surrounded an artificial pond resembling the sea, groves and vineyards. Gardens were filled with numerous statues, and pavilions, baths and fountains abounded in the parks. The ceiling of the dining room was lined with ivory plates, during feasts it moved apart and flowers poured from there. The walls were lined with multi-colored marble and richly decorated with gilding.

The Romans were proud of their origins. In connection with the cult of ancestors in Rome, a sculptural portrait was very popular. Masters with extraordinary accuracy conveyed a portrait resemblance to the faces of their models, noticing all the characteristic details and individual features.

Houses in Rome were usually built of brick, the roofs were trimmed with orange tiles. Only a blank wall with one door led out onto the noisy street. As a rule, in the center of the buildings there was a small courtyard with a colonnade (peristyle), around which all the rooms were located with walls decorated with frescoes and floors finished with mosaics. The courtyard was surrounded by greenery and was surrounded by a marble colonnade, decorated with fountains and magnificent statues.

June 22, 168 B.C. The Romans defeated the Macedonians at the Battle of Pydna. The homeland of Philip and Alexander the Great has now become a Roman province.

Several Greeks from among the Macedonians on the battlefield were sent to Rome after the battle. Among them was the historian Polybius. He was placed under the protection of the Scipios, and then he became a close friend of Scipio Aemilian, accompanying him on campaigns.

In order to enable his Greek readers to understand how the Roman army functioned, Polybius took the trouble to describe the smallest details. This scrupulousness of description is absent in another work, which has become an important source of information for us - Caesar counted on the fact that much is familiar and understandable to his readers. The description given below is based almost exclusively on the story of Polybius.

A cohort of a legion, consisting of 4,200 people - according to the description of Polybius.

This unit consisted of three maniples, each of which included two centuries. The maniple was the smallest independent unit of the legion. Each triarii maniple consisted of 60 veterans and 40 velite skirmishers assigned to them. Each maniple of principes and hastati consisted of 120 heavy infantry and 40 velites.

C - centurion, 3 - standard-bearer P - centurion assistant.

Those who were selected for service in the foot army were divided into tribes. From each tribe, four people of approximately the same age and physique were selected, who appeared before the stands. First he chose the tribune of the first legion, then the second and third; the fourth legion got the rest. In the next group of four recruits, the first soldier of the tribune of the second legion was chosen, and the first legion took the last one. The procedure continued until 4,200 men were recruited for each legion. In the event of a dangerous situation, the number of soldiers could be increased to five thousand. It should be pointed out that in another place Polybius says that the legion consisted of four thousand foot soldiers and two hundred horsemen, and this number could increase to five thousand foot and three hundred horse legionnaires. It would be unfair to say that he contradicts himself - most likely these are approximate data.

The set was completed, and the newcomers took an oath. The tribunes chose one man who was to come forward and swear to obey their commanders and to the best of their ability to carry out their orders. Then everyone else also stepped forward and vowed to do the same as he ("Idem in me"). Then the tribunes indicated the place and date of the assembly for each legion, so that all were distributed to their squadrons.

While recruiting was taking place, the consuls sent orders to the allies, indicating the number of troops required from them, as well as the day and place of the meeting. Local magistrates recruited and swore them in - just as in Rome. Then they appointed a commander and treasurer and gave the order to march.

Upon arrival at the appointed place, the recruits were again divided into groups according to their wealth and age. In each legion, which consisted of four thousand two hundred people, the youngest and poorest became lightly armed warriors - velites. There were one thousand two hundred. Of the remaining three thousand, those that were younger formed the first line of heavy infantry - 1,200 hastati; those who were in their prime became principles, there were also 1,200 of them. The older ones formed the third line of battle order - the triarii (they were also called saws). They numbered 600 people, and no matter what size the legion was, there were always six hundred triarii. The number of people in other divisions could increase proportionally.

From each type of army (with the exception of the velites), the tribunes chose ten centurions, who, in turn, elected ten more people, who were also called centurions. The centurion chosen by the tribunes was the senior. The very first centurion of the legion (primus pilus) had the right to participate in the council of war along with the tribunes. Centurions were chosen based on their stamina and courage. Each centurion appointed himself an assistant (optio). Polybius calls them "hurricanes", equating them with the "closing line" of the Greek army.

