The main purpose of the pattern is to decorate the thing to which this element is applied. There is little information about the origin of the art of ornamentalism, since its use began many centuries before our era. Ornaments different nations the world differ in the individuality of the perception of objects and environment... Different ethnic groups have the same symbols in different ways.

Varieties and motives

Decoration is one of the first But, despite its long history, it is an excellent decoration for many modern things.

Ornaments of the peoples of the world are divided into four main groups. This:

• built on the geometry of the figures;
• phytomorphic type, which consist of images of plants;
• myand type - look like an integral broken line;
• combined or subject pattern.

Ornaments of the peoples of the world include the following motives:

• the intersection of lines in a horizontal and vertical order, called a tartan;
• combination of identical circles in the form of a four- or trefoil;
• ornament in the form of a teardrop-shaped curl - it is called paisley or;
• the image of a beautiful lush flower is reflected in Damascus;
• the curved, continuous line that forms the edging of most patterns is called the meander.

Belarusian ornament - features and originality

The original meaning of the Belarusian ornament was ritualism. Among the main features of ancient patterns are:

• decorative stylization;
• connection with objects on which the decoration is applied;
• a large number of broken lines and geometric shapes;
• constructiveness;
• manifold.

A lot of geometric shapes are explained by the personification of the forces of nature and the surrounding world that guarded man. The ornaments of the peoples of the world, although they differ from each other, are used for the same purposes: decorating clothes, household items, dwellings, and tools. The number of repetitions of points, triangles, rhombuses explain the structure of society. The number three is the Divine Trinity or heaven, earth and underworld, four - seasons, five - sacredness, etc.

The Belarusian ornament contains a large number of crosses that symbolize the image of the sun, fire and justice.

Symbols of fertility were depicted on the tools of labor, the image of a woman in labor in the form of a seed or sprout meant a good harvest and wealth.

Most ceremonies used ornamented towels. They were made by combining white and gray patterns and various geometric motifs. Great importance has the color of the pattern: white - a symbol of purity and light, red - wealth and energy, black - the speed of human life.

Egypt. Ornament - specificity and uniqueness

The earliest forms of Egyptian visual art include He shows different subjects environment in the form of intersection of lines and abstraction.

Major motives include:

• vegetable patterns;
• animalistic images;
• religious themes;
• symbolism.

The main designation is which personifies the divine power of nature, moral purity, chastity, health, revitalization and the sun.

Aloe pattern was used to describe the life of the other world. Many plants, such as blackthorn, acacia, coconut, were the basis for the image in the ornamental art of Egypt.

Among the geometric lines should be highlighted:

• straight;
• broken lines;
• wavy;
• mesh;
• point.

The main characteristic features of the ornament in Egyptian culture are restraint, austerity and sophistication.

Patterns of the peoples of the world: Norway, Persia, Ancient Greece

The Norwegian pattern fully describes the climatic conditions of the country. A large number of snowflakes, drops, deer are used to apply to warm clothes. The geometry of the lines creates amazing patterns that are unique to this nation.

They are famous all over the world with amazing patterns. In Ancient Persia, this was the most valuable family value. The canvases were passed down through generations and were tremulously preserved. Ornamentalism is characterized by the predominance of blue and green colors, the image of various birds, animals, including fictional ones, stripes in the form of a diamond-shaped fish, a pear in the form of a drop.

The meander became the basis for the formation of the culture of ornamentalism in Ancient Greece. Endless repetition of patterns symbolizes eternity and infinity human life... Ancient Greek claddings are distinguished by a wide depiction of plots and a variety. A characteristic feature of this culture is the decoration with ornaments with wavy and broken lines of vases and dishes.

Variety of Indian patterns

The ornament of India is characterized by geometric and spiral shapes, it is expressed in the form of a spiral, zigzag, rhombus, triangle. From animalism, the faces of cats and birds are used.

Many ornaments in India are applied to the body using henna. This is a special procedure, it means spiritual cleansing. Each tattoo carries a specific meaning.

An ordinary triangle symbolizes male activity, an inverted one - female grace. The meaning of divinity and hope is in the star.

A square or octagon is used to represent protection, reliability and stability.

Popular designs are made up of flowers, fruits and plants and represent joy, happiness, hope, wealth and health.

Patterns of the peoples of the world: China, Australia, Mongolia

Chinese ornaments are easily distinguished from others, they contain large and lush flowers that are connected by nondescript stems.

Wood carvings represent Australia's ornament. Of these, there are:

Mongolia's patterns are presented in the form of a circle, which embodies the rotation of the sun and the sky. For application on clothes, geometric shapes are used, which are called hammer ornament.

Main motives:

• network;
• quilted mattress;
• hammer;
• circular.

Ornaments of the peoples of the world are distinguished by a variety of forms, they reflect the individuality of cultures and the perception of the external world.

The split of the Russian Church in the middle of the 17th century, caused by the reforms of Patriarch Nikon, deeply shook the whole of Russia. Each person was faced with a difficult choice, and not everyone agreed to show the required conformism and loyalty to the authorities. Devotion to the "faith of fathers and grandfathers" - a national church tradition consecrated over the centuries, turned out to be stronger than concern for worldly well-being. Opponents of the reform began to be severely persecuted: adherence to the Old Believers led to surrender to a civil court and a public execution - burning in a log house. Persecution for their faith forced many to leave their homes, to flee from the center of Russia to the outskirts. A tremendous spiritual strength, supported by the awareness of their responsibility as the last guardians and defenders of "ancient church piety" - this is the only thing that helped the Old Believers not only survive the times of persecution, but also make a very noticeable contribution to the economic and cultural life of Russia in the 18th - 20th centuries. (remember at least the names of the Morozovs, Guchkovs, Prokhorovs, Shchukins, Ryabushinsky, etc.). The history of the Vygo-Leksinsky Old Believer community is also one of the most striking examples of this kind.

Vygovskaya hermitage, lying to the northeast of Lake Onega and getting its name from the Vyg River flowing here, was ideal for a refuge for persecuted Old Believers: deaf, impenetrable forests and swamps, lack of settlements, remoteness from administrative centers. Already in the 80s of the XVII century. Old Believer monks, natives of northern monasteries (mainly from Solovetsky), began to flock here and found sketes here; Later, the resettlement of neighboring peasants, which gradually acquired an increasingly massive character, began, who founded Old Believer settlements in new places, cleared land for arable land and sowed grain. From the union of two such settlements - the Tolvuyan Zakhariy Drovnin and another founded by the former church clerk from Shunga Daniil Vikulin and the townsman of the town of Povenets Andrey Denisov - in October 1694 the Vygov community arose.

WITH burning of Archpriest Avvakum, deacon Fedor, Lazarus and Epiphanius.

Miniature from a front manuscript of the late 19th - early 20th centuries. State Historical Museum.

It was very small in the beginning. In the late autumn of 1694, a dining room was built, where prayers took place, bread, a barn, two cells. The first inhabitants of Vygov (their number did not exceed 40), as the historian of the desert Ivan Filippov testifies, lived "a necessary and meager desert life, with a splinter in the chapel, the service sending icons and books to the chapel was scarce and there were few nobles. ringing the board, and there was no road from the volosts to them into the desert at that time, I go on skis with kerezha ". But the desire to build their own "refuge of the faithful" in a hostile world and the well-known Old Believer diligence performed a real miracle. Already four years later, Vyg had a well-established diversified economy - large areas were plowed up for arable land, vegetable gardens were established, livestock were raised, trade, marine animal industries and various handicraft industries were organized. As it turns out from newly found documentary sources, in 1698 the number of Vygov inhabitants already reached two thousand people.

Miniature from a front manuscript of the late 19th - early 20th centuries.

Daniil Vikulov and Pyotr Prokopyev depicting "The Beautiful Desert".

Wall sheet. 1810s. State Historical Museum.

The first period in the history of Vyga, which lasted until the early 10s of the 18th century, was one of the most difficult. The position of the constantly growing community remained uncertain, any denunciation and decision of the authorities could destroy an undertaking that required such efforts. When, in 1702, Peter I with an army drove along the famous "Osudarevaya road", laid through the age-old forest and swamps from Nyukhcha to Povenets, fear seized the entire Old Believer district: some were preparing to suffer for their faith, others - to leave their already inhabited places. The Tsar was informed that the Old Believers-hermits lived nearby, but Peter, who was more busy with the upcoming siege of Noteburg, replied: “Let them live,” and “rode quietly,” the chronicler happily notes. In 1705, the settlement on the Vyg River was assigned to the Povenets Iron Works, and at the same time it acquired its official status, it received freedom of religion and worship. Since that time, the influx of Old Believers to Vyg has significantly increased not only from the surrounding areas, but also from all over Russia. Fleeing from persecution, immigrants from Moscow, the Volga region, Novgorod, Arkhangelsk, Ustyug the Great flocked here.

Andrey and Semyon Denisovs with a picture

Vygovsky hostel. Wall sheet. 1810s.

Gradually, the life of the desert began to be organized according to the monastic order. Following the principle of the separation of men and women, laid down from the very beginning of the community, the settlement was fenced in and divided by a wall into two halves - male and female (later the female one was called the Cow Yard). In 1706, 20 versts from the male Epiphany monastery, which stood on the Vyg river, a female monastery - Exaltation of the Cross - was built on the Leksa river. The first abbess was Andrei Denisov's own sister Solomonia. The dormitories were surrounded by numerous sketes (where families were allowed to live), administratively subordinate to the Vygov cathedral. Mid-10s of the 18th century - a turning point in the history of the desert.

Collection of Lives of Russian Saints. Vyg, 20-40s. 18th century. State Historical Museum.

It was then that the dwellers, realizing Vyg as their spiritual homeland and fatherland, acquired a "cultural settledness." In short, the events were as follows. Since 1705, the Vygovites have been plagued by crop failures and famine for seven years in a row. The question of moving to other, more fertile lands arose very sharply. For this purpose, they bought land in the Kargopol district on the Chazhenga river. To complete the purchase and relocation to Novgorod with a petition was sent younger brother rector Semyon Denisov. But in Novgorod, on a denunciation, he was arrested and imprisoned, where he had to spend four years. The fate of the entire community depended on the outcome of this case, in which the highest spiritual and state authorities, namely the Novgorod Metropolitan Job and Tsar Peter I, were involved.

Numerous literary monuments, related to these events, reveal the spiritual upheaval that the Vygovites experienced during this difficult four-year period. They realized themselves as a whole, their continuity in relation to the early Old Believers, the importance of community as the last stronghold of ancient piety, and, abandoning the planned resettlement plan, finally linked their fate with Vyg. The subsequent twenty-odd years were the period of the highest prosperity, when in the reign of Andrey, and after his death in 1730 - Semyon Denisov, the main traditions of the spiritual life of the desert were laid, a common historical concept, literary, icon-and book-painting schools, the charters of the community were developed. Numerous economic achievements of Vyga belong to the same time: the complete arrangement of the male and female monasteries, the organization of a wide grain trade, the construction of a pier in Pigmatka, on the shores of Lake Onega. Thanks to the skillful and subtle policy of the leaders, the community managed to consolidate its official position and, finding sympathizers in the highest spheres of power, to protect itself from the negative consequences of the national policy in relation to the Old Believers.

Panorama of the Vygovsky hostel. Fragment of wall sheet

"Family tree of Andrey and Semyon Denisov". Vyg, first half of the 19th century

Thus, already in the first half of the 18th century. Vygovskaya hermitage has become the country's largest economic, religious and Cultural Center Old Believers - a kind of Old Believer capital in the North of Russia. The rise in economic activity continued in subsequent years. In the 40s - 70s of the 18th century. at the Pigmatskaya pier, a ship building was opened, two sawmills were built, on Vygu - two hospitals and a canteen, on Leks - a new chapel. Perhaps because the disciples of the Denisov brothers, who stood at the leadership of the desert in those years, paid more attention to economic well-being, to some extent the spiritual potential of the community decreased, and there were works that denounce the decline of morals and the dishonorable behavior of the wanderers. Since the 80s of the XVIII century. the revival of Vyga begins, a period of renewal of traditions and the flourishing of the arts. Andrei Borisov, a native of a Moscow merchant family, familiar with the works of the French enlighteners (in 1780 - 1791 - the mentor of the desert), wanted to organize a real Old Believer academy here. But the implementation of his plan was interrupted by three strongest fires in 1787, when in half a month the Vygovskoe and Leksinskoe hostels and the Cow Yard burned down almost to the ground. We rebuilt again in a year; and if an academy was not established, the arts continued to flourish. This period, which lasted until the 20s of the 19th century, includes the overwhelming part of Vyga's cultural heritage - luxurious manuscripts that amaze with the richness of design and the abundance of gold, various subjects of popular prints and icons.

The conciliar verdict of the Solovetsky monks on the rejection of newly printed books.

