Generalized personal proposals. Moscow State University of Printing Arts

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Stylistic use of different types simple sentence

Studying the stylistic use of different types of sentences highlights the functional-style aspect. For a stylistic assessment of a particular type of sentence, it is important to determine its usage in different styles speech. Functional styles are characterized by selectivity in the use of simple and complex, one-part and two-part sentences. For example, for the scientific style, the predominance of two-part personal sentences is indicative (their frequency is 88.3% of all simple sentences); among one-part ones, generalized and indefinite personal sentences predominate (5.7%), impersonal ones are used less often (4.8%) and as an exception there are infinitives and nominatives, together they make up 1%. Such selectivity in the use of various sentences reflects the specificity of the scientific style: its accuracy, emphasized logic, abstract generalized nature.

At stylistic analysis of different types of sentences, it is also important to show their expressive capabilities, on which the appeal to one or another construction in a certain speech situation depends. Russian syntax provides many options for expressing the same idea. For example, with appropriate intonation stylistic device tautological combination gives the statement the teacher must teach a certain expressiveness. However, it can be strengthened by choosing more emotional syntactic constructions:

1. The teacher’s duty is to teach...

2. The teacher must be a u-chi-te-lem.

3. A teacher needs to teach.

4. You are a teacher - and be a teacher.

5. You are a teacher - you teach!

6. What should a teacher do if not teach!

7. Who should teach if not the teacher?!

All of them express subjective modal meanings, i.e. all those meanings that contain the speaker’s attitude to what he is reporting. The degree of their intensity increases from the first sentence to subsequent ones, which affects their use in speech. Examples 1 - 3 can be used in book styles (the 1st tends towards official business), in the 2nd and 3rd the bookish coloring gradually decreases. In sentences 4 - 7, a vivid expression stands out, giving them a distinctly colloquial and colloquial character. Thus, subjective-modal meanings complement the functional-style aspect in the stylistic assessment of sentence types. Based on this, we move on to the analysis of specific syntactic units.

The Russian language is characterized by synonymy of one-part and two-part sentences. Let us show this using experimental examples of two-part sentences correlative with one-part ones.

One-part sentences	Two-Part Sentences
1. I know, in the evening you will go outside the ring of roads, we will sit in fresh hay (Es.)	1. I know you will come out...
2. What's new in the newspapers? (Shol.)	2. What's new in the newspapers?
3. I lived joyfully, like a child - you wake up in the morning and start singing (Ch.).	3. ...I used to wake up in the morning and sing...
4. I decided to pick this burdock (L. T.)	4. I decided to pick this burdock.
5. I still see Pavlovsk as hilly (Ahm.)	5. All I see is Pavlovsk, which is hilly.
6. I can’t live without Russia (Pr.).	6. I cannot live without Russia.
7. Here is this blue notebook with my children's poems (Ahm.). 7. Here in front of me lies this blue notebook with my children's poems.
8. I can’t sleep, nanny... (P.).	8. I can't sleep.

Often synonymized and different types one-part sentences, for example, definitely personal - impersonal: Breathe the last freedom (Ahm.). - We must breathe the last freedom; Don't torment me anymore (Ahm.). - No need to torment me anymore; indefinitely personal - impersonal: They tell loved ones the truth. - It is customary to tell loved ones the truth; generalized-personal - impersonal: Speak, but don’t talk too much (last). - You can talk, but you don’t have to talk; You will become brutal in such a life (M. G.). - You can become brutal in such a life; ...He deliberately gets under the wheels, and you are responsible for him (Ven.). -...And you have to answer for him; nominative - impersonal: Silence. - Quiet; Chills, fever. - Chills, fever; infinitive - impersonal: You can’t catch up with the crazy three (N.). - It’s impossible to give you a crazy three. The wealth of options creates ample opportunities for the stylistic selection of syntactic structures. Moreover, syntactic synonyms (as was easy to notice from our examples) are far from stylistically equivalent. Let's look at one-part sentences.

Definitely personal sentences, in comparison with two-part ones, give speech laconicism and dynamism; It is no coincidence that this type of one-part sentence is valued by poets: I love you, Peter’s creation! (P.); Like him [Byron], I seek peace in vain, driven everywhere by one thought. I look back - the past is terrible, I look forward - there is no dear soul there! (L.); I recognize my native Rus' everywhere (N.); I stand alone in the middle of a bare valley (Es.).

Definitely personal sentences give expression to newspaper headlines: “Don’t believe your eyes” (about advertising); “Hello, good man” (about old-timers); “We expect a big effect” (about the development of business contacts).

Definitely personal sentences with a predicate expressed in the 1st person form plural, are also used in a scientific style: Let’s draw a straight line and mark a point on it; Let's describe the arc; Let us denote the points of intersection of the lines; Let's calculate the mean square error. In such sentences, attention is focused on the action regardless of its producer; this brings them closer to indefinitely personal sentences. Personal form the predicate activates the reader's perception: the author, as it were, involves the reader in solving the problem posed, introduces him to the reasoning when proving the theorem; Wed Impersonal constructions: if you draw a straight line...