The tribunes and centurions divided each type of army (hastati, principes and triarii) into ten detachments-maniples, which were numbered from one to ten. Velites were distributed equally among all maniples. The first maniple of the triarii was commanded by a primipilus, a senior centurion.

So, before us appears a legion, consisting of 4,200 foot soldiers, divided into 30 maniples - 10 each for hastati, principes and triarii, respectively. The first two groups had the same structure - 120 heavy infantry and 40 velites. The triarii had 60 heavy infantry and 40 velites. Each maniple consisted of two centuries, but they did not have an independent status, since the maniple was considered the smallest tactical unit. The centurions appointed the two best warriors as standard-bearers (signiferi). In the Etruscan-Roman army there were two centuries of buglers and trumpeters, at the rate of one centuria. In the description of Polybius, nothing is said about such a connection, but he constantly mentions buglers and trumpeters. It seems that now every maniple had both a bugler and a trumpeter.

If necessary, one maniple of hastati, one maniple of principles, and one maniple of triarii could act together; then they were called a cohort. Both Polybius and Livy begin to use this term in the last stages of the second Punic War, calling this word a tactical unit of legionnaires. In the II century. BC. the term has become often used to name allied formations - for example, a cohort from Cremona, a cohort of Mars, etc.

How did this legion of the 2nd century. with the legion of the Latin War (340-338 BC)?

The army of Polybius is divided into 30 maniples: 10 hastati, 10 principes and 10 triarii. The former roraria completely disappeared, as a result of which the legion was reduced from 5,000 people to 4,200. One thousand two hundred lightly armed Akcens and Levis, who were now called velites, were distributed among 30 maniples.

The triarii maniple still numbered 60 people. The maniples of principles and hastati were doubled, which well reflects the new aggressive nature of the legion - from now on it did not fight for its existence, but conquered the world.

Armor and weapons

Legionnaires were armed with a piercing-chopping sword (gladius hispaniensis, Spanish gladius). The two earliest examples of such a sword were found in Smihel, Slovenia, and they date back to about 175 BC. They have slightly tapering blades, 62 and 66 cm long. As the name implies, such swords first appeared in Spain and were possibly a variant of the Celtic sword with a pointed and elongated tip. They must have been adopted during the Second Punic War, since the swords from Smichel are certainly not the stabbing weapons that Polybius describes as being used in the Gallic War of 225-220. BC. However, these swords are quite suitable for the description of a weapon capable of cutting off a person’s head or letting out the insides - Livy wrote about him, talking about the second Macedonian war of 200-197. BC.

Polybius does not say anything about daggers, however, in the process of excavations at the site of Roman camps at the end of the 2nd century. BC. near Numantia, in Spain, several copies were found, clearly dating back to the Spanish prototypes. Hastati and principes also had two javelins each. At that time, there were two main types of pilum, which differed in the way the iron tip was attached to the wooden shaft. They could simply sit on it with the help of a tube located at the end, or they could have a flat tongue, which was fixed to the shaft with one or two rivets. The first type had a long history and was widespread, found in Celtic burials in northern Italy and in Spain. In fact, Roman specimens range in size from 0.15 to 1.2 m. The shortest was possibly the velite dart, "gasta velitaris". Polybius writes that he was bent by the blow, so he could not be picked up and thrown back.

All heavy infantrymen had a scutum - a large curved shield. According to Polybius, it was made from two wooden plates glued together, which were covered first with coarse cloth and then with calfskin. On several monuments of the times of the republic, such a shield is shown. As in earlier times, it has an oval shape with an oval umbone and a long vertical rib. A shield of this type was discovered at Qasr el-Harith in the Fayoum oasis, in Egypt. At first it was considered Celtic, but it is undoubtedly Roman.

• 1, 2 - view of the shield from the Fayum oasis in Egypt - front and three-quarters behind. Cairo Museum.
• 3 - reconstruction of a part of the shield, which shows its structure and how it was folded in half and the felt was stitched at the edge,
• 4 - section of the umbon.