From the end of the 17th century. deserts lived under the constant threat of ruin, and it was necessary to happen so that it was at this rise of culture and art that a violent end came. The policy of "complete eradication of the schism", persistently pursued under Emperor Nicholas I, turned into a whole series of measures for the Vygovskaya Hermitage, aimed at first at equalizing the Vygovites with other state peasants and limiting economic foundations communities (1835 - 1839), and then, in 1854 - 1856, ended with the closure of chapels, the removal of books and icons, the barbaric destruction of cemeteries and the demolition of supposedly dilapidated buildings. The people called these events "Mamayev's ruin".

Signatures of the Solovetsky monks under the conciliar speech. State Historical Museum.

P.N. Rybnikov, who visited Vygovskie places only ten years later, wrote in his travel notes: "Danilov's buildings: a bell tower, a huge chapel, many houses, high gates (the remainder of the fence) are visible for half a mile or more and prompts us to assume something monumental; but the approach quickly destroys Danilov is now a heap of ruins, causing melancholy with its desolation and miserable dilapidation and involuntarily transferring thought for decades to the period of time when the Vygoretsk "communities" were not a memory, but the center of lively ... activity. "

Ivan Filippov. The story of the beginning of the Vygovskaya desert.

Vygovsky list of the 60s. HUSH c. State Historical Museum.

Vygovskaya hermitage was a unique phenomenon in Russian history. Being in a hostile environment, by force of circumstances pushed to the periphery public life and branded with the official definition of "thieves and church schismatics" (later this name became milder, but no less humiliating; to it were added: double taxation, "beard sign" and "Russian dress" according to the established pattern), Old Believers, in order to withstand and preserve "intact" ancient church piety, had to create their own, the Old Believer world. Unjustly persecuted and united by rejection of the world affected by Nikon's reform, they were distinguished by a sense of spiritual unity, and this feeling, as the numerous materials revealed in recent times can be judged, had a deep creative potential.Vygovskaya desert continued to develop the traditions of ancient Russian spirituality. The Old Believers made up for their forced isolation from the outside world with historical memory, the awareness of their uninterrupted connection with the former, pre-Nikon Russia. Every day in the Vygov chapels, services to the saints were performed according to the old printed books, which the Orthodox Church remembered that day.

Conciliar act against the heretic Martin. 1717 Pergamen. State Historical Museum.

The Vygovites traveled all over Russia in search of ancient books and icons; through the efforts of the first instructors of the desert, a rich library was collected, in which all the written heritage of Ancient Rus was presented (there were even manuscripts on parchment). The Vygovites compiled their book collection not only with full knowledge of the matter, but also very carefully; This is confirmed by the fact that many rare monuments of Russian hagiography, in particular the lives of Martyri Zelenetsky, Philip of Irapsky, and others, have been preserved mainly in the Vyg lists. The spiritual needs of the dwellers went much deeper than was typical for the majority of the peasantry of their day. Vyg not only used the spiritual heritage of Ancient Rus - he multiplied it.

Extracts of a statutory nature by the hand of the first Vygovskiy statutor Pyotr Prokopyev.

Collection of extracts and Vygov's works. Vyg, first half of the 18th century State Historical Museum.

Through the efforts of the first Vygov installer, Peter Prokopyev, Cheers of the Menaion, and it is known that the Vygovites even turned to the Sofia list of the Great Menaus of the Four, Metropolitan Macarius, which was kept at that time in Novgorod. On the twelve and other church holidays, the Vygov teachers pronounced not only the words from the All-Russian Solemnity, but also their own compositions, written in full accordance with the ancient Russian genre canons. As in the rest of the Russian land, Russian saints were especially revered on Vygu. Semyon Denisov, one of the talented Vygov writers, wrote "A memorable word about the holy miracle workers who shone in Russia", in which the Russian land was glorified, adorned with the exploits of numerous ascetics. This word opened itself to the composition of the monastery in the first third of the 18th century. an extensive selection of the lives of Russian saints; it was also often rewritten in Vygu as part of various collection of hagiographies.

Life of Andrey Denisov. Vyg,. Pomorskiy semiustav. 4 ° (20.5x16.2), II + 238 + I l.

Miniature depicting Andrei Denisov. Screensaver frame, field decoration,

Headband (on a gold background), initials (with gold and cinnabar) of the Pomeranian ornament.

Vygovsky binding of the 19th century. - boards in leather with blind embossing (fasteners are lost).

Entered the State Historical Museum in 1917 as part of the collection of A.S. Uvarova.

The tradition of venerating Russian saints and shrines was reflected in the iconostasis of the cathedral Vygovskaya chapel: here, in addition to the general image of the Russian miracle workers, there were separate icons - Zosima and Savvaty of Solovetsky, Alexander Svirsky, Our Lady of Tikhvin, Metropolitan Philip, Alexander Oshevensky. Judging by the manuscripts and icons, the northern ascetics enjoyed a special veneration on Vygu; Vygov scribes dedicated words of praise to many of them own composition... The feast days of the Vygov temples (including the sketes) were celebrated solemnly, with a large crowd of people and with the uttering of words of praise written on this occasion.

Early Pomeranian semi-ustav, print. 1 ° (31.8 x 20.0), III + 363 l.

The genre of sermon, which was part of the church service, was widely spread in Vygu. The inner life of the desert was built on the model of ancient Russian monasteries. It was based on the hostel (cinematic) Jerusalem charter, which was established in the Russian Church from the end of the XIV century. The creation of the Vygov charter was preceded by the work of the teachers of the desert with the charter of the largest Russian monasteries - Solovetskaya, Trinity-Sergieva, Kirillo-Belozerskaya, as evidenced by the author's extracts preserved in early manuscript collections. In addition, the tradition was transmitted directly through the natives of monasteries who came to Vyg.

Collection of sensible Apocalypses, compiled by Vyga.

Convolut XVII-XVIII centuries (one of the parts: Vyg, 1708 - 1860s).

Early Pomeranian semi-ustav, print. 1 ° (31.8x20.0), III + 363 l.

Miniatures, headpieces-frames, headpieces, initials of the Pomor ornament (early type).

Vygovsky binding of the 18th century. - boards in blind-embossed leather,

2 copper eyelet clasps. In the XIX century. belonged to the Kolomenskaya prayer house.

Entered the State Historical Museum in 1917 as part of the collection of A.I. Khludov.

Much merit in organizing the internal life of the Vygovskaya Hermitage belongs to the priest Paphnutii, who lived for many years in the Solovetsky monastery and knew its charter well. Under his leadership, the Vygovites, according to Ivan Filippov, began "a common life and church service to set them up according to the rank and charter." The Vygov charter was formed mainly in the 10-30s of the 18th century, when the brothers Andrey and Semyon Denisov wrote the rules for male and female dormitories, for sketes and workers, when they received a written record of the duties of the officials of the kinovia - the cellarer, the governor, the orderly ... Both hostels and externally resembled monasteries: in the center there was a cathedral chapel, connected to the refectory, from which covered passages led to the dining room; residential cells, hospitals, and numerous outbuildings were located along the perimeter. Later, bell towers were built.

S. Lehud. Rhetoric. F. Prokopovich. Rhetoric. Vyg, 1712

Belonged to A. Irodionov. Pomeranian runaway half-ustav,

Edit 1754-1756 gt. by the hand of A. Irodionov. 4 ° (18.4x11.6), III + 205 + III ill.

Vygovsky binding of the 18th century. - boards in leather with blind embossing

(the spine was glued in the 19th century), 2 copper fasteners of the eye ornament.

Pomor ornament screensavers (early type). 18 watercolor drawings

"rhetorical trees". Received in 1917 as part of the collection of A.S. Uvarova,

To which I got from Sakharov's library.

All buildings on Vygu and on Leks were surrounded by a high wooden fence. Images of architectural ensembles of the monasteries have been preserved on some popular prints ("The Genealogical Tree of the Brothers Andrei and Semyon Denisov" and "Adoration of the Icon of the Mother of God"), as well as on plans-schemes dating back to the 18th century. and supplemented by a lengthy explication of independent significance - a detailed "Description of the Vygo-Leksinsky community". V.N. Mainov, who visited the Vygovskaya Hermitage in the mid-1870s, after its devastation, and saw only miserable remnants of its former greatness, nevertheless noted in his travel notes: to decorate with success not only Povenets, but even Petrozavodsk. " The Vygovites considered the invariable preservation of ancient Russian traditions as their duty, but they were perfectly aware and deeply appreciated their own Old Believer roots.

Months with Easter. Vyg, 1774. Pomorskiy semiustav.

16 ° (9.5x5.8), II + 202 + III l. Miniature depicting Semyon Denisov.

Screensaver-frame (on a gold background) and ligature of the Pomor ornament.

Vygovsky binding of the 18th century. - boards in blind-embossed leather,

2 copper headbands for the peephole ornament. Received in 1905

The collection of P.I. Shchukin.

The line of spiritual communication went back to such famous leaders of the early Old Believers as Archpriest Avvakum, Deacon Fedor, monks Epiphanius and Abraham, priest Lazarus. In defending the old faith, Vyg considered himself the direct successor of the Solovetsky Monastery, which openly opposed the church reform of Patriarch Nikon and for eight years (1668-1676) withstood the siege of the tsarist troops. Vygovskie sources and documentary evidence point to a special role in the organization of the desert of the Solovetsky monks who left the monastery during the siege. The hostels were also connected with the wave of self-immolations of Old Believers that swept across the North. A variety of spiritual ties, direct contacts, relationships of spiritual and blood kinship with famous figures of the Old Believers, as well as a blessing going back to the Old Believers' first teachers, highlighted the Vygov community among the contemporary Old Believer communities.

Collection of Vygov's polemic-dogmatic works. Vyg, 60s of the 18th century

Pomorskiy semiustav. 4 ° (19.8 x 16.1), III + 500 + IV l.

Screensaver-frame and 2 screensavers of the Pomor ornament, cinnabar initials.

Vygovsky binding of the 18th century. - boards in leather with blind embossing, fasteners are lost.

Entered the State Historical Museum in 1917. in the collection of A.I. Khludov.

Such a rich background and spiritual heritage no other consent, no other Old Believer settlement had. And the Vygovites turned out to be worthy of the inheritance they received. A grateful historical memory prompted the Vygovites to collect both written monuments of the early Old Believers and oral legends about those who suffered for the faith. Such activities were fraught with great difficulties, nevertheless, a significant amount of material received allowed the Vygov scribes to create a whole historical cycle about the Old Believer movement in the second half of the 17th - the first half of XVIII v. First, in the 10s of the 18th century, Semyon Denisov wrote "The Story of the Fathers and Sufferers of the Solovetsky", dedicated to the siege of the Solovetsky Monastery. In 1719, in his "Tombstone to Peter Prokopyev," Andrei Denisov, an eyewitness and one of the main participants in the events, recounted the history of the creation of the desert.

Vygovsky "foreman" F.P. Grandmother's in the Vvedenskaya chapel of the female part

Church singing.

Later, in the 30s of the 18th century, two major works were written: the Old Believer martyrology "Russian Grapes" by Semyon Denisov and "History of the Vygovskaya Hermitage" by Ivan Filippov. In addition to these central works The separate lives of the especially revered fathers - the monk Cornelius, the elders Epiphanius and Cyril, Memnon - were written in Vygu. Note that no other Old Believer consensus, either at that time or later, created such an extensive cycle permeated with a single historiographic concept. Developing the Old Russian traditions, Vyg filled them with his own content. This is the tradition of venerating the abbots of the desert, who for the Vygovites were primarily the spiritual mentors of the flock, whose authority was based more on personal qualities and merit than on a high position in the Cinematic hierarchy.

Months with Easter. Lexa, 1820 Pomeranian semiustav.

16 ° (10.0x8.4), II + 161 pp. Miniature depicting Prince Vladimir.

Frontispiece, splash frame, splash screen, endings, vegetable initials

Ornament, half-set in gold. Binding of the XIX century. - boards in red leather

Gold-embossed, 2 brass clasps. From the old acquisitions of the museum.

This tradition, which was preserved throughout the existence of the Vygovskaya Hermitage, also gave rise to a large number of literary works, which include congratulatory words for the days of the namesake of mentors, gravestone and memorable words. The love of the hostels for their spiritual teachers was also expressed in how carefully their autographs and lists of their compositions were preserved on Vygu. For subsequent generations of the Vygov inhabitants, the founders of the desert themselves were the link connecting them with the early Old Believer history. Biographies of hostels in the second half of the 18th century. bribe with touching details concerning the facts of communication with the first cinematographers. Thus, the author of the funeral oration to Simeon Titovich, the rector of Leksa, who died in 1791, especially emphasizes how in his young years Simeon Titovich used every opportunity to learn from Semyon Denisov a virtuous life and book wisdom: he not only did not miss a single church teaching from the Cinoviar, but on occasion he got a job with him as a carter, and as a cell attendant.

Singing holidays (on hook notes). Vyg, early 19th century

Pomorskiy semiustav. 1 ° (31.0x21.0), VI + 190 + VI l. On l. 1-72 additional entry

Vygovsky "foreman" F.P. Babushkin in the Vvedenskaya chapel of the female unit

Vygovsky Epiphany community on his mother

Headpieces (on a gold background), initials (with gold and cinnabar),

Field decorations, endings, ligature of the Pomor ornament.