Linguists have repeatedly noted the advantage of definite personal one-part sentences over synonymous two-part ones: indicating a person in the latter only gives speech a calmer tone, makes it “more lethargic, liquefied,” in the words of A.M. Peshkovsky. However, in such cases, not one-part sentences of this type are used, but two-part ones with a subject, an expressed pronoun. The appeal to them is dictated by stylistic considerations. Firstly, we use two-part sentences if it is necessary to emphasize the importance of the 1st or 2nd person as the bearer of action: You live in a huge house; I spend my days on straw in the midst of grief and troubles (P.); And this is what you say!; We will listen, and you try to convince us. In such cases, subject pronouns are highlighted in oral speech accent. Secondly, two-part sentences are used to express motivation with a hint of exhortation: Don’t rush, I’ll wait; Don't worry! In this case, the word order has stylistic significance: in such constructions, the subject pronoun precedes the predicate. With a different sequence and corresponding intonation, two-part (motivational sentences with a subject-pronoun of the 2nd person (more often singular) express disdain, sound harsh, rude: Shut up!; Leave me alone!; Wait you!

Vague personal sentences do not have any special expressive qualities that would set them apart from other one-part sentences. The main area of use of indefinite personal constructions is Speaking: They're knocking!; They sell strawberries; They say, they say... - Well, let them talk!, from where they easily turn into artistic speech, giving it lively intonations: ... And they sweep and clean the room... (Gr.); It's coming. They bring him a horse (P.); They are dragging people by the legs and calling loudly for the doctors (L.). Such one-part sentences are stylistically neutral and can be used in any style. Here, for example, are sentences from a popular science book: Milk is called “light food”; We produce especially a lot of fermented milk drinks, from the monograph: Iron is obtained by reducing it from oxides that are part of iron ores; Carbon monoxide is used as a reducing agent; from the newspaper: The Rhine has been poisoned more than once by industrial waste. But such a blow to the river has never been dealt before. These examples convincingly indicate that there are no functional-style restrictions for indefinite-personal sentences.

Vague personal sentences are interesting stylistically because they emphasize action: The defendants were taken out somewhere and have just been brought back (L. T.); Now they will come for you (Sim.); Of course, they won’t greet you with pancakes... They’ll hang you up again... They’ll burn and hang people (Bub.). The use of such sentences makes it possible to focus attention on the predicate verb, while the subject of the action is relegated to the background, regardless of whether he is known to the speaker or not. Particularly expressive in semantic and stylistic terms are such vaguely personal sentences, in which the bearer of the action is presented as an indefinite person: - And tomorrow they invite me to the cinema. -Who is this? - asked the mother. “Yes, Victor,” answered Lusha (Lid.).

The emphasized verbality of indefinite personal sentences gives them dynamism and creates favorable conditions for use in a journalistic style: They report from Kyiv...; They report from Damascus... The use of vaguely personal sentences as headlines for newspaper materials is especially effective: “They are making money on the duty-free import of cigarettes”; “Stepping Back” (about international politics); “Undesirables are removed”; “Where money is laundered.”

In the scientific style, the use of vaguely personal sentences is dictated by the author’s desire to draw attention to the nature of the action, for example, when describing experiments: The mixture is shaken and heated. Then add to the vessel... The resulting mass is cooled.

IN formal business style Vague personal sentences are used along with impersonal ones: We don’t smoke. - Smoking is prohibited; and also with infinitives: No smoking!; They ask you to remain quiet. - Keep quiet! When comparing such constructions, it is obvious that vaguely personal sentences represent a more polite form of prohibition, therefore, under certain conditions, they are preferable for ethical reasons.

In certain genres official business speech vaguely personal sentences are firmly established, expressing motivation in a softened, emphasized polite form, for example, in advertisements (especially when broadcast on the radio): Comrade Petrov is asked to approach the information desk; Passengers are invited to board.

Generalized personal sentences stand out from all single-component personal sentences by their expression: You can’t order your heart; Naked sheep are not sheared; What we have, we don’t keep; when we lose it, we cry. The most characteristic form of the predicate for these sentences - the form of the 2nd person singular, which receives a generalized meaning - is also the most expressive: What you go for is what you will find; If you hurry, you will make people laugh; While there is life there is hope. The aphorism and brightness of such statements puts them among the highly artistic miniature works of Russian folklore.

The predicate verb of the 1st and 3rd person in generalized personal sentences indicates an action that can relate to any person: In someone else’s eye, we see a knot, but in our own we don’t even notice a log; For one beaten, they give two unbeaten.

Lines from works of art in which writers resort to generalized personal sentences take on a folk-poetic tone: You look and don’t know whether its majestic width goes or doesn’t go (G.); Will you look into yourself? - there is no trace of the past... (L.) The expressiveness of such constructions is partly achieved by the figurative use of facial forms: the 2nd person of the verb indicates the speaker himself. In other cases, the effectiveness of speech is enhanced by the use of a long-past tense form: Eh, it used to be that you would twist your hat and put your horse in the shafts... (Es.)