This shield, which is 1.28 m high and 63.5 cm wide, is made of birch planks. Nine-ten such thin plates 6-10 cm wide were laid out longitudinally and laid on both sides with a layer of narrower plates laid perpendicular to the first. Then all three layers were glued together. This is how the wooden base of the shield was formed. At the edge, its thickness was slightly less than a centimeter, increasing towards the center to 1.2 cm. Such shields were covered with felt, which was folded in half at the edge and stitched through the tree. The handle of the shield was horizontal and held with a full grip. This type of handle is clearly visible on many Roman monuments. Polybius adds that such a shield had an iron umbon and iron upholstery along the top and bottom edges.

In Doncaster, the remains of a shield were found, the reconstruction of which turned out to be about 10 kg in weight. The Roman shield of that time was intended to protect the body of a legionnaire, they did not need to maneuver. During the offensive, the legionnaire held him on a straightened arm, leaning on his left shoulder. Having reached the enemy, he brought down on him, along with the shield, the weight of his entire body and tried to overturn him. Then he put the shield on the ground and, crouching down, fought over it. The four-foot height of the shield was most likely regulated, since during the siege of Numantia Scipio Aemilian severely punished a soldier whose shield was larger.

The armor of the principes and hastati consisted of a small square chest plate of about 20 × 20 cm, which was called a breastplate, and greaves on one leg. This last feature is also confirmed by Arrian in his Art of Tactics. He writes: "... in the Roman style, greaves on one leg in order to protect the one that is put forward in battle." I mean, of course, the left leg. The breastplate goes back to the square chest plate of the 4th century BC. BC. Not a single plate has survived to this day, although the remains of a round plate of the same type have been found in Numantia. Wealthier legionnaires had chain mail. The appearance of such chain mail, which was made according to the model of linen shells, can be seen on the victorious monument of Aemilius Paul, installed in Delphi. It was erected after the victory of the Romans over Macedonia in 168 BC. Such chain mail was very heavy and weighed about 15 kg. Evidence of this severity can be found in the story of the Battle of Trasimene - the soldiers who tried to swim then went to the bottom, drawn by the weight of their armor.

The hastati and principes had a bronze helmet adorned with three vertical feathers of black or crimson color, which were about 45 cm high. Polybius says that they were intended to make the warrior appear twice his real height.

The most common at that time was the Montefortino type helmet, which originated from the Celtic helmets of the 4th and 3rd centuries. A wonderful example of such a helmet is in Germany, in the Karlsruhe Museum. It was found in Canosa di Puglia, the city to which many legionaries fled after the defeat at Cannae in 216. The helmet does indeed belong to this period, and it is very tempting to believe that it belonged to one of the Cannes legionaries.

This type of helmet had a hole in the pommel. The pommel was filled with lead, and a cotter pin was inserted into it, holding a horsehair comb. Under the back of the head was a double ring, to which two straps were attached. They crossed under the chin and fastened to the hooks on the cheek pads, holding the helmet in one position. Monuments confirm that at that time they continued to use the helmet of the Italo-Corinthian type, and the find in Herculaneum of the Samnite-Attic helmet of the 1st century. BC. indicates that this type was still widespread. Helmets were usually worn with a balaclava. On a Celtic copy of the Montefortino type, which is kept in Ljubljana, the remains of such a balaclava made of felt, the most common material for this purpose, are still visible.

The armament of the triarii was the same as that of the hastati and principes, with one exception: instead of pilums, they used long spears - gasta (hastae).

Velites had a sword, darts and a round shield (parma, parma) about 90 cm in diameter. Darts, "gasta velitaris", were a smaller copy of the pilum; their iron part was 25-30 cm, and the wooden shaft was two cubits (ca. 90 cm) long and about a finger thick. Of the armor, the velites wore only a simple helmet, sometimes with some distinctive feature, for example, covered with a wolf skin. This was done so that the centurions could recognize the velites from a distance and see how well they fought.

Cavalry and allies

The 300 horsemen were divided into ten turmas, 30 in each. In each turma there were three decurions, who were chosen by the tribunes, and three closing ones (optiones). It can be assumed that these units of 10 people were rows, which means that the cavalry was built in a line of five or ten people deep - depending on the circumstances.