Vygovsky binding of the 19th century. - boards in red leather with blind embossing,

2 copper eyelet clasps, embossed edge, gilded.

In 1856, after the ruin of the community, she was removed from Vyga,

until 1858 was in the Petrozavodsk Cathedral,

From where it was transferred to the same faith Semchezerskaya church

Povenetsky district. Entered the State Historical Museum in 1922 from the Synodal School

Church singing.

In the second half of the 18th century. On the basis of written sources and oral legends, the lives of Andrei and Semyon Denisov were written, services were compiled to the first Vygov fathers. In their prayers, the Vygovites turned to the same saints as the entire Orthodox world, but gradually the Vygov host of heavenly intercessors took shape. New sufferers for the faith and deceased spiritual guides of the desert were added to the all-Russian saints. It was on their intercession before God that the Vygovtsy hoped when they asked to protect the community from troubles and misfortunes, slanderers and "falsehood". In the powerful spiritual potential of the desert, which was a common homeland for its inhabitants and the last stronghold of the old faith, lies the solution to all of its cultural achievements... The creative development of ancient Russian traditions, the development of one's own style in all types of art and the highest professionalism allow us to speak of the Vygov heritage as unique phenomenon in russian culture XVIII- XIX centuries. Like most of the ancient Russian monasteries, the Vygovskaya Pustyn became the center of bookishness. Here a rich library was collected, schools were opened where children were taught to read and write, a book-writing workshop was created, in which they corresponded as Old Russian works and the works of Old Believer writers, including the Vygovskys.

Pomeranian answers. Vyg,. Pomorskiy semiustav. 1 ° (32.0x19.7), II + 401 + I l.

Splash frame and 4 splash screens (on a gold background), cinnabar large and small

Initials of the Pomor ornament. Hand drawings. Vygovsky binding

XIX century. - boards in blind-embossed leather, 2 copper clasps

Peephole ornament. Entered the State Historical Museum in 1917 as part of the collection of A.I. Khludov.

Its products, which brought considerable income to the community, were distributed throughout Russia, securing the glory of the cultural capital of the Old Believers to Vyg. The Vygovites did not confine themselves only to the correspondence of books. They created a real literary school, the only one in the Old Believers. The works of this circle were designed for a high level of literacy of readers, they are characterized by a special style that goes back to the ancient Russian style of "weaving words", a variety of rhetorical techniques, a complex and sometimes archaic language. In the Vygov literary school, almost all genres that existed in Ancient Russia were continued: hagiography, historical narration, legends, visions, various types of words (solemn, memorable, funeral, etc.), sermons, messages, teachings, polemical compositions, services, syllabic poetry. The founders of the school, the talented and prolific writers themselves, brothers Andrey and Semyon Denisov brought up a whole galaxy of students, including Trifon Petrov, Daniil Matveyev, Gabriel and Nikifor Semenov, Manuil Petrov, Ivan Filippov, Vasily Danilov Shaposhnikov, Alexey Irodionov and many others.

S. Denisov. Russian grapes. The story of the fathers and sufferers of the Solovetsky.

Life of Memnon. Vyg,. Pomorskiy semiustav. 4 ° (25.2 x 19.4), V + 412 + V l.

Splash frame, field decoration, large initial of the Pomor ornament

(with gold), small cinnabar initials. Vygovsky binding of the late 10s

XIX century. - boards in red leather with gold embossing, in the middle - the image

Calvary against the background of the Jerusalem Wall, 2 copper grooved clasps

Peephole ornament with a notch; embossed edge, gilded. Belonged to

T.F. Sidorov, who bought the manuscript from T.F. Bolshakov in 1854

Entered the State Historical Museum in 1917 as part of the collection of A.I. Khludov.

While representatives of the official church contemptuously called the champions of ancient piety "men and ignoramuses," Old Believer writers created works that were in no way inferior to the works of recognized literary authorities of Peter's time, such as Dimitri Rostovsky and Feofan Prokopovich. Moreover, there was a case that allowed the Vygov scribes to brilliantly demonstrate their deep philological and source study knowledge. At the beginning of the 18th century. to combat the schism, the "Council Act on the Heretic Martin" and Theognostov Brebnik were written, which were passed off as ancient manuscripts, allegedly denouncing the Old Believers. The Vygovites managed to prove their falsification.

Bindings of Vygovskaya work. Late 1810s - 1820s.

Having carefully studied the manuscripts, Andrei Denisov and Manuil Petrov discovered that the text was written from the scraped one, the letterforms did not correspond to the ancient ones, and the parchment sheets were bound again. For this subtle analysis, Pitirim called Andrei Denisov a "sorcerer", but even a non-religious believer who had a conversation with the Nizhny Novgorod ruler objected that the Vygov natchetchik acted not with magic, but with his "natural, sharp enlightenment." Even more accurate was the definition of the famous historian of the Old Believers V.G. Druzhinin, who with good reason saw the first paleographers and source researchers in the Vygovtsy. In addition to teaching book literacy, a school of znamenny singing was organized on Vygu. There were very few knowledgeable singers among the first settlers: only Daniil Vikulov, Pyotr Prokopiev and Leonty Fedoseev - the rest sang after them "by hearsay." When Ivan Ivanov, a connoisseur of znamenny chant, came to Vyg from Moscow, Andrei Denisov gathered the "best literate students" and began to study hook singing with them, then they taught the Lexin literate girls. Thus, the exceptional beauty of the divine services in the Vygov churches was achieved; The high level of musical culture allowed the Vygovites to shift even poems, odes and psalms of their own composition to the znamenny chant.

Months with Easter. (Muz. 2283) Lexa, 1836 Pomeranian semi -ustav.

16 ° (8.0x6.5), VI + 254 + XIII l. 12 miniatures depicting the signs of the zodiac.

Frontispiece, splash frame (on a gold background), initials (with gold),

Elm Pomor ornament, ending in the form of flowers. Binding of the XIX century. - boards

In gold-embossed leather, 2 copper grooved clasps,

The edge is gilded. Purchased in 1901 from P.I. Silina.

The artistic heritage of the desert is extremely wide and varied. There is practically no such industry artistic creation, which would not have received development on Vygu. Here paintings were created (icons, popular prints, book miniatures, oil paintings), small plastic objects (carved wooden and cast metal icons and crosses, church and household items) and applied arts (facial and ornamental sewing, painting and carving on furniture and household utensils made of wood, weaving from birch bark). It cannot be said that the Vygovites in their art developed a certain sample borrowed by them.

Months with Easter and the Life of St. Pulcheria. Lexa, 1836

Pomorskiy semiustav. 16 ° (12.2 x 8.8), 111 + 194 + 111 l. 13 miniatures,

Depicting the signs of the zodiac and St. Pulcheria. Frontispiece,

2 splash frames, field decoration, splash screens (on a gold background),

Initials (cinnabar and gold), frames, endings of the Pomor ornament.

Binding of the XIX century. - cardboard in leather. Purchased in 1920 from N.N. Bolshakova.

On the contrary, having creatively reworked the best achievements of ancient Russian and modern art, Vyg developed his own school, the stylistic unity of which is obvious: the same motives and techniques can be found in the decor of handwritten books, in wall sheets, and in icons, painted and copper cast, and in free brush paintings. The achievements of the Vygov craftsmen had a solid economic foundation. From the very beginning, the founders of the desert staked on the most complete self-sufficiency, therefore, already at the end of the 17th century, along with residential cells, numerous workshops were built - a tailor, a smithy, a coppersmith. The production of many objects, in particular icons, crosses, ladders, soon became widespread; nevertheless, all Vygov products were distinguished by high artistic merit and professionalism of execution.

Simeon Solunsky. Creations (translated by Euthymius Chudovsky.

From the printed edition: Yassy, ​​1683). Vyg,. Pomorskiy semiustav.

1 ° (34.0 x 21.5), II + 29 + 464 + I l. 1 miniature ("Militant Church"),

Pomor ornament screensaver (on a gold background),

Small gold and cinnabar initials, ligature.

Binding of the XIX century. - boards in blind-embossed leather,

1 copper eyelet clasp (the other is missing).

Entered the State Historical Museum in 1917 as part of the collection of A.I. Khludov.

In this respect, Vyg's fame was so great that even representatives of the official church had to turn to the Old Believer community with orders. From documentary sources it is known, for example, that in 1735, with the blessing of the Solovetsky Archimandrite Varsonuphius, "according to the general agreement" of the inhabitants of the Kemsky town and surrounding villages, Ivan Gorlov was sent to Vyg "to find the master of silver", who would have made a robe for the image of John Forerunners in the Kemsky Assumption Church. The development of the Vygov arts was closely connected with the spiritual life of the desert. In the Vygov traditions, one should look for the reasons for the dissemination of certain themes and plots. So, with the tradition of venerating mentors, the appearance of images of Vygov's fathers in popular prints, oil paintings and book miniatures is closely connected, and these seemingly conventional images, no doubt, bear features of portrait resemblance. Since the Vygov saints could not be officially canonized and, therefore, are depicted on icons, icons appeared, painted with paints and cast, depicting the heavenly patrons of the first Vygov mentors - the prophet Daniel, the Apostle Peter, Andrey Stratilat. The community, organized according to the monastic model, left a certain imprint on the theme of a number of works and the development of some types of applied art. The main provisions of the Vygov charter, which require a virtuous and chaste life from the inhabitants of the desert, explain many of the moralizing plots of the Vygov prints and wood paintings. The strict "desert rank" prevented the penetration of excessively secular motives and "worldly embellishments" into Vygov products. For this reason, for example, the production of birch bark tuesques with a mica backing and basmeny was banned. Nevertheless, on Vygu, the production of products intended only for laymen was allowed, in particular, wallets, pouches for money, garters, gloves were embroidered by Lexin craftswomen. The history of the Vygovskaya Hermitage once again shows what a powerful spiritual force lay at the basis of the entire Old Believer movement.

Gospel-tetras. Vyg, 30s of the XIX century. Pomorskiy semiustav. 4 ° (20.1 x 16.2), IV + 342 + IV l.

4 miniatures depicting the evangelists. 4 splash frames, splash screens,

Field decorations (on a gold background), initials (with gold and small cinnabar),

the ends of the Pomor ornament. Binding of the XIX century. - boards in green velvet,

2 copper eyelet clasps, embossed edge, gilded.

Entered the State Historical Museum in 1917 as part of the collection of A.I. Khludov.

She helped the Vygovites to withstand a difficult struggle with the harsh northern nature and overcome many other trials that fell to the lot of the desert - from prolonged crop failures and hunger to devastating fires and brutal government repression. The Vygov community, which was the spiritual unity of brothers in faith, supported its inhabitants in their opposition to the hostile world, nourished their talents and creativity. In a sense, Vn; transformed, despite extremely unfavorable external conditions, from a small peasant settlement among deserted forests into the largest economic, religious and cultural center of the Old Believers in Russia, won a moral victory over this hostile world. Over a century and a half of its existence, the Vygov community reached exceptional heights in various spheres of material and spiritual life and, having created excellent examples in all types of art, thereby exerted a great influence on the Old Believers and, more broadly, Russian culture of the 18th-19th centuries. Vyg's book and literary heritage is extremely large.

Binding of Vygovskaya work. 30s of the XIX century.

Gospel-tetras. Vyg, 30s of the XIX century. Pomorskiy semiustav.

4 ° (20.1 x 16.2), IV + 342 + IV l. 4 miniatures depicting the evangelists.

4 splash frames, splash screens, field decorations (on a gold background),

Initials (with gold and small cinnabar), endings of the Pomor ornament.

Binding of the XIX century. - boards in green velvet, 2 copper clasps

Peephole ornament, embossed edge, gilded.

Entered the State Historical Museum in 1917 as part of the collection of A.I. Khludov.