The vivid expressiveness of such structures limits their functioning. In addition to colloquial and artistic speech, journalistic style is open to them. In critical articles and journalism, generalized personal sentences impart greater objectivity to judgments: On what scales will you weigh, measure, for example, this little poem...; Write what you think about (from gas.).

The least expressive among generalized personal sentences are constructions with a predicate in the 3rd person plural form: It is raining. Two sons sleep at the dacha, as soon as early childhood sleep (Past.). In structure and semantics, such sentences are close to indefinitely personal, but, unlike them, they indicate an action that can belong to anyone (everyone sleeps, everyone sleeps like that in childhood). This structural diagram of one-part sentences is also used in scientific style.

Impersonal sentences are distinguished by a special variety of constructions and their stylistic application in speech. Among them there are those that are typical of colloquial speech: I’m hungry; Hurt!; Can't sleep; Freezing; Not a soul; No money; Time to go home; It’s a shame to say, and those that stand out with clerical overtones: It is prohibited without the consent of the adoptive parents... to issue extracts from civil registration books; The preservation of legal relations with one of the parents... must be indicated in the decision on adoption. There are constructions that are lyrical in their emotional coloring and are loved by poets: And it’s boring and sad, and there’s no one to give a hand to (L.); I remember everything, and it seems, and it seems that the autumn of past years was not so sad (Bl.); It’s easy to wake up and see clearly, shake out the verbal rubbish from the heart and live without getting clogged in the future (Past.); To be your joyful sister was bequeathed to me by a long-standing fate (Ahm.), and there are sentences used in journalistic speech intended for ordinary information: Builders will have to build a bobsleigh and luge complex; The answer must be sought by all interested organizations. True, journalists draw from the composition of impersonal constructions and emotional ones, which are necessary to enhance the effectiveness of the speech: The champion's fans greeted him standing, and there was no end to the delight; It would be necessary to look for a replacement for him [the athlete], but there are no worthy candidates in the national team; He is unable to fight on equal terms; It's always nice to win, but isn't it wiser to take a break from today and look a little further?

Separate groups of impersonal sentences are constantly used in a scientific style: It is known that...; We have to admit that...; The experiment should begin with infusion of the least concentrated solution and move on to more concentrated ones; It is recommended to apply no more than 7-10 acid irritations per experiment. Distinguishing this functional style The impersonal principle of presentation determines the relatively frequent use of impersonal sentences with predicates expressing various shades of obligation and necessity: When establishing the initial functional state of the body, attention should be paid to objective physiological data; One encounters similar ambiguity with all direct methods for solving structures. It is also possible to use impersonal predicative words here as predicates: You can notice the following pattern...; To characterize a pegmalite field, one sample is not enough.

When making a stylistic assessment of impersonal sentences, it is important to take into account, on the one hand, the possibility of replacing them with other constructions, which creates competition for these synonyms, and, on the other hand, the complete absence of such a possibility, which eliminates the problem of stylistic choice.

Let's clarify this idea. It is impossible to offer any replacements for impersonal sentences of this type: And Tatyana suddenly became scared (P.); Ah, it really is dawn (Gr.); He felt pleased at this thought (M. G.); There is not a cloud in the sky (Ch.); My leg hurts; Lucky people!; There are no letters. Other impersonal sentences can be easily transformed into two-part or one-part indefinitely or definitely personal; Wed: It's melting today. - Snow is melting; The tracks were covered with snow. - The tracks were covered with snow; Sweeps. - Blizzard is sweeping; I'm hungry. - I want to eat; Where have you been? - Where have you been?; You should give up your seats to elders. - Give up your seats to elders; You are supposed to take medicine. - Take your medicine; The Tushin battery was forgotten. - They forgot about Tushin’s battery; It was decided to launch the attack at dawn. - They decided to launch the attack at dawn; I was not there. - I was not there.

If it is possible to express a thought in two ways, it should be taken into account that “personal constructions contain an element of activity, manifestation of the will of the actor, confidence in performing the action, whereas impersonal phrases there is a shade of passivity and inertia.” In addition, in certain types of impersonal sentences, a functional-style coloring is noticeable, although sometimes weak. Thus, the sentences are emphatically conversational: Where have you been?; Lucky people!; There's not a soul in the house. The bookish coloring is as follows: One should give in...; It is supposed to take...; It's decided to start...

Infinitive sentences provide significant opportunities for emotional and aphoristic expression of thought: What is to be, cannot be avoided (last); Who to love, who to trust? (L.); Keep it up!; You can't escape fate; Be a bull on a string! Therefore, they are used in proverbs, in artistic speech, this construction is acceptable even for slogans: Work without marriage! However, the main area of their functioning is the conversational style: I wish I could say it right away!; Shouldn't we go back?; There is no shore in sight. The last construction (common by addition with the meaning of an object) has a vernacular coloring.