The turma was commanded by the first of the selected decurions. The riders were armed according to the Greek model, they had armor, a round shield (parma equestris) and a strong spear with a pointed inflow, which could continue to fight if the spear broke. The Roman horsemen on the monument in honor of the victory of Aemilius Paul, erected in Delphi (168 BC), wear chain mail, almost similar to those worn by foot soldiers. The only exception is a cut in the thighs, which allowed sitting on a horse. The characteristic shields of the Italian cavalry can be seen on many monuments.

The tribunes dismissed the legionnaires to their homes, ordering them to arm themselves in accordance with the part in which they were supposed to serve.

The allies also formed detachments of four to five thousand men, which were joined by 900 horsemen. One such detachment was assigned to each of the legions, so the word "legion" should be understood as a combat unit of about 10,000 foot soldiers and about 1,200 horsemen. Polybius does not describe the organization of the allied troops, but it most likely was similar to the Roman one, especially among the Latin allies. In an ordinary army, consisting of two legions, the Romans fought in the center, and two detachments of allies (they were called alas, that is, wings - alae sociorum) - on the flanks. One detachment was called the right wing, and the other - the left. Each wing was commanded by three prefects appointed by the consul. A third of the best Allied cavalry and a fifth of their best foot soldiers were selected in order to form a special combat unit - extraordinaries (extraordinarii). They were a striking force for special assignments and were supposed to cover the legion on the march.

At first, the soldiers did not receive pay, but since the long siege of Veii at the beginning of the 4th century. legionnaires began to pay. In the time of Polybius, a Roman infantryman received two obols a day, a centurion twice as much, and a horseman had six obols. The Roman infantryman received allowances in the form of 35 liters of grain per month, the horseman - 100 liters of wheat and 350 liters of barley. Of course, most of this food went to feed his horse and groom. A fixed payment for these products was deducted by the quaestor from the salary of both foot and horse warriors. Deductions were also made for clothing and items of equipment requiring replacement.

The Allied infantry also received 35 liters of grain per person, while the horsemen received only 70 liters of wheat and 250 liters of barley. However, these products were free for them.

Assembling at a place set by the consul, the new legions went through a rigorous "training program". Ninety percent of the soldiers had already served in the army, but they also needed retraining, and new recruits needed to go through basic training. During the empire, they were forced to "fight the pillar" using weighted weapons; no doubt something similar must have taken place in the period of the Republic. A good idea of ​​what the process of retraining experienced soldiers looked like can be obtained from the story of Polybius. Scipio arranged such retraining for his soldiers after he captured New Carthage (209).

On the first day, the soldiers had to run six kilometers in full gear. On the second day, they cleaned their armor and weapons, which were checked by their commanders. On the third day they rested, and the next day they practiced with weapons. For this, wooden swords covered with leather were used. To avoid accidents, the tip of the sword was equipped with a nozzle. The points of the darts used for exercises were also protected. On the fifth day, the soldiers again ran six kilometers in full gear, and on the sixth they again took care of their weapons, and so on.

On the march

Having completed the training, the army acted towards the enemy. The order of removal from the camp was strictly regulated. At the first signal of the trumpet, the tents of the consul and tribunes were rolled up. The soldiers then packed their own tents and equipment. On the second signal, they loaded the pack animals, and on the third, the column set out.

In addition to their own equipment, each soldier was required to carry a bunch of stakes for the stockade. Polybius says that it was not very difficult, because the long shields of the legionnaires hung on leather straps at the shoulder and the only objects in their hands were javelins. Two, three or even four stakes could be tied together and also hung on the shoulder.

Usually the column was led by extraordinaries. They were followed by the right wing of the allies, along with their convoy; then followed the first legion and its convoy, and then the second legion. He led not only his convoy, but also the pack animals of the left wing of the Allies, which formed the rear guard. The Consul and his bodyguards, mounted and on foot, specially selected from among the extraordinaries, probably rode at the head of the legions. The cavalry could form the rear guard of their unit or be placed on both sides of the wagon train in order to follow the animals. In the presence of danger from behind, the extraordinaries formed the rearguard. It should be borne in mind that 600 extraordinary riders moved in scattered formation and carried out reconnaissance - regardless of whether it was the vanguard or rearguard. Both legions, as well as both wings of the allies, changed places every other day - so that the right wing and the first legion were in front, then the left wing and the second legion. This allowed everyone in turn to enjoy the benefits of obtaining fresh water and fodder.