Until now, previously unknown Vygov works, autographs of Vygov writers and early author's collections have been found in manuscript collections. In the first years of the existence of the community, the work of a scribe and a pedagogue had not yet emerged into an independent professional field of activity. They were engaged in the correspondence of books and drawing up extracts in their free time from other works. From Vygov's sources we know that Ivan Vnifant'ev acted in this way, "in his free time from the duties commanded to him, he wrote out what he needed from his books"; Petr Oshmara, the big bakery chief; a certain Vasily, who worked in a brick factory, in a cookery and other services. Interesting story O early years community life, when the Vygov culture was just emerging, was preserved in the "Life of John Vnifantievich". Although "writing ... his hands were not very cleverly byasha", Ivan Vnifantyev "was extremely zealous to write." Since at that time the community was very poor and there was not enough clean paper, it was necessary to use cursive books for writing "worldly affairs", which were used to make ladders. Analyzing these books, Ivan Vnifant'ev wrote even where he found clean place between the lines. The abbots, seeing such zeal, appointed Ivan Vnifantyev as a teacher to the young inhabitants of the desert, in order to teach them, "as befits a desert and community property and book teaching." Soon a separate cell was built for this school. From Ivan Filippov's "History of the Vygovskaya Hermitage" we know many who taught literacy and who studied it at Vygu. First of all, the teachers were the founders of the desert Andrey Denisov, Daniil Vikulin, Peter Prokopyev. Some of the students (for example, the younger brother of Andrei Denisov - Ivan and the sister of Peter Prokopyev - Fevronia) achieved such significant success that they soon copied the books themselves. The tasks of school education, the organization of the cinematography, the upbringing of the flock and the propaganda of the old faith demanded a wide distribution of the book (the Old Believers were deprived of the possibility of printing it in print). Therefore, from the best students began to teach scribes, "so that the right to write." By the 60s of the 18th century. a peculiar type of writing finally took shape - the so-called Pomor half-ustav, thanks to which the Vygov manuscripts are unmistakably distinguished from the manuscript heritage of the 18th - 19th centuries. The high professionalism of the scribes is confirmed not only by the closeness of handwriting within the same school, but also by the exceptional quality of the correspondence: textological analysis of handwritten lists of individual monuments shows that all Vygov lists are distinguished by an accurate reproduction of the original and a minimum, compared to Neygov lists, the number of errors and misprints. The Vygov mentors showed constant concern for the schools and the book-writing workshop. "Literate" cells, in which, apparently, teaching to read and write books were combined, were in the men's and women's monasteries (at the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries there were even two such cells on the Lex), as well as in the Cow Yard. There was also a kind of "literary workshop", where, under the guidance of mentors, students comprehended the secrets literary skill, a prerequisite for which was considered knowledge of grammar and rhetoric. For this purpose, Vygu collected all the textbooks of rhetoric that were then circulating in Russia, including " Great science"Raymund Lullia," Rhetorics "by Sophrony Likhud and Feofan Prokopovich. Early Vygov lists of these rhetorics have survived in the State Historical Museum collection, and one of them belonged to a student of Semyon Denisov - Alexei Irodionov. when in the literary field such talented writers like Andrey and Semyon Denisov, Trifon Petrov and many others. Most of the works that made Vyg's fame belong to this period. End of the 18th century revealed a number of writers' names - Andrei Borisov, Timofey Andreev, Grigory Kornaev and even women writers, for example, Fevronia Semyonova and Fedosya Gerasimova. Vyg's special merit to the Old Believers lies in the fact that it was here that the fundamental dogmatic writings were created, proving the truth of the old faith. Careful collection of all evidence - church-archaeological, iconographic, written - in favor of the pre-Nikon rituals, numerous collections of extracts (both unsystematic and selected according to the thematic principle) prepared the appearance of the famous "Pomor Answers", compiled by Andrey Denisov in collaboration with Semyon Denisov, Trifon Petrov and Manuil Petrov in 1722 - 1723. in response to 106 questions from the synodal missionary hieromonk Neophyte. "Pomorian Answers", in spite of intra-religious divisions, became the reference book of all Old Believers. Fundamental dogmatic-polemic works were written on Vygu and later, they received development of both general and separate issues that were relevant for their time, for example, about praying for the tsar ("books" by Manuil Petrov and Daniel Matveyev), about the Antichrist (the work of G I. Kornaeva). Vyga's literary legacy fully confirms the truth of the words that open the extensive collection of Vygov's dogmatic-polemical works, compiled in the 60s of the 18th century: “Do not think, prudent reader, that wordlessly is the essence of our state and the censure of the current new teachers we are in extreme ignorance and foolishness about the truth Orthodox faith! Not taco, not taco essence, as if they write and verb ... ". Special art achieved Vyg in the design of a handwritten book. Its appearance is distinguished by a rare stylistic unity, special elaboration and definiteness of artistic forms.

Life of Prince Vladimir. Vygo-Leksinsky Danilov Monastery. First third of the 19th century.

Paper. 8 ° (17.3x10.0), 195 p. Artificial semi-estuary. Received in 1907. State Historical Museum.

The oldest life of the Grand Duke of Kiev Vladimir Svyatoslavich (died in 1015),

the baptist of Russia, "an apostle to princes", based on the oldest chronicle story,

it is believed to have been compiled in the second half of the 11th century by the monk Jacob.

The extensive version of "Life" was developed in the 40-50s of the XVI century and was included

in the "Book of the Degree of the Tsar's Genealogy" by its compiler, the Metropolitan of All Russia

Athanasius (died after 1568). In this manuscript, the text is a list

"The Life of Vladimir", placed in the first side of the "Book of Degrees".

The manuscript was made in the Old Believers' Vygo-Leksinsky Danilov Monastery;

according to the peculiarities of writing and ornamentation, it belongs to the Pomor school.

The origins of the magnificent Pomor ornament go back, as established, to the art of the capital of the last quarter of the 17th century, which flourished at the royal court. An especially important role was played by the penetration to the North of wonderful ornamental sheets engraved on copper, specially intended for the titles of handwritten books, mostly by the famous master of the Armory Chamber Leonty Bunin. In the compositional schemes and details of the ornamentation of the Pomor manuscripts, precisely these samples of the highest craftsmanship are creatively reworked, and in a number of monuments the engravings themselves are used. For example, in the collection of the mid-18th century. there is a rare version of the print - in blue, rather than the traditional black paint, which adds additional sophistication to the title page. Splash-frames of the initial pages of manuscripts, with lush "entablatures" decorated with an infinitely variable set of characteristic plant and architectural-geometric ("curved") forms, in the most ceremonial books are often combined in a spread with equally magnificent frontispieces, where in a round or oval cartouche either a dictum written in gold or an image of one of the "fathers" of the Vygov monastery is placed. Thus, in the Life of Andrei Denisov of the 1810s, an idealized portrait of him is given in a cartouche, which is extremely close to similar images on painted wall sheets; same; A conditional portrait of Semyon Denisov is also placed in the miniature Month of 1774 (although in other Months in the cartouche of the frontispiece the traditional saying is more often placed: “As the sky is decorated with countless stars, this book is filled with holy names.” The title of the book, especially if it is inscribed in a luxurious headpiece-frame, often executed in calligraphic Pomeranian script, very tall and slender. But also extremely characteristic are the titles from large cinnabar letters, as a rule, with the initial letter in black. They have emphasized wide vertical elements, while the loops and crossbars they seem to dissolve in the curling, bizarre light grasses surrounding the “masts.” This makes it difficult to read, but turns the title lines into an essential element of the leaf decor. The text itself begins with a large, sometimes occupying almost the entire height of the leaf with an ornamented initial. It can be composed of engravings plant-geometric elements or be purely cinnabar, but also ukra curly stems, grasses and a complex silhouette with fantastic flowers. The beginnings of individual chapters and significant divisions of the text, in turn, are marked by a whole hierarchy of large, medium and small initials. The combination of a variety of initials with a clear and well-proportioned Pomeranian semi-ustav creates a very special decorative rhythm for the entire manuscript. Despite the surprising constancy of the appearance of the Vygov book, which has been carefully preserved for more than a century and a half of its existence, observations of manuscripts of different times allow us to note a certain evolution of the style - from more heavy, large and plastic forms at the beginning - the first half of the 18th century. (for example, "Rhetorics" and "Pomorian Answers" of the 20s of the 18th century and a collection of extracts and Vygov's works of the first half of the 18th century to the airy-light, dry and sophisticated drawing in the manuscripts of the second quarter - mid XIX v. A unique example of a luxurious early Pomeranian manuscript is the famous obverse Explanatory Apocalypse, dated by the scribe in the preface in 1708. According to the classification of F.I. Buslaev, who devoted a whole chapter to this manuscript in his research, iconographically he belongs to the so-called Chudov edition (repeating the original of the early 17th century from the Chudov Monastery), but it is interesting that a number of details indicate the artist's acquaintance with engravings of the old printed Apocalypse of 1646. created in Kiev by Priest Procopius. Considering that this manuscript was supplemented as convicted by two printed editions of the Kiev Apocalypses, we can mention the trips of Andrey Denisov to Kiev and his studies at the Kiev-Mohyla Academy. The numerous decorations of the Khludov Apocalypse are subdivided into three types: the first is traditional and familiar from the capital's manuscripts of the last quarter of the 17th century. a variant of the old printed ornament with baroque elements (it served as the basis for L. Bunin's engraving sheets); the second is also a plant ornament, but of larger, sculptural-plastic forms, similar in its schemes to the main array of subsequent Pomor ornamentation, which became its "classic"; and, finally, the third, which is presented in abundance only in this manuscript and is very rarely found in other monuments, and only in the 18th century, with a predominance of purely architectural, linear and "curved" elements over vegetation. Its main difference is in the original painting with dense bright colors. Contrasting colors prevail here - red and blue, with the addition of dark crimson and an abundance of gold, which makes these screensavers solemn and even majestic. Particularly effective is the version where, instead of a rectangular "entablature", the headband-frame is crowned with a "pediment" of two symmetrical very large "volutes" topped with a flower or a crown, supplemented on the sides by curly branches with golden carnations (in the catalog this type of ornament is designated as an "early type "). The miniatures of this Apocalypse are distinguished by their beautiful delicate drawing, slender proportional figures, complex, but harmoniously constructed compositions. Clothes, clouds, "slides" are colored with a rich, but not dense tempera, with rich gradations of shades. The coloring is multicolored, but not motley; in each miniature some leading tonality dominates: calm reddish ocher of "hills", pink-lilac tone of clouds, turquoise tone of the sea - and all other colors harmoniously complement it. Carefully gilded angel wings, halos, thrones and crowns give the miniatures a special luxury. As noted by F.I. Buslaev, in the conventional "iconic" space of the miniature, "realistic" elements of the landscape have been introduced here and there. We find the same combination of "realism" and conventionality in yet another early manuscript - "Rhetoric" of 1712. It is interesting that here we find the same type of "architectonic" ornament with a bright red-blue coloring, as in the Khludov Apocalypse, and the manner of execution allows to suggest here almost the same hand. Lush crowns of "rhetorical trees" look like trees in the "landscapes" of the Apocalypse, from the trunks of which conditional cartouche frames grow like flowers, and the "gravestone tree" is entirely composed of fantastic floral patterns. A special genre of miniatures, where pictorial motives are organically intertwined with ornamental ones, are the "signs of the Zodiac" from a series of miniature, 16th part of a sheet, Months, written in Leksinskaya convent in the 20s - 30s of the XIX century. We meet here "Maiden" - a reaper in a red sarafan, with a sickle and ears in her hands, surrounded by a wreath of forget-me-nots and rose hips, "Capricorn" - a goat grazing on a grassy hillock, "Pisces" - an oval blue lake with a flock of roach. On the spreads, various large endings are adjacent to the signs of the Zodiac - in the form of lush bouquets of roses and tulips tied with scarlet and blue bows, Christmas trees, apple trees strewn with large pink-green apples. These, which have also become traditional, motifs of Pomor art are found both in purely book ornament, and in painted wall prints and on items of Pomor life. The Vygov art of handwritten books reflected the artistic flair, taste and talent of the inhabitants of "Northern Athens" with great completeness.

Bird of Paradise Sirin. Vyg, 1750-1760s. Ink, tempera, gold on paper. 44x39.5.

Entry in 1929 in the General Inventory Book: "From previous acquisitions." State Historical Museum.

Russian popular print and the Old Believers. First of all, these are wall pictures, or painted splints. Hand-drawn splint is one of the varieties of folk figurative primitive. Its emergence and distribution falls on the middle of the 18th and 19th centuries, when such types of folk art as painting on wood, book miniatures, printed graphic prints, have already passed a certain path of development. And it is not surprising that the art of hand-drawn wall pictures has absorbed some ready-made forms and already found techniques. The painted splint owes its appearance to the Vygo-Leksinsky community. Experiencing an urgent need to substantiate the truth of their faith, the Old Believers, along with the correspondence of the writings of their apologists, used visual means of conveying information, including drawing wall pictures. The works of Old Believer artists were intended for a circle of like-minded people and were at first "secret" art.

Spiritual pharmacy. Vyg, late 18th - early 19th century Paper, ink, tempera.

59.5x48.2. Purchased in 1902 from P.S. Kuznetsova. Gim

However, in terms of its moral and educational meaning, the art of drawn popular prints turned out to be much broader, filled with high spirituality of universal human values, and became a special page in the history of folk art. The earliest surviving sheets, made in the Vygo-Leksinsky hostel, date back to the 1750s - 1760s. Drawers, as a rule, were formed from among the Vygov icon painters, miniaturist artists, and book scribes. Mastering a new art for themselves, these masters introduced into it traditional, well-known techniques. The artists worked with liquid tempera on a pre-applied light drawing.

Death of the righteous and sinner. Vyg, late 18th - early 19th centuries State Historical Museum.

Paper, ink, tempera. 40.9x52.4. Purchased in 1902 from P.S. Kuznetsova.

They used herbal and mineral paints, hand-bred in egg emulsion or gum. (A heavily diluted tempera allows you to work in the technique of transparent painting, like watercolors, and at the same time gives an even opaque tone.) The drawn splint did not know any circulation or print - it was entirely done by hand. Drawing, coloring, writing titles and explanatory texts - everything was done by the artist himself. The subject of hand-drawn pictures is very diverse.