Artists of words turn to infinitive sentences as a means of creating a casually conversational coloring of speech: Well, why should you bother with your wife and babysit the kids? (P.)

Expressive coloring prevents the use of infinitive constructions in book styles. In artistic and journalistic speech, these sentences are introduced into dialogues and monologues rich in emotions: Serve fresh spitzrutens! (L. T.); Quiet the old witch! - said Pugachev (P.). These designs are appreciated by poets: February. Get some ink and cry! To write about February sobbingly... (Past.); Always shine, shine everywhere, until the last days, shine - and no nails! (Lighthouse.) With appropriate intonation design, infinitive sentences carry a huge expressive charge and stand out with special tension.

Nominative sentences are essentially created for description: they contain great descriptive abilities. Naming objects, coloring them with definitions, writers draw pictures of nature, the situation, describe the state of the hero, give an assessment of the world around him: Confusion, fainting, haste, anger, fear! (Gr.); The cold gold of the moon, the smell of oleander and gillyflower... (Ec.); Black wind, white snow (Bl.); Here it is, stupid happiness with white windows into the garden (Es.). However, such descriptions do not reflect the dynamics of events, since nominative sentences indicate the static existence of an object, even if the nominatives are verbal nouns and with the help of them a living picture is drawn: Drumming, clicks, grinding, the thunder of guns, stomping, neighing, groaning... ( P.) Here, as in a photograph, one moment, one frame is captured, since a linear description of events with nominative sentences is impossible: they record only the present tense. In context, it can take on the meaning of the present historical, but the grammatical expression of the forms of the past or future tense transforms the sentence into a two-part sentence, cf.: Fight. - There was a fight. - There will be a fight.

The use of nominative sentences in speech is varied. They also perform a purely “technical” function, indicating the place and time of action in plays, calling the set of the production: Set of the first act. Eight o'clock in the evening. Call (Ch.). But also in drama artistic value nominative sentences may increase if the remarks indicate the behavior of the characters, their state of mind: Pause. Laughter. Murmur and hissing (Ch.). In the new genre of drama - film scripts - nominative sentences have become a powerful means of artistic description: The open space of a large airport, flooded with sun. A grandiose perspective of the planes lined up for the parade. Lively groups of military pilots. Chkalov walks at a leisurely pace along the line of planes.

Nominative sentences can also sound with great tension, performing an expressive function with appropriate intonation design. This applies primarily to evaluative-existential and desirable-existential sentences, which stand out as part of nominative ones: What a night! I can’t... (Es.); If only you had strength!; If not for confidence!

The clearly pictorial function of nominative sentences was demonstrated by writers back in the last century. Let us remember the famous lines of A. Fet, which amazed his contemporaries: Whispers, timid breathing, trills of a nightingale, silver and the swaying of a sleepy stream... - the entire poem consists of only nominatives, which elevates their stylistic application to the principle. One can name poets of modern times who had a special penchant for nominative sentences. Thus, many of A. Akhmatova’s poems open with nominatives: Empty skies, transparent glass; Twenty first. Night. Monday. The outlines of the capital in the darkness; Cast iron fence, pine bed. How sweet it is that I don’t need to be jealous anymore; Here is the shore of the northern sea, here is the border of our troubles and glory... B. Pasternak’s entire stanzas consist of similar constructions:

Autumn, fairy tale palace,

All open for review.

Clearings of forest roads,

Looking into the lakes.

Like at a painting exhibition:

Halls, halls, halls, halls

Elm, ash, aspen

Unprecedented in gilding.

Golden linden hoop,

Like a crown on a newlywed.

The face of a birch tree under a veil

Bridal and transparent.

For many poets stylistic use nominative sentences have become important artistic device.

It is interesting to compare different editions of works, indicating that in the process of auto-editing the poet sometimes refuses two-part sentences, giving preference to nominative ones, for example, in A.T. Tvardovsky:

Draft

To whom is life, to whom is death, to whom is glory.

At dawn the crossing began.

That shore was steep, like an oven,

And, sullen, jagged,

The forest turned black high above the water,

The forest is alien, untouched.

And below us lay the right bank, -

The snow is rolled, trampled into the mud,

Level with the edge of the ice.

Crossing

It started at six o'clock.

Final edition

Crossing, crossing...

Left bank, right bank,

The snow is rough, the edge of ice...

To whom is memory, to whom is glory,

For whom the water is dark, -

No sign, no trace...

As we see, nominative sentences create dynamism, snatching from the unfolding panorama the main strokes, details of the situation that can reflect the tragedy of events. The more common description, built from two-part sentences, loses when compared; it seems stretched out, burdened with unimportant details. Thus, in such cases, nominative sentences are clearly preferable.

Nowadays, nominative sentences also attract the attention of journalists, who see them as a means of laconic and figurative descriptions of a generalizing nature:

Taiga, dissected by concrete tracks. Moss and lichen torn off by caterpillars. Rotten black puddles with a film of the most delicate spectrum. Raw fireweed flowers on burnt areas. The lightest silver tanks, like balloons. The open turf under the foot and the short bend of the pipe with a trembling pressure gauge, as if the eye of the earth had glanced.