In the event that danger caught the legion in the open, the hastati, principes and triarii marched in three parallel columns. If an attack was expected from the right, then the hastati became the first from this side, followed by principes and triarii. This allowed, if necessary, to turn into a standard battle formation. The convoy stood to the left of each column. With the threat of an attack from the left, the hastati were built on the left side, and the convoy on the right. Such a system looks like a variant of the development of the Macedonian one. The turn into battle formation could be best done if the maniples marched not in columns, but in ranks - as the Macedonians did. In this case, the first rank was already ready to meet the enemy if necessary, and the ranks did not need to deploy the system. If the main formation of the centuria was in six ranks of ten people, then the soldiers could march six in a row. That's what they did during the empire. On the day the army could cover a distance of about 30 km, but if necessary, was able to move much further. Among those who went along with the vanguard in order to make sure that the way was open were the crossing specialists. Polybius mentions them, talking about how Scipio crossed the river. Ticinus in the winter of 218 BC

The Roman army in its era was considered the strongest on the planet. Few could then compete with her in military power. Thanks to the strictest discipline and high-quality training of the military, this entire “military machine” of Ancient Rome was an order of magnitude ahead of many military garrisons of other developed states of that time. Read the article about the number, ranks, divisions and victories of the Roman army.

Discipline is the priority

The divisions of the Roman army were always under the strictest discipline. And absolutely all soldiers, without exception, had to comply with generally accepted principles. For any violation of order in the troops of the famous Roman army, even corporal punishment was applied to the "obeyed" soldiers. Often, those who did not maintain order in the military camps were beaten with lictor rods.

And those actions that could have serious negative consequences for the Roman army were generally punishable by death. This action allegedly emphasized the fact that it was unacceptable for a soldier of the empire to behave in an inappropriate way so that all his other comrades would not follow a bad example.

The most severe death penalty during the existence of the Roman army was rightfully considered decimation. Entire legions were subjected to it for showing cowardice during military battles, either for not following or completely ignoring military orders. The essence of this "unpleasant procedure" was that in the detachment that was guilty during the battle, every 10 warrior was selected by lot. And these unfortunate soldiers were beaten by the rest of the detachment with stones or sticks until death.

The rest of the powerful Roman army was also subjected to shameful condemnation of their cowardice shown on the battlefield. They were not allowed to put up tents in a military camp, and instead of wheat, such warriors were given barley as food.

Fustuary was more applied to each individually for any serious misconduct. This is the type of punishment most often used in practice. It involved beating a delinquent soldier to death with stones and sticks.

Very often, shameful punishments were also used, the main purpose of which was to arouse a sense of shame in the guilty. They could be completely diverse in their essence, but the main educational feature remained the same - so that the military man who committed a cowardly act would never resort to it again!

For example, weak-willed soldiers could be forced to dig unnecessary trenches, carry heavy stones, take off all their clothes to the waist and come to a military camp in such an unattractive form.

The structure of the army of ancient Rome

The military division of the Roman army consisted of the following military representatives:

1. Legionnaires - they included both Roman soldiers and mercenaries from other states. This legion of the Roman army consisted of cavalry, infantry units, and also cavalry.
2. Allied cavalry and allied units - militaries of other countries who have been granted Italian citizenship.
3. Auxiliary troops - recruited local residents from the Italian provinces.

The Roman army consisted of many different divisions, but each of them was well organized and properly trained. At the forefront of the army of Ancient Rome was the security of the entire empire, on which all state power was based.

Ranks and ranks of the Roman military

The ranks of the Roman army contributed to the construction of a clear military hierarchy of that time. Each officer performed a specific function assigned to him. And this contributed in many ways to maintaining military discipline within the legions of the Roman army.

The senior officers included the Legate of the Legion, the Tribune of Laticlavius, the Tribune of Angustiklavia, and the Prefect of the Camp.

Legion legate - a certain person was appointed to this post directly by the emperor himself. Moreover, on average, a military man held this position for 3 or 4 years, but in some cases he could hold this post for a little longer than the specified period. In a provincial area, the Legion of the Legion could perform the function of the governor assigned to him.