The tree of mind. Lexa, 1816 Paper, ink, tempera, whitewash, gold.

71x57. Received in 1905 as part of the collection of A.P. Bakhrushin. State Historical Museum.

Among them there are sheets dedicated to some events in the historical past of Russia, portraits of Old Believers, images of monasteries (especially the Pomor bespopov consent), illustrations for stories and parables from literary collections, pictures intended for reading and chants, wall calendar calendars. Many multi-plot compositions were built on the principle of a sequential story of events: these are sheets illustrating the Book of Genesis, which tells the story of Adam and Eve, as well as the picture "The Ruin of the Solovetsky Monastery" - about the reprisals against the monks who defended the pre-Nikon liturgical books (1668-1676) ). Pictures with instructive stories and parables from various literary collections occupy an important place in the art of drawn popular prints.

Praise for the virgins. Lexa. 1836 Paper. ink, tempera. gold.

45.5x36.5. Received in 1905 as part of the collection of A.P. Bakhrushin. State Historical Museum.

They deal with the themes of the virtuous and vicious deeds of people, moral behavior, the meaning of human life, expose sins, and tell about the death throes of sinners. In this respect, the plot "Spiritual Pharmacy" is interesting, artists have turned to it more than once. The meaning of the parable, borrowed from the work "Spiritual Medicine", is healing from sins with the help of good deeds. The most common were stories with edifying sayings, useful advice - the so-called "good friends" of a person. All the maxims of this group of pictures ("About the good friends of the twelve", "The Tree of Mind") are enclosed in ornamented circles and placed on the image of the tree. Spiritual poems and chants were also often placed in ovals, framed by a garland of flowers rising from a flowerpot Or basket placed on the ground.

Family tree of Andrey and Semyon Denisov. Vyg, first half of the 19th century

Paper, ink, tempera. 75.4x53.2. Entered the Hermitage in 1905

The collection of A.P. Bakhrushin. State Historical Museum.

The artists especially loved the spiritual verse on the subject of the parable of the prodigal son: an oval placed in the center of the sheet with the text of the verse was framed with scenes illustrating the events of the parable. The artistic manner of decorating hand-drawn pictures and techniques for decorating manuscripts made in the Vygov book-writing workshop reveal stylistic similarities in the handwriting of text parts, in the design of titles, large initials, in the color scheme of certain groups of sheets, in ornamentation. However, it is important to pay attention to the differences that exist in the work of miniaturists and masters of wall pictures.

The ages of human life. Vyg, mid-19th century Paper, ink, tempera. 58.5x71.

Received in 1905 as part of the collection of P.I. Shchukin. State Historical Museum.

The artist's palette of drawn sheets is much more diverse, the color in the pictures, as a rule, is made more open, the combinations - more contrasting. The craftsmen perfectly took into account the decorative purpose of the pictures, their connection with the plane of the wall. In contrast to the fragmentation and fragmentariness of illustrations, which is customary for manuscripts, designed for individual communication with a book at a close distance, popular printers operated with balanced and complete constructions of large sheets, perceived as a whole.

Semyon Denisov, Ivan Filippov, Daniil Vikulin. Pechora area, mid-19th century

Paper, ink, tempera. 35 x 74.5 cm. Purchased at auction in 1898 by the State Historical Museum.

But in the manner of writing, in individual techniques, the creators of the drawn pictures also depended on the high art of icon painting, which flourished on Vygu. The masters of popular prints borrowed from icon painters the festive sound of color, a penchant for pure transparent colors, a love for subtle miniature painting, as well as some characteristic techniques for drawing soil, vegetation, architectural details. Drawn popular print, as noted above, is a special page in the history of folk art. It is, as it were, a synthesis of the traditions of folk pictures, ancient Russian culture and peasant art.

The parable of the prodigal son. Lexa, first half of the 19th century

Paper, ink, tempera, whitewash, gold. 84.5x62. Bought at auction in 1900 by the State Historical Museum.

Building on high culture Old Russian painting and especially - handwritten literacy, which represented for them not a dead archaic, but a living full-blooded art, the soil that constantly nourished their creativity, the artists of hand-drawn pictures "melted" the form of printed popular prints, which served them as a starting point, a model, into a different quality. It was the synthesis of ancient Russian traditions and popular prints that resulted in the emergence of works of a new art form... The Old Russian component in the drawn popular print seems to be one of the strongest. There is no stylization or mechanical borrowing in it.

Birds of Sirina. Vyg, second half of the 19th century. Paper, ink,

Tempera, gold. 49.5x39. Purchased at auction in 1903 by the State Historical Museum.

Old Believer artists who did not accept the innovations relied on familiar, cherished images from ancient times, built their works on the principle of illustrative expression of abstract ideas and concepts. The language of symbols and allegories was familiar and understandable to them. Warmed by popular inspiration, the ancient Russian tradition, even at a later time, did not close in a conventional world. In her works, she embodied the bright world of humanity for the audience, spoke to them in the sublime language of art. Along with this, the drawn sheets were based on the same pictorial system as folk popular prints.

Seven deadly sins. Vyg, second half of the 19th century. Paper, ink,

Tempera, whitewash. 102.1x70.3. Purchased in 1921 from A.A. Bakhrushin. State Historical Museum.

They were based on understanding the plane as a two-dimensional space, highlighting the main characters by means of enlargement, frontal placement of figures, decorative filling of the background, in a patterned and ornamental manner of constructing a whole. Drawn splint completely fits into a holistic aesthetic system based on the principles of artistic primitiveness. Developing among the peasant artists of the Old Believer community, the painted splint was based on an extensive ramified root system. The peasant environment added to its artistic nature a folklore tradition, folklore poetic images that have always lived in the people's collective consciousness.

Panorama of Vygovsky and Leksinsky hostels and worship of the icon of the Mother of God.

Artist V. Tarasov. 1838 Paper, ink, tempera, gold. 65.5x98.5. Entered the State Historical Museum in 1891.

Enjoyment of the beauty of the world, poetic, integral attitude to nature, optimism, folklore generalization - these are the features that the drawn popular print from peasant art has absorbed. Confirmation of this is the entire figurative and color structure of the drawn pictures. Old Believer wall sheets are an art in which, as it were, the self-consciousness of pre-Petrine Russia, the religious idea of ​​beauty, and a special spirituality continued to live. And despite the fact that it stood in the service of the traditional way of life, which was not completely dissolved in the representations of the New Age, this art was alive: it was based on a deep religious feeling, was nourished by the wisdom of ancient books and monastic culture. A thread of continuity from old forms to new forms of folk art ran through it.

Pagan tattoos have unique beauty and appeal. Most people apply such pictures as a talisman with an appeal to the forces of nature to protect and preserve their wearer. They can depict ancient pagan gods, a variety of ornaments that were used by the Old Believers.

Tattoos with pagan designs can be performed both in monochrome and in color. Pagan tattoos include animals, trixel, squares, rectangles, ribbons, runes, as well as various mixed ornaments.

Runic tattoos include symbols of runes, 3, 4 angular swastikas, 4 and 5 pointed stars and a complex geometric ornament. Pagan tattoos of the ancient Slavs have been used since the late Middle Ages (in the old days, goods were marked with runic signs). The signs of the runes were used as trade marks (at that time they were called "tamgas").

Ornamental elements of Slavic tattoos

Among the ancient Slavs, one of the most common was considered a symbol that meant prosperity and fertility. In the XI century, Slavic tattoos received some variety in the form of notes of Catholic symbolism. Women applied tattoos with images of crosses, foliage and floral designs, as well as chain weaves of various objects (flowers, leaves, branches, greenery).

For men, tattoos were depicted primarily to show strength and power. Such plots include the image of a crown, a heart, inside which is the inscription of a person who respected the noble origin of the tattoo bearer.

The main features of the Slavic tattoos of the ancient Old Believers

The characteristic features that describe Slavic tattoos include the following:

• the image of the Gzhel painted signs;
• the image of the Palekh painted signs;
• images from epics and songs;
• patterns containing sketches of the book art of Christians;
• canvases by Russian artists.

The meaning of a tattoo with Slavic runes

Slavic runes are an ancient manifestation of the Slavic writing of schismatics. The rune signs are similar to Asian hieroglyphs with deep historical meaning. To understand the runes, an interpretation of each of the runes is required. Slavic symbols and ornaments are a gradually developing trend that has great advantages for development in the future.

Each rune symbol has a mysterious image. The meanings of the symbols contain the words: peace, rainbow, power, wind, rock, support, Perun, source, etc. Old Believer runic writing appeared long before the 10th century, which was marked by the adoption of a new faith. This fact is evidenced by archaeological excavations with written letters on household appliances.

The rune of peace represents the inner state of a person and his desire for tranquility, peace and order. The rainbow rune personifies the road to the center of the universe. The runic symbol of strength was applied by the Slavic warriors, the sign of the wind contributed to the achievement of the goal, a steady ascent to the top. The symbol of Perun is the rune of the Thunderer, who keeps and protects the world of people from chaos.

Tattoo depicting a tree with leaves in Slavic culture denotes a symbol of life. The images of various wild animals symbolized their strength. Such tattoos were depicted with an appeal to acquire the qualities and spirit of the depicted animals. The image of water, fire and the sun was symbolized as protection and amulet by the forces of nature.

The reasons for the decline and loss of Slavic tattoos

The adoption of a new faith in the 10th century practically destroyed Slavic tattoos. Religion began to eradicate all ritual cult events of pagan tribes. Church ministers forbade tattooing as a pagan rite. Churches and priests tried to protect the population of their tribe from false prophets who call themselves prophets and all-seeing, and also to rid their parishioners of the mythical power of spirits.

Swastika tattoo

One of the most common tattoos on ancient Slavic themes have become Slavic swastikas different angles and shapes. This ornament is often confused with the swastika of Nazi Germany, which was also borrowed from the ancient peoples, so there is no need to compare such things.

A tattoo of Slavic themes is depicted in the form of a cult sign of a cross with ends bent clockwise, denoting changes that obey the laws of nature, changes in the environment - the alternation of night and day, seasons. The Old Believers interpreted the world around them as an incessant cycle in which life gradually goes to death, and then reborn again into a new life. The Slavic cult swastika is usually depicted in view of at least three clockwise bends (there may be more bends). The swastika symbolized the correct order of things in nature., namely health and strength, sun, light and joy.

Also, Slavic Old Believers applied tattoos as amulets. The most powerful amulets on the body were considered images of Ladinets, stars, Thunder wheel and Kolyadnik.

Tattoos of Slavic Gods

Slavic tattoos include images of Slavic Gods. Since before the adoption of Christianity, the Slavic Old Believers believed in a wide divine pantheon. The image of Perun testified as a patron. The Slavs have preserved epics that Perun, during the pursuit of the dragon, pierced him with lightning (in other sources, a spear is found).

To depict incredible strength, warriors tattooed dragons, lions and tigers. Veles guarded forests, revealed the secrets of medicine and tillage. Slavic schismatics considered Svarog to be the God of heavenly forces and the father of all that was created. Yarilo symbolized the God of the sun and fertility. The Ladinets sign on the body symbolized happiness, love and harmony.

And Patap Maksimych loved to read soul-saving books at his leisure, and wherever his parent's heart liked to re-read "Zlatostrui" and other legends, copied with gold and cinnabar by the hands of the daughters-craftswomen. What kind of "headpieces" Nastya drew in the beginning of "Flower beds", what kind of "dates" she brought out in gold on the sides - it's a pleasure to see!

P.I. Melnikov. In forests.

From the end of the 17th century. The main centers of correspondence and design of Cyrillic manuscripts are places of compact residence of Old Believers: Vyg (Vygovskaya Pomorskaya Hermitage), Vetka, Guslitsy near Moscow, villages and hermitages in the Pechora (especially Ust-Tsilma) and Northern Dvina river basins, Volga region (Nizhegorodskaya, Samara and Saratov provinces ), Verkhokamye, the Baltic States (mainly Latgale and Western Pechudye), the mining Urals, Siberia, Belaya Krinitsa, etc. Many of these places have developed their own original school of handwritten books with features of type, miniatures and ornamentation characteristic of each region. The famous Russian writer P.I. Melnikov (1818 - 1883), the author of an epic dilogy about the life of the Kerzhen sketes "In the forests" and "On the mountains", being an official on special assignments of the Ministry of Internal Affairs "to eradicate the schism", compiled in 1854 a "Report on the current state of schism in the Nizhny Novgorod province ", where, in particular, he noted:" The best scribes are the Pomor people, that is, those living in the sketes and villages of the Olonets province (1). Pomeranian writing is distinguished by both the correct spelling and calligraphic art. The Pomor manuscripts are followed by the suburban manuscripts, that is, written in the Chernigov province; lately they have been spreading incomparably less. Along with the suburban manuscripts, there are Moscow and Irgiz manuscripts, that is, those written in the former Saratov schismatic sketes. Finally, in the last category of manuscripts there are Siberian and riding ones, that is, those written in the provinces of Nizhny Novgorod, Vladimir, Kostroma and Yaroslavl. In addition, manuscripts are written without special claims to the beauty of handwriting in almost all areas where there are schismatics ”(2).