Such lengthy descriptions, rich in nominatives, are characteristic primarily of essays, but the stylistic framework for using this construction is not limited to this. Authors of popular science books turn to it.

The stylistic possibilities of Russian syntax are expanding due to the fact that incomplete sentences, which have a clear functional-style fixation and a bright expressive coloring, can successfully compete with the complete sentences we have considered. Their stylistic use in speech is determined by extralinguistic factors and grammatical nature.

Incomplete sentences that form dialogical unities are created directly in the process of live communication: - When will you come? - Tomorrow. - Alone or with Victor? - Of course, with Victor. From colloquial speech they penetrate into artistic and journalistic speech as characteristic feature dialogue: - What news? - asked the officer. - Good ones! (L. T.); “It’s a wonderful evening,” he began, “so warm!” How long have you been walking? - No, recently (T.). Journalists use incomplete sentences most often in interviews: - But, like in any other country, you obviously also have problems. What are they? - The most relevant of them is the turning point in our economy. However, addressing contextually incomplete sentences, which are remarks and responses during a conversation, is very limited in the journalistic style, and almost impossible in other book styles. Here, even when dialogizing the style, full sentences characteristic of the syntax of written speech are used.

Incomplete sentences, which are parts of compound and complex sentences, are used in book styles, and especially in scientific ones: It was believed that geometry studies complex (continuous) quantities, and arithmetic studies discrete numbers. The use of them is dictated by the desire to avoid repetition of similar structures.

Other motives determine the preference for elliptical sentences - they act as a strong means of emotional speech. Their main area of application is colloquial speech, but they invariably attract word artists as well. Elliptical structures give the descriptions a special dynamism: Grigory Aleksandrovich squealed no worse than any Chechen, the gun came out of its case - and there; I’m following him... And it happened that we would try to tease him, so his eyes would become bloodshot, and now for the dagger (L.); I came to her, and he fired a pistol at me (Ostr.); Aksinya - to the shop! (M.G.); To the barrier! (Ch.); Back, home, homeland... (A.T.) Complete correlatives with such elliptical sentences, having predicates with the meaning of movement, motivation, desire, being, perception, speech, etc., are significantly inferior to them in expression.

For poets, the synonymy of elliptical structures and full sentences opens up the possibility of choosing an option convenient for versification:

Winter has passed. I am sick.

I'm back in the corner, among the books.

He seems happy

My idle double.

Yes, I have no leisure

Talk about all sorts of nonsense.

Did we understand each other?

Well, the doors are locked.

(A.A. Blok)

The use of a predicate in the highlighted sentences would lengthen the duration, which is unacceptable in poetic speech.

Sentences with the omission of words that are not of value in an informational sense have become widespread in newspaper language: “To your table”; "Only for women"; “Shop - on the sofa”; “Technical teaching aids - in classrooms”; “Computer technology - in the classroom”; “All power goes to the government” - these are the typical headlines of newspaper articles. In such incomplete sentences, only the target words of a given statement are indicated; everything else is filled in by the text and the speech situation. Various ellipses used in titles have now become a syntactic norm in their structure. They formulate an idea in an extremely concise form, have a functional, stylistic and expressive coloring, which attracts the reader’s attention. However, the fascination with such incomplete sentences is also fraught with danger: ambiguity and aesthetic inferiority may arise in them.

Generalized-personal sentences are sentences in which the actions expressed by a verb refer to any person and are of a generalizing nature. An example is the proverbs known to us from childhood:

Live and learn.

You can't take a fish out of a pond without difficulty.

Do not count your chickens before they are hatched.

The predicate in a generalized personal sentence is expressed by a verb in the second person singular form:

Do you love ride - love and carry a sleigh.

I'm not burning with tears will you help.

It happens that the predicate in such sentences is expressed by a verb in the third person plural form in the indicative mood:

Taking off the head, going through the hair don't cry.

After a fist fight don't wave.

Sometimes in generalized personal sentences there are predicates in the form of a first person plural verb of the indicative mood:

What we have - we do not store, having lost - we're crying.

The predicate can also be expressed by a verb in the first person singular indicative mood:

Someone else's misfortune with your hands I'll scout, and to your own and your mind I won't attach it.

Generalized personal sentences are common in which the predicate is expressed by a verb in the form of the imperative mood:

Century live- century study.

Seven times measure- once cut off.

Such sentences can act as subordinate clauses as part of a complex sentence:

Though kill- trace can not see.

At their core, they have lost meaning subordinate clause and turned into stable or idiomatic combinations; when written, they are separated by commas or dashes:

Where don't bother- right here.

Such sentences are typical only for a conversational style of speech.

The main purpose of generalized personal proposals is figurative expression some general judgments, therefore they are widely used in folk proverbs and sayings:

What is written with a pen cannot be cut out with an axe.