Tribune Laticlavius ​​- the emperor or the senate chose the military for this position by their decisions. In the legion, a military man bearing this rank was considered the second person in seniority.

The prefect of the camp was the third most important and influential position within the legion. Often, those veterans who previously held the rank of Centurion and eventually received promotion became perfects.

Tribune Angustiklavy - these ranks were received by those soldiers of the Roman army who were in charge of administrative posts for a certain time. In case of a certain need, this category of senior officers could well command even an entire legion.

And the middle officers of the army of Ancient Rome included such military ranks as Primipilus and Centurion.

Primipil was the assistant to the commander of the legion and he was taught an important mission - to organize the protection of the banner of the unit. And the main attribute and pride of the legions was the "Roman eagle". Also, the duties of Primipil included the filing of certain sound signals, telling about the beginning of the offensive.

Centurion is the basic officer rank in the entire structure of ancient Roman military formations. In the legions, there were about 59 warriors with this rank, who lived together with ordinary soldiers in tents, and during the battles they commanded them.

The army of ancient Rome had a lot of junior officers in its ranks. Their ranks included Option, Tesserary, Decurion, Dean.

The option was an assistant to the Centurion and, at the first opportunity, could successfully replace him during heated battles with the enemy.

Tesserarius was the deputy of Option, while his duties were entrusted with the functions related to the organization of guards and the transmission of the necessary passwords to sentries.

Decurion - led a small cavalry detachment, consisting of 30 horsemen.

Dean - commanded a small combat unit, which included no more than 10 soldiers.

All ranks in the Roman army were awarded for any specific merits in the military field of activity. But this does not mean at all that the highest ranks were submitted to purely experienced warriors. There were quite a few situations when a young, but at the same time promising officer, who perfectly understood his job, was appointed to a high post.

Historic victories

It's time to talk about the most significant victories of the Roman soldiers. History knows many cases when a well-organized military group of Ancient Rome literally smashed its enemy. The victories of the Roman army marked, to a greater extent, the assertion of the power of the entire empire in the world hierarchy.

One such incident occurred at the Battle of Varcellae in 101 BC. The Roman troops were then led by Gaius Marius, who was opposed by the detachments of the Cimbri, led by the leader Boyorig. It all ended with the true destruction of the opposing side and the Cimbri on the battlefield lost from 90 to 140 thousand of their brothers. This is not counting 60 thousand of their soldiers taken prisoner. Thanks to this historic victory of the Roman army, Italy secured its territories from unpleasant enemy campaigns against them.

The battle of Tigranakert, which took place in 69 BC, made it possible for the Italian forces, inferior in numbers to the Armenian military camp, to defeat the opponent. After this armed conflict, the complete collapse of the state of Tigran II took place.

The Battle of Roxter, which took place in 61 AD in what is now England, ended in a landslide victory for the Roman legions. After those bloody events, the power of Ancient Rome was quite firmly entrenched over the whole of Britain.

Severe strength tests during the uprising of Spartacus

The real army of the Roman Empire passed during the suppression of a grandiose uprising of slaves, which was organized by the fugitive gladiator Spartacus. In fact, the actions of the organizers of such a protest were dictated by the desire to fight for their own freedom to the very end.

At the same time, the revenge of the slaves for the Roman military figures was prepared with a particularly tough one - they were not spared a bit. Perhaps this was retaliation for those humiliating actions that were applied in ancient Rome to the gladiators. They were forced by the high ranks of Rome to fight on the sand until death. And all this happened as a kind of fun, and living people died in the arena and no one took this into account at all.

The war of slaves against their Italian masters began quite suddenly. In 73 BC, the escape of the gladiators from the Capua school was organized. Then about 70 slaves, well trained in military craft, fled. The shelter of this detachment was a fortified position at the foot of the volcano Vesuvius. It was also here that the first battle of the slaves took place against a detachment of Roman soldiers who were pursuing them. The attack of the Romans was successfully repulsed, after which a lot of fairly high-quality weapons appeared in the weapons arsenal of the gladiators.