1. Benefit

In October 1694, in the upper reaches of the Vyg River (now Medvezhyegorsk District of the Republic of Karelia), the deacon of the village of Shunga, Daniil Vikulin (1653 - 1733), and the townsman of the village of Ponevets, from the clan of Myshetsky princes, Andrei Denisov (1674 - 1730), founded the Vygovskaya Pomorskaya Hermitage (also the Vygoleksinskoe community or Vygoretsia) is one of the first in origin and subsequently the largest in terms of size and number of inhabitants, the center of pop-free Old Believers. As for the cultural significance of the Vygolexinsky community (the Vygov school of icon painting and book painting), it goes far beyond the pop-free sense: the influence of the Vygov art, which was a kind of standard of artistic skill, fresh in terms of style and at the same time not going beyond the “statutory limits ”, Extended both to the fine art of the peasants of the Olonets Territory, and to all, without exception, places of compact residence of the Old Believers.

The Vygoleksinskoe community consisted of Vygovsky (male) and Leksinsky Holy Cross (female). The latter was founded in 1706, 20 versts from Vygovskiy by transferring the women's monastery to the bank of the Leksna River. By the end of the 17th century, Vygoretsia already had an extensive economy, which was constantly growing: arable land, mills, cattle, sea crafts, etc. Thanks to the Peter's decree on religious tolerance from 1702 and the political talent of the Denisov brothers, Andrei and Semyon (1682 - 1740) , the Vygovites secured the patronage of both local authorities and a number of influential persons in St. Petersburg, which served as a guarantee of the further prosperity of the desert, which experienced in the 18th century. its heyday.

Andrey Denisov became the organizer of the book-writing school on Vygu. A somewhat unusual circumstance for that time was that the majority of the Vygov book-writers were women - residents of the Leksinsky community (in 1838 there were about 200 of them). The significance of the local "literate hut" is evidenced by the fact that in Pomorie it was known as the "Leksinskaya Academy", whose "graduates" literate women- scammers, were sent all over Russia.

The Vygov school of calligraphy and miniature took shape by the 1920s. XVIII century. “On Vygu,” writes E. M. Yukhimenko, “an exceptionally skilful and sophisticated design of the book was achieved.<…>high professionalism of the Vygov scribes<…>is confirmed not only by the closeness of handwriting within the same school, but also by the exceptional quality of the correspondence ”(3). The Pomorskiy semi-ustav was formed on the basis of the handwritten semi-ustav of the last quarter of the 17th century, the source for which, in turn, was the old printed font of the 16th century. An early version of the Pomor semi-ustav (trans. Half of the 18th century) retains a pronounced genetic link with its prototype: the letters are compressed from the sides and elongated vertically, “earth” is written with a small lower and broken upper loop. Finally, his own style of writing developed in the local "literate cells" (book-writing workshops) by the 60s. XVIII century - by this time the above-mentioned features of the early Vygov handwriting gave way to a more square outline of letters (4).

The Vygov book-writing school is distinguished by the subtlety and grace of lines, accurate details, richness of colors, a variety of initials, stylistic unity and magnificent ornament, dating back to the capital's court art of the last quarter of the 17th century. The design of the Vygov books combines plant and architectural-geometric forms: various flowers, leaves, berries, headpieces with lush entablatures, etc. In the works of local book writers there are also numerous decorations of the old-printed style, referring to the manuscripts of the Trinity-Sergius Lavra 1520-1560 -x years, whose decor, in turn, was created on the basis of engravings by the Dutch-German artist Israel van Meckenem (1440/45 - 1503). The titles of the books were adorned with luxurious pretentious ornamental compositions, dating mainly back to the engraved sheets of the work of the famous masters of the Armory Chamber Vasily Andreev (17th century) and Leonty Bunin (d. After 1714), - the Vygov calligraphers actively used both their precise traces and copy-based in-house rework (5). The miniatures of the Vygov manuscripts, as well as of other Old Believer books, are of a sketch character, thus continuing the late medieval pictorial tradition. In terms of beauty, quality of materials and craftsmanship, it is the Vygov manuscripts that rightfully rank first among the majority of the post-split manuscripts of the Slavic-Russian tradition ever created.

We also note the fact that Vyg's book-writing art was devoid of any kind of peasant-folk naivete and pagan reminiscences. - In this respect, it was the direct heir and successor of the high Byzantine and Old Russian traditions, to which elements of the Baroque style were added.

Local scribes rarely indicated their authorship. Most often, it was expressed only in the placement of discreet initials - and not necessarily at the end, but in various parts of the manuscript. Apparently, this fact is explained by the sheer monolithic nature of the Vygov school: the members of the book-writing artel did not feel individual craftsmen, but only by particles of a single communal organism.

Two noteworthy documents have survived to this day, regulating the work of the Vygoleksinsky scriptorium: "Instructions for the overseer of the" competent cell "Naumovna" (trans. Half of the 18th century) (6) and "A ceremonial regulation about letters, which must be all the literacy of the scribe with the fear of observing it" (early XIX century) (7). These compositions clearly illustrate the fact that the activity of correspondence, decoration and restoration of books was a significant part of the life of the monastery. The content of both texts refers us to the penances "On the Calligrapher" by St. Theodore the Studite, demonstrating the continuity and continuity of the Eastern Christian book-writing culture from the early medieval Mediterranean to the Olonets forests of the 18th - 19th centuries.

In the second quarter 19th century, with the accession of Nikolai Pavlovich (1825 - 1855), the political and ideological atmosphere around Vygoretsia began to heat up rapidly, and its economic situation deteriorated. Among a series of government decrees aimed at "eradicating the schism" was the decree of 1838, which forbade the Vygovites from correspondence and distribution of books. The final extinction of the Vygoleksin community took place under the next emperor, in 1856 - 1857, when the local chapels were sealed and their property was described. Those manuscripts that were not taken away by the Old Believers themselves even before the closure of the prayer houses, over the years, were distributed to museums, libraries and private collections.

2. Branch

From the second half of the 60s. In the 17th century, in connection with the beginning of the repressions, a significant number of opponents of liturgical reforms moved to the lands of the Starodubsky regiment of Little Russia (Starodubye, today the western part of the Bryansk region of the Russian Federation), establishing numerous settlements here: Ponurovka, Zlynka, Klintsy, etc. After the failed shooter revolt of 1682 and the subsequent suppression of the tsarist decree on the return of Starodub refugees to the places of their former settlements, part of the Old Believers who came from Starodubie cross the border of the Commonwealth and are out of reach for Russian authorities founds a settlement of the same name on the Vetka Island of the Sozh River (now in the Gomel region of Belarus). The first leaders of the Vetka Old Believers were two priests - the Moscow Fr. Kuzma and Tula about. Stephen. As the persecution intensified by the government of Princess Sophia (1682-1689), more and more people who disagreed with Nikon's reform flocked here. At the end of the 17th - beginning of the 18th century. within a radius of several tens of kilometers from Vetka, another 16 settlements arose: Koseckaya, Romanovo, Leontyevo, Dubovy Log, Popsuevka, etc. The settlers brought with them handwritten and early printed books, rewrote and decorated them. Thus, by the beginning of the 18th century, Vetka became the largest center of priestly Old Belief and one of the main enclaves of Slavic-Russian book writing. Despite the "distillation" of 1735 and 1764, Vetka was revived each time, although by the end of the 18th century. it has already lost its former meaning. Thanks to repeated migrations from Starodubye to Vetka and back, these two regions have never lost a deep historical and cultural connection between themselves, which was embodied, among other things, in a single artistic style of the works of local book painters, icon painters, chasers and woodcarvers.

By the second half of the 18th century, Vetka and Starodubye developed their own style of writing and decorating manuscripts. The main place for the creation and design of manuscripts was the Vetka Pokrovsky Monastery, during the 18th century. which was the largest Old Believer monastery with the richest book collection. The character of the style of local masters, including scribes, with its limitless variety of plant patterns, referring the viewer to the image of the Garden of Eden, brightness and richness colors, found reflection in the old Vetka proverb that has come down to our days: "Our Branch, like a candy, is all in focus" (8).

The extremely rich plant ornaments of the Vetka manuscripts are dynamic, characterized by open, open forms. Luxuriously decorated initials and headpieces with a lot of small details, often decorated with figures of all kinds of birds. Screensavers usually have a colored or black background. A chiseled ornament is often found in the design of the initials. Elements of the old printed ornament, although very frequent, are not as common as in the Vygov and Guslitsk manuscripts. The works of Vetka calligraphers are characterized by predominant use in initials, headpieces and ornaments of cinnabar, terracotta, orange, various shades of ocher, blue and light green colors. Local craftsmen did not use gold at all, which, in particular, distinguishes the Vetka book-writing tradition from the Vygov one.

At the end of the 18th century, Vetka's book-writing art gradually passed from monasteries to peasant houses, as a result of which the artistic quality of the manuscripts' design deteriorated: the decor became more popular, and its style became more diverse.

The former glory of Vetka went down in the 70s. XVIII century, but the book and manuscript tradition continued to live here until the 60s. century XX. The last of its known representatives was Feoktist Petrovich Bobrov from the village of Ogorodnya. The final death of Vetka as a cultural and historical center took place after 1986, when, as a result of the Chernobyl disaster, most of the settlements surrounding Vetka ended up in the exclusion zone: the settlements were evicted, and all their buildings were destroyed.

3. Guslitsa (Guslitsy)

In the Middle Ages, the population of this region, which now occupies the south of the Orekhovo-Zuevsky and north of the Yegoryevsky districts of the Moscow region, was very small in number, which was explained not only by its peripherality and inaccessibility (due to dense forests and numerous swamps), but also by the infertility of local soils. At the end of the 17th century, numerous zealots of "ancient piety" rushed to these places, as well as to a number of other remote corners of the Russian kingdom; and Guslitsy become one of the main enclaves of the priest's Old Believers, the "Old Believer Palestine", which was reflected, in particular, in the belief about Fr. Nikita Dobrynin ("Pustosvyata"), who overturned "all the basket" here.

In addition to hop growing, trade, textile production, various folk crafts, icon painting and activities of a criminal nature (making counterfeit money, horse stealing, professional begging ("collection"), etc.), the local residents were actively engaged in the correspondence of sacred books, by the end of the XVIII century. turning Guslitsy into the second most important (after Vyga) center of Old Believer book writing, supplying its products to many ancient Orthodox communities of the priestly direction both in Russia and abroad.

Of all the schools of Old Believer book writing, the manner of the guslitsk scribes is perhaps the most recognizable and stylistically monolithic: it is difficult to confuse a guslitsk manuscript with any other. Having experienced a certain influence of Vetka art, local calligraphers gradually developed their own style, which took shape around the end of the 18th century - the earliest Guslitsk manuscripts that have survived to this day also date. In the XIX century. it is no longer the Vetka school that influences the guslitskaya school, but the guslitskaya school on the Vetka school: the decline of Vetka also caused the decline of local book writing, which led to the influx of guslitsky manuscripts to the Branch - some of them began to be copied by the Vetka masters.

Guslitskiy semiustav is characterized by a barely noticeable slope of letters, their thickness and some elongation; and the decorating art of the local book-writers intertwines old printed ornament, elements of the Russian baroque and folk herbal ornamentation. “The main motive of the guslitsky ornament,” writes E. A. Podturkina, “is large herbs with stylized flowers and berries. In addition to plant elements, the pages of manuscripts often contain images of various birds, all this creates the image of the Garden of Eden ”(9).

In addition to the peculiarities of the font and decor (more laconic in comparison with the Vetkov tradition), the Guslitsk manuscripts differ from the Vetkov ones in a lesser richness of colors, but in greater brightness, richness, contrast, and in later samples even some poisonousness of alternating colors - green, blue, crimson - red and yellow, - often presented in the form of a peculiar shading, which is the most noticeable of characteristic features guslitskaya book-writing school. Gold in the design of guslitsky manuscripts appears only from the second half of the 19th century, but it was used infrequently.

At the beginning of the 20th century, due to the beginning of the mass printing of singing books and, as a result, a decrease in demand for more expensive manuscripts, the scale of guslitsky book writing was noticeably reduced. However, many Old Believers still continued to give preference to the handwritten book, and a certain demand for the work of the local masters remained - thanks to the market for printed products, the tradition weeded out random book writers, leaving only the best. “After 1917,” writes Fr. Evgeny Bobkov, - the publication of singing books has ceased. But their correspondence could no longer improve. Only a few manuscripts written in the 1920s are known. guslitsky natives at the Rogozhskoye cemetery in Moscow "(10).