You can't erase a word from a song.

Generalized personal sentences are also common in descriptions when creating a picture in typical situations:

Otherwise you'll have to harness the racing droshky and go into the forest to hunt hazel grouse.(I.S. Turgenev).

In critical articles and journalism, generalized personal sentences help give judgments greater objectivity:

Reading the writer’s notes, we especially clearly realize the significance of such works as “Sputniks” and “Kruzhalikha” for our post-war prose.

Despite the fact that generalized personal sentences are most often used in conversational and artistic styles, certain varieties of such sentences can also be found in scientific style. They are used to indicate the usuality of a particular action:

Strain gauges are made of thin wire folded like a snake.

In works of art, generalized personal sentences can be a technique by which the author conveys his feelings and thoughts, forcing the reader to empathize:

You lie down and have a bitter thought

It doesn't go crazy...

The noise makes my head spin.(S.A. Yesenin)

Generalized personal sentences can take the form of a two-part sentence in which the subject is expressed by a personal pronoun:

You enter the forest, you are immediately overcome by coolness, you slowly walk along the edge.

In these sentences, the subject “you” does not refer to any specific person, but is of a general nature, and therefore the sentences are generalized and personal.

We have found out that one-part generalized personal sentences are used when it is necessary to present an action that is of a general nature and does not relate to any specific person. They are especially widely used in colloquial speech, stylistic features allow them to be used in fiction and in a scientific style. These sentences help to give greater objectivity to statements.

Bibliography

Bagryantseva V.A., Bolycheva E.M., Galaktionova I.V., Zhdanova L.A., Litnevskaya E.I., Stepanova E.B. Russian language. Tutorial for senior classes of humanitarian schools,: Moscow University Publishing House, 2011.
Barkhudarov S.G., Kryuchkov S.E., Maksimov L.Yu.. Cheshko L.A.. Russian language. 8th grade. Textbook for general education institutions,: Education, 2013
Tests Generalized-personal sentences ().

Terver.ru ().
Lingvotech.com ().
Hi-edu.ru ().

Homework

Define generalized personal sentences and give examples.
What is the main purpose of generalized personal sentences?
Do you think there is a continuation of the well-known Russian proverb: “Live forever, learn forever”? If “yes”, then which one; if “no”, then why?

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ASYNDETON(asyndeton) - deliberate omission of conjunctions between homogeneous members of a sentence or parts of a complex sentence.

For example:
The day is getting dark, the sky is empty,
The hum of a threshing machine can be heard on the threshing floor...
I see, I hear, I am happy. Everything is in me(I. A. Bunin);

Russia will stand up and judge all disputes...
Russia will rise and the nations will gather together...
And the West will no longer have
Take a sprout from an unsuitable crop.(I. Severyanin)

There was typhus, and ice, and hunger, and blockade.
Everything ran out: cartridges, coal, bread.
The crazy city has turned into a crypt,
Where the cannonade echoed loudly(Sheng.).

As noted by D.E. Rosenthal, " The absence of conjunctions makes the statement swift and full of impressions.».

Let's remember Pushkin's lines:
The booths and women flash past,
Boys, benches, lanterns,
Palaces, gardens, monasteries,
Bukharians, sleighs, vegetable gardens,
Merchants, shacks, men,
Boulevards, towers, Cossacks,
Pharmacies, fashion stores,
Balconies, lions on the gates
And flocks of jackdaws on crosses.(A.S. Pushkin)

This excerpt from " Evgenia Onegina"paints a quick change of pictures, objects truly flash! But the possibilities of non-union and multi-union are varied; the poet used these techniques when describing the dynamics of the Poltava battle:

Swede, Russian - stabs, chops, cuts,
Drumming, clicks, grinding,
The thunder of guns, stomping, neighing, groaning,
And death and hell on all sides.(A.S. Pushkin)

Asyndeton as a stylistic device used to enhance the imagery of speech, and in order to enhance the semantic opposition of the components of the statement and increase the expressiveness of the text.

The first of these functions is characteristic of non-union artistic style speeches, the second - for non-union in a journalistic style.

The skillful combination of non-union and multi-union in one text creates a special stylistic effect.

For example:
Their conversation is sensible
About haymaking, about wine,
About the kennel, about my relatives,
Of course, I didn’t shine with any feeling,
Not with poetic fire,
Neither sharpness nor intelligence,
No hostel for art...
(A. Pushkin)

Non-union and multi-union as means of expression used in artistic, journalistic and colloquial styles of speech.

Stylistic uses of different types of simple sentence

Russian syntax provides many options for expressing the same idea. For example, with appropriate intonation, the stylistic device of a tautological combination gives expressiveness to the statement “ The teacher must teach" However, it can be strengthened by choosing more emotional syntactic constructions:

1. The teacher's duty is to teach.

2. A teacher must be a teacher.

3. A teacher needs to teach.

4. You are a teacher - and be a teacher!

5. You are a teacher - you teach!

6. What should a teacher do if not teach!

7. Who should teach if not the teacher?

The degree of intensity from the first sentence to subsequent ones increases, which affects their use in speech. Examples 1-3 can be used in book styles (the first construction gravitates towards an official business style). In 4-7 sentences, a vivid expression stands out, giving them a distinctly colloquial and colloquial character.