Over time, an increasing number of freed slaves, as well as those peaceful citizens of Italy who were dissatisfied with the then authorities, joined the uprising of Spartacus. Thanks to the art of Spartacus to organize his units well (even the Roman officers recognized this fact), a solid army was formed from a small detachment of gladiators. And it crushed the Roman legions in many battles. This made the entire empire of Ancient Rome feel a certain fear for its continued existence.

Only unfavorable circumstances for Spartacus did not allow his army to cross Sicily, replenish their own detachments with new slaves and avoid death. Sea pirates, having received a conditional payment from the gladiators for the provision of services regarding the crossing of the sea, brazenly deceived them and did not fulfill their own promises. Driven virtually into a corner (on the heels of Spartacus Crassus was heading with his legions), Spartacus decided on the last and decisive battle. During this battle, the famous gladiator died, and the scattered ranks of slaves were successfully exterminated by the Roman troops.

Roman army tactics

The army of the Roman world has always protected from enemy encroachments. Therefore, the empire took very seriously the issues of its configuration, as well as the development of tactics in battles.

First of all, the Roman generals always thought over the places for future battles. This was done so that the strategic position of the Roman legions was in a more advantageous situation compared to the location of the enemy. The best place was considered a hill, around which free space was clearly visible. And offensives were often carried out precisely from the side from which the bright sun shone. This blinded the enemy forces and created an uncomfortable situation for him.

The battle plan was thought out in advance, since the transmission of orders was difficult. The generals tried to build and train their ward soldiers in such a way that they were well versed in all the intricacies of his strategic military ideas and performed all actions on the battlefield in automatic mode.

The military unit in the army of the Roman Empire was always well prepared for the upcoming battles. Each soldier individually knew his job well and was mentally prepared for certain difficulties. Many tactical developments were comprehended in the exercises, which were not neglected by the Roman generals. This during the battles gave certain results, so the Roman military often achieved some success due to mutual understanding and good physical and tactical training.

One remarkable fact is known to history: sometimes Roman military commanders performed ritual fortune-telling before battles, which could predict how successful this or that company might be.

Uniforms and equipment of the Roman military

And what was the uniform and equipment of the soldiers? The military unit in the Roman army was quite well technically equipped and had good uniforms. In battle, the legionnaires used the sword very successfully, inflicting more piercing wounds on the enemy.

Very often, a pilum was used - a dart more than two meters long, at the end of which an iron rod with a double-thorn or pyramidal tip was installed. For short range, the pilum was the ideal weapon to confuse the enemy formations. In some situations, thanks to this weapon, the Roman military pierced the enemy's shield and inflicted mortal wounds on him.

The legionnaire's shield had a curved oval shape. In a hot battle, he largely helped to avoid injury. The width of the shield of a Roman warrior was 63.5 centimeters, and the length was 128 centimeters. At the same time, this item was covered with calf leather, as well as felt. His weight was 10 kilograms.

The military was quite short, but very sharp. They called this type of weapon gladius. During the reign of Emperor Augustus in ancient Rome, an improved sword was invented. It was he who replaced the old modifications of these weapons and, in fact, immediately gained particular popularity in military affairs. Its blade was 8 centimeters wide and 40-56 centimeters long. This weapon weighed, causing panic in enemy troops, relatively silent - from 1.2 to 1.6 kilograms. In order for the sword to have a presentable appearance, its scabbard was trimmed with tin or silver, and then carefully decorated with various unusual compositions.

In addition to the sword, the dagger could also become effective in battle. Outwardly, in structure, it was very similar to a sword, but its blade was shorter (20-30 centimeters).

The armor of the Roman soldiers was very heavy, but not all military units used them. A number of units, whose duties were to organize a skirmish with the enemy, as well as reinforcements for the active cavalry, were lightly equipped, so they did not wear heavy armor. The weight of chain mail among legionnaires could vary in the range from 9 to 15 kilograms. But if the chain mail was additionally equipped with shoulder pads, it could weigh about 16 kilograms. The material from which it was made most often is iron. Bronze armor, although met in practice, but much less frequently.

population

The size of the Roman army in many cases showed its military power. But her training and technical equipment also played a big role. For example, Emperor Augustus in 14 AD took a radical step and reduced the number of armed formations to 28,000 people. However, during its heyday, the total number of Roman combat legions was about 100,000 people, but in some cases the number of military men could be increased to 300,000 if this step was dictated by necessity.