4. Ust-Tsilma and the Pechora basin

The Pechora Territory, rich in deposits of silver and copper, fur-bearing animals and valuable fish, has long attracted the attention of Russian princes and merchants, but the regular development of these places by Russian settlers began only in the middle of the 16th century: in 1542 Novgorodian Ivashka Dmitriev a letter of grant for the use of land along the Pechora River. At the mouth of the Tsilma River on the left bank of the Pechora, several Novgorod families led by Lastka founded the Tsilemskaya Slobodka, a settlement that soon received the name Ust-Tsilma. After some time, the settlement was transferred to the right bank, and in 1547 a church in the name of St. Nikola. In 1667, according to legend, Archpriest Avvakum stayed on his way to Pustozersk in Ust-Tsilma. Many participants were also exiled here. Solovetsky uprising and movement led by Stepan Razin. The development of the region gained a second wind in the late 17th - early 18th centuries, when masses of people who did not accept church reforms Patriarch Nikon.

Handwritten books, as a rule, were brought to Ust-Tsilma by service people - Novgorodians, Muscovites, Ustyuzhans, as well as by the Ust-Tsilma people themselves, who traveled on business. At the turn of the XVII - XVIII centuries. a significant number of manuscripts and early printed books were brought to Pechora by Old Believers who fled to these places from persecution by the authorities. In the XVIII - XIX centuries. they founded many sketes here - the largest of them were Velikopozhensky and Omelinsky. Many sketes had schools grammar girls, libraries- scribes and book-writing workshops.

The tradition of Vyga was a model for the Great Women and Omeline book-writers. On the basis of the Pomor semi-ustav, its own type of font was formed here - the Pechora semi-ustav. The books rewritten by the local scribes differ from the Vygov ones in less slender type, more freedom of lines, less careful drawing of details, and some simplification.

From the second half of the 19th century, after the "distillation" of large Old Believer sketes, the Pechora book-writing tradition was transferred to the huts of local peasants who were trained in sketes, the most talented of which, undoubtedly, was Ivan Stepanovich Myandin (1823 - 1894). However, on the lower Pechora, numerous small hermitages of secrets continued to exist, in which book writing was also carried out.

After 1905, when the Old Believers were allowed to freely print pre-reform books and a significant amount of printing production poured into Pechora, the number of local scribes decreased somewhat, but the work of the book writer did not disappear at all, but organically supplemented the work of the typographer - individual creativity did not at all lose its value.

Until Soviet times, almost every family in Ust-Tsilma and the surrounding area owned handwritten books, and in some houses there were whole collections of manuscripts and early printed books, which were the subject of touching love and worries. The owners, ordinary peasants and fishermen, tried to record the history of literally each of their books, wrapping the owner's records in the traditional form of medieval marginal... At the same time, it should be emphasized that books were not at all dead weight - reading medieval, especially church service, literature was an important component of people's daily life, the source from which they drew spiritual strength and found answers to almost all their questions, such as metaphysical and everyday character.

In addition to strong peasant houses by the end of the second decade of the XX century. the book and manuscript tradition of the Ust-Tsilma Territory was concentrated around the church of the same faith in Ust-Tsilma (closed in 1925), as well as the prayer houses of the village of Zamezhnoye, the villages of Borovskaya, Skitskaya and Omelino (the first three were closed in the early 1920s, the fourth - in the early 30s) (11).

Book writing acquired an unexpected and very acute relevance after 1917, when, over the next few years, the publication of spiritual literature was almost completely stopped. However, new times did not spare either scribes or books: in the 1930s. many of the Pechora book-writers were repressed by the OGPU-NKVD (mainly under Article 58-10 of the Criminal Code of the RSFSR - calls for undermining Soviet power; the production, storage and distribution of literature of appropriate content), but the lists of victims still require clarification, since in the Soviet time the persons involved in cases about this, for obvious reasons, did not spread; books, both handwritten and printed, were confiscated and destroyed - when they were burned, and when they were simply drowned in the river. All this, coupled with the establishment of collective farms, the closure of hermitages and prayer houses, as well as the intensified preaching of the secret guards, caused a surge of eschatological sentiments in Pechora: whole families went into the forests (“desert”), and there they created hiding places in which books were hidden; until the very end, many tried not to send their children to Soviet schools and avoided being drafted into the Red Army; some even committed suicide ... Nevertheless, the Pechora book-writing tradition turned out to be one of the most tenacious and, at the very least, kept up until the early 1980s.

5. The Mezen River Movement and Basin

By the middle of the 18th century, the valley of the Northern Dvina, overgrown with impenetrable taiga wilds, was covered with a network of numerous Old Believer sketes. In addition to hermitages, the main centers of Severodvinsk calligraphy and book miniatures have become villages and villages located on the territory of the present Verkhnetoemsky, Vinogradovsky and Krasnoborsky districts of the Arkhangelsk region. People came here to learn the book-writing craft not only from all over Pomorie, but also from neighboring provinces - mainly from Vologda. Severodvinsk masters maintained contacts with representatives of other, sometimes very remote, Old Believer book-writing centers; and their products were in high demand and even reached the Romanian Kingdom and the Ottoman Empire.

An intensive book and manuscript tradition also existed in the Mezen River basin. Already in the last third of the 17th century. The Okladnikov settlement, located in the lower reaches of the Mezen, where Avvakum's wife and children were in exile, became the center of correspondence and distribution of the works of both the archpriest and his associates. In the second quarter of the 18th century, due to the devastation of the Kerzhen sketes by Bishop Pitirim, a significant number of Old Believers from the Nizhny Novgorod province moved to these places, who founded a number of monasteries here. At the end of the 18th century. Along with the Old Believers, the art of copying books came to the Udora Territory (the upper reaches of the Mezen and Vashka rivers).

In terms of style and color scheme, the book writing of this region was closely intertwined with the famous tradition of the Severodvinsk white-background painting, which adorned spinning wheels, chests, tuesques and other objects of decorative and applied art. Sometimes one and the same person was engaged in both painting spinning wheels and making manuscripts and icons. The nature of the art of the local calligraphers and miniaturists was also influenced by the proximity of such artistic craft centers as Veliky Ustyug, Solvychegodsk and Kholmogory. The Pinega manuscripts stand apart, which are extremely scarce in terms of design.

During the years of the Civil War and the subsequent devastation of the sketes, in parallel with the collectivization of peasant farms, the Severodvinsk book-writing tradition gradually faded away; And today in these parts there is little that reminds of the local monasteries, scriptoria and skilled craftsmen who once lived here, whose fame extended to the Black Sea coast: the builders of the "bright future" left as a legacy to their compatriots only ruined buildings, crippled destinies and a rapidly decreasing population.

6. Volga region

In the Volga region from the last third of the 17th century. The main centers of book correspondence were the Old Believer sketes located along the Kerzhenets River, and later also along the Irgiz and Cheremshan rivers. However, the book writers met in all places where local Old Believers lived compactly: the cities of Gorodets and Semenov in the Nizhny Novgorod province, Balakovo in the Samara province (now the Saratov region), Khvalynsk in the Saratov province, and in a number of others.

Kerzhensky sketes (today in the Semenovsky district Nizhny Novgorod region) were one of the largest centers of the priestly sense. By the end of the 18th century, along the Kerzhenets River, there were 54 Old Believer (mainly priestly) sketes with a population of about 8000 people. The heyday of Kerzhenets is associated with the Highest Manifesto of Catherine the Great of December 4, 1762, which called upon all the subjects of the Empress, who had once fled from Russia, to return to their homeland, promising the monarchy "generosity" and "prosperity." After the publication of the Manifesto, a significant number of Old Believers who had previously settled in the Commonwealth moved to Kerzhenets. It was here that the main events of PI Melnikov's dilogy "In the Woods" and "On the Mountains" took place. In the late 40s - the first half of the 50s. In the 19th century, under Nicholas I, many of the Kerzhen sketes were closed, but in fact the sketes functioned until the end of the 1920s. XX century, when they were resettled by the communists: in the 90s. there were also old women who studied in the Kerzhensk sketes the basics of books and singing. Today, only skete cemeteries, which are from time to time visited by pilgrims, have remained from the Kerzhen sketes.

Another major focus of the Volga region of book writing was the ones founded in the 60s - 70s. XVIII century settlers from Vetka, hermitages along the Irgiz River (now in the Saratov region). The entrepreneurship of the inhabitants, the economic benefits provided by the Catherine's Manifesto, as well as the patronage of the subsequent sovereigns, Pavel Petrovich and Alexander Pavlovich, turned Irgiz into the main and richest center of priestly Old Believers, whose fortune could be compared only with the largest synodal monasteries. “On Irgiz,” writes I. V. Polozova, “at the end of the 18th - first half of the 19th centuries. there is a process of formation of its own handwritten school, which not only supplied monasteries and surrounding villages with singing books, but also taught the skill of creating books to residents and students. The latter, leaving the monasteries, continued to rewrite books, preserving the Irgiz traditions of book writing ”(12).

Since 1826, the autocratic policy in relation to the Old Believers has changed, and in 1828 - 1841. Irgiz sketes were partly closed, and partly transformed into co-religion ones. Although the tradition of Skete book writing continued to exist under conditions of unanimity, the quality of the Irgiz manuscripts significantly decreased.

The emergence of the Cheremshan sketes, founded near the town of Khvolynsk, dates back to the middle of the 19th century and became a new center of the Volga region's book and manuscript tradition. It was here that many inhabitants of the previously closed Irgiz sketes moved. Since the 80s. XIX century. the center of Cheremshan is the Verkhne-Uspensky Monastery, which has grown considerably and transformed after the Manifesto "On Strengthening the Principles of Tolerance" of April 17, 1905. In 1918 the monastery was ravaged by the Chekists. By the beginning of the 30s. ceased to exist and gradually fading away female Vvedenskaya monastery.

In addition to the skete inhabitants, a significant part of the laity was also engaged in the correspondence of books, many of whom went through the skete schools, studied with local pedagogues, or received the basics of literacy directly from their parents (13).

The book-writing tradition of the Irgiz and Cheremshan sketes was eclectic, but in general relied on the schools of Vyga and Guslits, with the latter predominantly. Irgiz manuscripts are characterized by brightness and richness of colors, light coloring. They are distinguished from their guslitsky counterparts by a greater variety of colors, including gold and silver. The initials of chanting manuscripts at the beginning of the sections are usually polychrome, they are drawn on the whole sheet, combining elements of floral and geometric ornaments. There are also simpler cinnabar initials, however, they also contain all sorts of artistic elements: curly stems, herbs, fantastic flowers ... The character of writing Irgiz initials develops the tradition of Vetka. The type of writing is most reminiscent of the late Vygovskiy. Sometimes the drop caps are decorated with vignettes. As for the ornamentation, in some works it is even more complex and solemn than on Vygu. Not inferior to Vygovsky and the subtlety of the execution of miniatures, the thoroughness of drawing small details. The works of Irgiz scribes are generally of an extremely high quality, which is characteristic of both the material (thick paper and practically colorless ink) and calligraphy. In addition, the Irgiz books have a solid, durable binding. However, there are also very mediocre manuscripts, but, as a rule, these are not monastic, but peasant products. The Cheremshan manuscripts are inferior to the Irgiz ones both in the quality of the material and in the craftsmanship. As a rule, they are written on white paper with a yellowish tinge (Irgiz ones are usually on gray-blue). Their letter is larger and sweeping than that of the Irgiz, the design is much more modest. - We find all these signs in the Irgiz books of the period of the same faith. The Cheremshan tradition departs from the Irgiz one and comes close to the Guslitskaya one (14).

In general, the level of professionalism and quality of work has been gradually decreasing since the middle of the 19th century - the era of the transition of the skete book-writing tradition into the hands of the peasants. Decorations begin to bear a more primitive character, sloppiness of writing and carelessness of decoration increase, and the color palette is sometimes limited only to ink and cinnabar - moreover, quite often they began to replace ink with cinnabar with blue (also purple or brown) and pink ink, respectively. However, despite the general decline, this time is not devoid of some creative finds: for example, in the village of Samodurovka, an original style of decorating initials with purple dots is taking shape (15).

In our review, we touched on only those of the Old Believer book-writing centers that either developed their own styles of correspondence and book design, with characteristic artistic features for each of them, or those whose products, despite the absence of a single pronounced style, still have some common generic characteristics that allow attributing it to the tradition of the corresponding region. It is the above centers during the 18th - early 20th centuries. produced the bulk of Slavic-Russian manuscript books. The book-writing traditions of Latgale and Prichudya, which copied Vyga's manuscripts, remained outside the scope of the essay; Verkhokamya, whose scribes were guided by the pre-Nikon editions of the Moscow Printing House; Urals and Siberia, distinguished by their extreme eclecticism and asceticism in decoration. As for small book-writing workshops, which bore the character of a skete or family scriptorium, they existed in almost every Malomalsky Old Believer settlement.

Notes (edit)

1. Administrative unit Russian Empire, which existed from 1801 to 1922 and included most of the territories of the modern Republic of Karelia, Arkhangelsk, Vologda and Leningrad regions. The provincial city was Petrozavodsk.

2. Quoted. on: Bobkov E.A., Bobkov A.E. Singing manuscripts from Vetka and Starodubya // TODRL. T. 42.L., 1989.S. 449.

3. Yukhimenko E.M. On the book basis of Vyga culture // The World of Old Believers. Issue 4. Living Traditions: Results and Prospects of Comprehensive Research. Materials of the international scientific conference. M., 1998. S. 161–162.