The Russian language is characterized by synonymy of one-part and two-part sentences.

For example: Here is this blue notebook with my children's poems. Here in front of me lies this blue notebook with my children's poems.

Different types of one-part sentences are often synonymous:

Definitely personal –impersonal: Don't torment me anymore; No need to torment me anymore;
Vaguely personal –impersonal: They tell their loved ones the truth; To loved ones it's common to say the truth;
Generalized-personal –impersonal: Speak. Yes don't talk too much; You can talk, yes no need to talk I ;
Nominative – impersonal: You won’t be able to catch up with the crazy three; Can't catch up you get a crazy three.

The wealth of options creates ample opportunities for the stylistic selection of syntactic structures. Syntactic synonyms are not stylistically equivalent.

Definitely personal (one-piece) offers in comparison with two-part ones, they give laconicism and dynamism to speech. It is no coincidence that this type of one-part sentence is valued by poets.

Definitely personal sentences add expression to newspaper headlines, for example: « Don't believe your eyes!» .

do not have any special expressive qualities that would distinguish them from other one-part sentences. The main area of use of indefinite personal constructions is colloquial speech (for example, “ Selling strawberries"), from where they easily turn into artistic speech, giving it lively intonations.

For example: " It's coming. They bring him a horse"(A.S. Pushkin).

Such one-part sentences are stylistically neutral and can be used in any style.

For example, a sentence from a popular science book: “ The Rhine has been poisoned more than once by industrial waste».

There are no functional and stylistic restrictions for the use of indefinite personal sentences.

Vaguely personal proposals are interesting stylistically because they emphasize action, for example: “ They'll come for you now».

The use of such sentences makes it possible to focus attention on the predicate verb, while the subject of the action is relegated to the background, regardless of whether he is known to the speaker or not. Particularly expressive in semantic and stylistic terms are such vaguely personal sentences in which the bearer of the action is presented as an indefinite person, for example: “ I was invited to the cinema».

Generalized personal sentences stand out from all single-component personal sentences by their expression.

For example: Lawless Heart . What we have, we don’t keep; when we lose, we cry.

Lines from works of art, in which writers resort to generalized personal sentences, acquire a folk-poetic tone.

The most characteristic form of the predicate in such constructions, which gives the statements brightness and expressiveness, is the second person singular form.

For example: If you hurry, you will make people laugh.

The aphorism and brightness of such statements puts them among highly artistic works - miniatures of Russian folklore. The effectiveness of speech is enhanced by the use of the long-past tense form: “ Eh, it happened that you would twist your hat and put your horse in the shafts..."(S. Yesenin).

The vivid expressiveness of generalized personal constructions limits their functioning. Such constructions are most typical for colloquial and artistic speech.

Impersonal offers They are distinguished by a special variety of constructions and their stylistic application in speech.

Among them there are constructions characteristic of oral speech: “ I’m hungry!”, “It hurts!" There are constructions that are lyrical in emotional overtones and are loved by poets: “ And it’s boring, and sad, and there’s no one to give a hand to"(M.Yu. Lermontov).

There are sentences used in journalistic speech: “ Builders have to build a new housing complex».

Certain types of impersonal sentences are constantly used in scientific style: “ It is known that…», « I have to admit, What…».

Infinitive sentences provide significant opportunities for emotional and aphoristic expression of thought: “ You can't escape fate», « Be a bull on a string!».

Therefore, they are used in proverbs, artistic speech, this construction is also acceptable for slogans: “ Work without marriage!».

However, the main area of functioning of such constructions is the conversational style: “ Shouldn't we go back?», « There's no shore in sight».

Artists of words turn to infinitive sentences as a means of creating a casually conversational coloring of speech: “ Well, how can you compete with me?».

Expressive coloring prevents the use of infinitive constructions in book styles.

In artistic and journalistic speech, these sentences are introduced into dialogues and monologues rich in emotions: “ Always shine, shine everywhere!"(V.V. Mayakovsky).

With appropriate intonation design, infinitive sentences carry a huge expressive charge and stand out with special tension.

Nominative (nominal) sentences In essence, they seem to be created for description: they contain great visual possibilities. Naming objects, coloring them with definitions, writers paint pictures of nature, the environment, describe the state of the hero, and evaluate the world around him.

For example: The cold gold of the moon, the smell of oleander and gillyflower...(S. Yesenin).

Such descriptions do not reflect the dynamics of events, since nominative sentences indicate the static existence of an object.

Nominative sentences reflect one moment: “ Drumming, clicks, grinding, thunder of guns, stomping, neighing, groaning... "(A.S. Pushkin).

A linear description of events with nominative sentences is impossible: they record only the present tense.