In the era of Honorius, the armed Roman garrisons were much more numerous. At that time, about 1,000,000 soldiers defended the empire, but the reform of Constantine and Diolectian significantly narrowed the scope of the “Roman military machine” and left only 600,000 soldiers in the service. At the same time, about 200,000 people were part of the mobile group, and the remaining 400,000 were part of the legions.

In terms of ethnicity, the composition of the Roman army also underwent fundamental changes over time. If in the 1st century AD, the Roman military ranks were dominated by local residents, then by the end of the 1st century - at the beginning of the 2nd century AD, quite a lot of Italics could be found there. And at the end of the 2nd century AD, the Roman army was like that only on paper, since people from many countries of the world served in it. To a greater extent, it began to be dominated by military mercenaries who served for material rewards.

In the legion - the main Roman unit - about 4,500 soldiers served. At the same time, a detachment of horsemen operated in it, of which there were approximately 300 people. Thanks to the correct tactical dismemberment of the legion, this military unit could successfully maneuver and inflict significant damage on the opponent. In any case, the army knows many cases of successful operations, crowned with a crushing victory by the military forces of the empire.

The essence of the reforms

The main reform of the Roman army was introduced in 107 BC. It was during this period that the consul Gaius Marius issued a historical law that significantly changed the rules for recruiting legionnaires for military service. Among the main innovations of this document are the following main points:

1. The division of the legions into maniples (small detachments) was somewhat modified. Now the legion could also be divided into cohorts, which included more people than it was supposed in the maniples. At the same time, the cohorts could successfully carry out serious combat missions.
2. The structure of the Roman army was now formed according to new principles. Poor citizens could now become military. Up to this point, they had no such prospect. People from poor families were supplied with weapons at public expense, and the necessary military training was also provided for them.
3. For their service, all soldiers began to receive regular solid monetary rewards.

Thanks to the reformist ideas that Gaius Marius successfully put into practice, the Roman army not only became more organized and well trained, the military had a considerable incentive to improve their professional skills and move up the "career ladder", seeking new ranks and ranks. The soldiers were generously encouraged with land plots, so this agrarian issue was one of the levers for improving the combat skills of the then troops.

In addition, the professional army began to play a significant role in the political life of the empire. In fact, it gradually turned into a major political force, which simply could not be ignored within the state.

The main criterion that showed the viability of the reform of the armed forces of Ancient Rome was the victory of Mary over the tribes of the Teutons and Cimbri. This historical battle dates back to 102 BC.

Army during the Late Empire of Ancient Rome

The army of the late Roman Empire was formed during the "crisis of the III century" - this is how historians have characterized this period. In this troubled time for the Romans, many territories of the empire are separated from it, as a result of which the threat of attacks from neighboring countries is growing. Such separatist sentiments were fueled by the recruitment of legionnaires into the armed forces of many residents from provincial villages.

The Roman army underwent great trials during the raids on the territory of Italy by the Alamanni. It was then that entire numerous territories were devastated, which led to the usurpation of power on the ground.

Emperor Gallienus, who tried with all his might to counteract the crisis within the state, is carrying out new transformations in the Roman army. In 255 and 259 AD, he managed to raise a large cavalry group. However, the main marching army of this period was 50,000 people. Milan has become an excellent place to counteract the numerous raids of the enemy from there.

During the crisis period that fell on the 3rd century AD, there is constantly dissatisfaction among the military of Ancient Rome with the fact that they are not paid a salary for their service. The situation was aggravated by the depreciation of money. Many of the soldiers' previous monetary savings were melting away before our very eyes.

And here the moment has come to carry out the last reform in the structure of the Roman army, initiated by Diocletian and Aurelian. This historical period of the late existence of the Roman Empire was nicknamed "Dominate". It was due to the fact that the process of division into military and civil administration began to be actively introduced in the state. As a result, 100 provinces appeared, in each of which duxes and comites were in charge of military orders. At the same time, recruitment into the legions of Roman troops is carried out forcibly, there is a mandatory draft into the army.