4. Ibid. P. 161.

5. Engravings by Vasily Andreev and Leonty Bunin were found not only on Vygu, but also on Vetka and in Guslitsy, on whose book-writing tradition they had no less influence.

6. Instructions to the overseer of the "literate cell" Naumovna // Writings of the Vygovites: Works of the Pomor Old Believers in the Old Storage of the Pushkin House. Incipitary catalog / comp. G.V. Markelov. SPb., 2004. S. 374–377.

7. A decorous statement about letters, to which all the literacy of the scribe should be, with the fear of observing // Yukhimenko E.M. Literary heritage of the Vygov Old Believer community. In 2 volumes. T. 1. P. 391–392.

9. E. A. Podturkina The decoration of the Old Believers' manuscript book of the Guslitsky letter of the 18th - 20th centuries. Abstract dissertation. ... a candidate of art history. M .: MGUP, 2013. [S. 19–20].

10. Bobkov E.A. Singing manuscripts of guslitsky writing // TODRL. T. 32.L., 1977.S. 391.

11. Malyshev V.I. Ust-Tsilem manuscript collections of the 16th - 20th centuries. Syktyvkar, 1960, pp. 23–24.

12. Polozova I. V. The Church-Singing Culture of the Saratov Old Believers: Forms of Existence in a Historical Perspective. Saratov, 2009. S. 59-60.

13. For example, in the second half of the 19th century, the Irgiz book-writing tradition was continued by Terenty Ivanovich Puchkov from the city of Nikolaevsk. In the XX century. The handwritten works of Anna Nikolaevna Putin were distinguished by design originality (for more information about her and her work, see: Novikova L.N. Epistolary heritage of the Old Believers A. N. Putin. On the question of the Old Believer symbols of the XX century. // The world of the Old Believers. Issue 4. Living Traditions: Results and Prospects of Comprehensive Research. Materials of the international scientific conference. M., 1998. S. 206–215).

15. Ibid. S. 165-167.

Ornament is a decorative composition composed of elements of plant, geometric forms or their combinations, often stylized, repeating in a certain rhythm. By the nature of the ornament, its color and pattern, one can understand which people it belongs to. The ornaments that adorn the Russian manuscript book are closely related to its history. Having opened the book and seeing the ornament decorating it, one can quite accurately name the century when it was written, and sometimes the city from which it originates.

What was Russia at the end of the 9th and beginning of the 10th century. It was a fragmented pagan state. It needed unifying principles: language, writing and moral and ethical community. The adoption of a single religion of Christianity played a decisive role in this matter. At the end of the 10th century, the Kiev prince Vladimir, relying on military successes, forced the Byzantine emperor Vasily II to give him his sister Anna as his wife. After Christianity became a single religion, a unifying principle was found for the different-faith tribes of Russia.

Having adopted Christianity, Russia received from Byzantium a new religious art for itself in a form worked out for centuries and brought to a certain perfection. Naturally, the beginning of the ancient Russian art of the book is the time of apprenticeship. It was necessary to master a new pictorial language, master its laws and only then freely express their thoughts, feelings, aesthetic preferences.

Russian manuscripts of the 11th - 12th centuries, following the traditions of Byzantium and eastern Bulgaria (from where Russia received Slavic writing), were decorated with headpieces, headpieces-frames and initials (in large capital letters) of the Old Byzantine type only. This ornament is found in two versions. Some sumptuous compositions, executed in tempera with gold in a manner, imitated cloisonné Byzantine enamel. Characteristic feature This type of ornament was the use of strict rectangular shapes, sometimes resembling vaulted arches, filled with stylized plant and geometric motifs (with the obligatory use of the so-called Byzantine flower, usually enclosed in a circle).

The second version of the decor of the Old Byzantine ornament is more graphic and simple. Most often it was performed with one cinnabar. These are either white silhouettes on a red background, or stylized plant forms, built in such a way that they could be perceived as a red pattern on a white background, and, conversely, as white on red. Both varieties were often accompanied by images of birds, animals, and even people. In this ornament, the silhouettes of people and animals often formed capital letters... Another favorite motif of ornaments was all kinds of braids made of belts, ribbons and plaits, and they can be seen both on the simplest household items and on refined architectural structures, jewelry. V different time in different countries, the combination of these ornamental motifs into one composition gave a new, so-called teratological ornament (from the Greek word "teras" monster). In it, the intricate weaving of belts imperceptibly passed into images of fabulous monsters, animals, birds or humans.

From the entire manuscript heritage of Russia in the XI-XII centuries, only about 100 manuscripts have survived to our time. The bulk of the written monuments of Kievan Rus, where the formation of the art of book miniature and ornamentation began, as well as the principalities of the Central Russian territories, perished during the Tatar invasion. But Novgorod and Pskov did not experience this invasion.

In Novgorod, for example, more than 900 manuscripts have survived from the XIII-XIV centuries. In these art centers, the local artistic tradition did not stop, and Byzantine influences weakened (Western Crusaders in 1204 capture Constantinople). It was in Novgorod at the end of the 13th and 14th centuries that the best decorative samples of the original teratological ornament were created, which then spread to Moscow, Pskov and other lands of Ancient Rus. Teratology in book decoration is being replaced by two new types of ornamentation: a braided Balkan type ornament and, somewhat later, a Russian neo-Byzantine one.

The book art of Russia was revived by the influence of the Balkan culture before, but this influence was especially intensified after the invasion of the Turks in the Balkans, when the majority of book people from the South Slavic countries moved to Russia. Among them were those who had a noticeable influence not only on the development of book-writing, but also on Russian literature itself: the Bulgarian Grigory Tsamblak and the Serb Pakhomiy Logofet. The Balkan ornament, which has firmly won the sympathy of Russian bookwriters of the 15th - 16th centuries, is an interweaving of circles, eights, rectangles and squares with rounded or sharp corners... In the screensavers, these figures intersect, strictly obeying repetitions and symmetry. Intersections form new shapes. The result is an ornament with a pronounced rhythm and a complex pattern. By the end of the 15th century, the court workshops of Moscow were developing a version of the luxurious Balkan ornament with generous multicolored coloring and abundant use of gold.

By the time the neo-Byzantine ornament appeared in the Russian book of the 15th - 16th centuries, Moscow had already consolidated itself as the capital of the emerging Russian centralized state. After the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380, believing in the possibility of final liberation, Russia seeks to restore the lost cultural monuments. Many samples of Greco-Byzantine literature come from Byzantium and are translated into the Slavic language.

With the arrival in Moscow of Sophia Palaeologus, a Byzantine woman who was brought up in Italy, who became the wife of the Russian Grand Duke, the customs and rituals at the court of Ivan III changed significantly, and interest in the arts increased. Soon after the fall of Byzantium, Russia feels itself a new Christian center and affirms the idea: Moscow is the third Rome. In these conditions, turning again in the visual arts to Byzantine motives was completely natural. But Byzantine material is only an initial component, which quickly changed beyond recognition in compositions in combination with fine-grained ornament of Russian, Italian, and French origin. Such a multinational diversity of motifs in neo-Byzantine ornament speaks of a good knowledge of books by Russian artists. European origin, especially during the time of Ivan the Terrible.

Masters of various artistic centers of Russia have transferred their favorite color combinations to the new ornament. The artists of the northern Russian monasteries often replaced the golden background with a solemn black one. So in the Russian manuscript book a bright original ornament was formed, which is only conditionally called neo-Byzantine. But soon this ornament also underwent changes. This was due to the invention of printing. Most of the printed books were decorated with engravings, where a white floral ornament on a black background was expressive and beautiful. Especially popular with Western European publishers were engravings of the large uppercase alphabet, composed by the Westphalian artist Israel van Mikenem.

Russian masters did not ignore him either. They used this alphabet not as letters, but as elements of ornamental decorations: they painted in a mirror image, combined individual details into a single composition, while demonstrating not blind copying, but genuine creativity. In the book-writing workshops of Moscow and the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, new ornamental decorations appear, an unusually beautiful combination of graceful forms of multicolored neo-Byzantine ornament with a small, sharply outlined field - a hallmark - included in it. The ornamentation of these hallmarks resembles blackened metalwork, and the network of golden lines, sometimes complementing it, only reinforces this similarity. In the ornamental decorations of the 16th century, again, as before, the universal human connection of cultures and the manifestation of national artistic tastes and decoration techniques are revealed.

An interesting phenomenon is observed in the art of the peoples of the world: often, elements related to the methods of processing the materials most common in a given area penetrated into the manner of decorative execution of graphic works. Naturally, wood has always been such a material in the applied art of Russia with its vast forest spaces. The material is beautiful, easily accessible and amenable to processing with simple tools. His enthusiasm left its mark on the art of books: in the 16th century, an ornament was widespread in manuscripts, vividly reminiscent of painted wooden carvings on spinning wheels, carved boxes, in architectural decor. These are, as a rule, circles inscribed in rectangles, drawn and painted as if we were looking at a colored sketch for the execution of wooden carving.

Russian book printing, which began in 1564, was a state matter and was carried out at the request of Tsar Ivan IV. Already the first editions in Russia were distinguished by their great polygraphic beauty and were inferior in artistic design only to expensive custom-made or tray manuscript books. Ordinary handwritten books often lost not only in the speed of production, but also in the beauty of decorations to printed books. The clarity of type and decorations, the excellent execution of initials and cinnabar headings, the elegance of black-background engravings of the headpieces, all of this immediately made the printed editions models for imitation in the manufacture of handwritten books.

With the advent of printed books, handwritten art did not cease to exist, and manuscripts were still drawn up with great variety and ingenuity, but now the handwritten book seemed to follow the printed one. The unhurried half-charter, handwritten type (writing), where each letter was drawn like a printed one, is increasingly being replaced by cursive writing, and the main characteristic ornament in the handwritten books of the 17th century is the old-printed one. These are either exact copies of engraved decorations from printed books, or free compositions of floral ornamentation, usually on a black background and with imitation of an engraved stroke. Sometimes such ornaments were motley painted in the national taste. It seemed that a little more time would pass, and the printed book would not only squeeze out, but also finally replace the handwritten one, which, in general, can be observed in the 18th century.

But, in the social life of Russia in the 17th century, an event occurred that unexpectedly extended the handwritten tradition until the beginning of the 20th century. In the Russian Church, a split began, the Old Believers' church opposition formed, opposing the innovations of Patriarch Nikon. The official church and authorities began to persecute the Old Believers. Printing houses are forbidden to print books for them, and the editions printed after Nikon, which could be easily bought, were not recognized by the Old Believers. They are forced to rewrite ancient manuscripts and pre-Nikon publications for themselves. From the persecution of the authorities, the Old Believers had to go to remote, inaccessible corners of Russia.

But the Old Believers were not united either: some of them did not recognize the priests at all and lived under the leadership of the elders-mentors mainly along the banks and rivers of the White Sea region. They received the name of the Pomors; others recognized the priests appointed from their midst, and settled more freely throughout the territory of central Russia, mainly in remote places. There was a rejection of each other between them, which affected the appearance of handwritten books. The nature of the decorations was like a visiting card that said which Old Believer milieu the book belongs to.

The Pomors decorated their books with ornaments of the Pomor type only. The compositions are based on the techniques and forms of old printed ornament, sometimes with baroque elements and images of folk ornament, stylized plant forms. Beautiful combinations of red, black, green and gold created a feeling of brightness and austerity at the same time. The pattern is clear and almost sculpturally emphasizes the volumes. A favorite technique is the image of small graceful birds on the headpieces and frames of the Pomor ornament. The designers of Pomor manuscripts preferred fully ornamented sheets and frame-like headpieces at the beginning of sections and chapters; instead of endings, a picturesque bouquet of flowers. The initials were large, with lush plant shoots almost over the entire leaf.

The books of the Old Believers who accept the priesthood are decorated only with ornaments of the so-called guslitsky type. It received this conventional name by the name of the Guslitsa river near Moscow, along the deaf, swampy banks of which many Old Believer villages and villages are scattered, whose inhabitants were engaged in rewriting and decorating books. The quality of the correspondence and ornamentation was so high that the characteristic ornament developed here became common and obligatory for decorating books by the Old Believers of this accord, wherever they lived. Guslitsky ornament consists of stylized plant forms with bright joyful coloring and specific patterns. It is interesting primarily because it does not contain imitations of any of the handwritten book ornaments. Herbs, flowers and birds are his motives. And the whole fantasy world this peculiar floral ornament is close folk art middle zone of Russia.

The Pomeranian and Guslitsky ornaments completed the tradition of decorating Russian handwritten books, having existed unchanged for more than two hundred years. The ornament of Russian handwritten books is just a small part of the ancient Russian fine art. It is enough to carefully follow its path to understand that even in difficult historical conditions, it developed in a single stream of common European culture.

In preparing the publication, the materials of the article were used
"From the history of Russian ornament" by Y. Nevolin, M. 1987