Nominative sentences can sound with great tension, performing an expressive function with appropriate intonation design: “ What a night!».

The use of nominative sentences has become an important artistic device. Nominative sentences perfectly convey dynamism, snatching from the unfolding panorama the main strokes, details of the situation that can reflect the tragedy of events: “ Crossing, crossing... Left bank, right bank, Rough snow, ice edge..."(A.T. Tvardovsky).

A description built from two-part sentences will seem drawn out, burdened with unimportant details. In such cases, nominative sentences are clearly preferable.

Nominative sentences are also used by journalists, who see in them a means of laconic and figurative descriptions of a general nature: “ Taiga, dissected by concrete tracks. Moss and lichen torn off by caterpillars. Open turf underfoot».

Such lengthy descriptions, rich in nominatives, are characteristic primarily of essays, but this does not limit the stylistic scope of the use of these constructions. Authors of popular science books also turn to it.

Nominative sentences are used in such a stylistic figure as the nominative theme (isolated nominative), which names the topic of the subsequent phrase and is intended to arouse special interest in the subject of the statement, to enhance its sound, as a rule, it comes first.

For example:
My miller...
Oh, this miller!
He drives me crazy.
Arranged the bagpipes, the slacker,
And runs like a postman(Es.).

Moscow ! There is so much in this sound
For the Russian heart merged,
How much resonated with him!(P.)

With such a unique emotional presentation of thought, it is separated by an emphatic pause; as noted by A.M. Peshkovsky, " ...first an isolated object is put on display, and the listeners only know that something will now be said about this object and that for now this object must be observed; the next moment the thought itself is expressed».

NOMINATIVE TOPICS- This stylistic figure, which is a construction divided into two parts, in which the first part denotes a concept that is relevant to the speaker or writer (the topic of the message), and the second part contains any statement about this concept. The first part of the nominative topic can be represented by a word, a combination of words, a sentence, or even several sentences.

For example:
Moscow ! On the maps of the world there is no such word for us, filled with such content.(L. M. Leonov);

Fourth Symphony, our symphony, my symphony, Where's she?(Yu. M. Nagibin);

Night, street, lantern, pharmacy,
Pointless and dim light.
Live for at least another quarter of a century -
Everything will be like this. There is no outcome.(A. A. Blok)

The expressive functions of the nominative theme are associated with its ability to highlight the most significant parts of the text, attract the attention of the reader or listener to them, and also give speech a special pathosity and expressiveness.

The nominative theme is widely used in literary and journalistic texts, in colloquial speech, as well as in works of popular science.

The stylistic possibilities of Russian syntax are expanding due to the fact that incomplete sentences can successfully compete with complete sentences, having a clear functional-style fixation and a bright expressive coloring. Incomplete sentences, which are replicas and answers during a conversation, are characteristic only of the syntax of oral speech.

Incomplete sentences , forming dialogical unities, are created directly in the process of live communication.

For example:
-Will you go alone?
- With Father.
- When?
- Tomorrow.

However, addressing contextually incomplete sentences in journalistic style is very limited, and in other book styles it is almost impossible. Here, even during dialogization, complete sentences characteristic of the syntax of written speech are used.

Elliptical sentences are a means of conveying the emotionality of speech.

ELLIPSIS(in translation from Greek - lack, lack) is a stylistic figure consisting of the deliberate omission of any member of the sentence, which is implied from the context.

For example:
- Here I am with a broadsword! - shouted a courier with a mustache as long as he was galloping towards(N.V. Gogol);

And a minute later the captain, Chang and the artist are already on the dark street, where the wind and snow blow out the lanterns.(I. A. Bunin)

We sat in ashes, hail in dust, swords in sickles and plows. (Bug.).

I am for a candle - a candle in the stove.
I'm going to grab a book and run... (K. Chukovsky)

Deliberate omission of the predicate in such sentences creates a special dynamism of speech, so that “restoring” the missing verbs would be unjustified (compare: I took hold of the candle, the candle rushed into the stove).

With ellipsis, the predicate verb is most often omitted, which gives the text special expressiveness and dynamism, emphasizing the speed of action and tension mental state hero.
Ellipsis can also be expressed in the omission of other members of the sentence, including the entire predicative basis.

For example:
And if the poet gets too tired
Moscow, plague year, nineteenth,
Well, we can live without bread!
It doesn't take long from the roof to the sky (M. I. Tsvetaeva)

An engine roar, an annoying howl that takes out the soul - a waterfall from the sky... And the unshakably strong earth shakes, breaks, crumbles... Face, chest, stomach, knees into the unsafe ground. (V.F. Tendryakov)

In addition to creating a special expressiveness of the text, ellipsis can perform others stylistic functions:

a) give the beginning of the text (beginning) an intriguing character.

For example: After lunch, we walked out of the brightly and hotly lit dining room onto the deck and stopped at the railing (I. A. Bunin);

For example: And then you’ll think: and on our global spaceship, where some people live this way and others live that way (this applies to individual people, entire states, and entire nations), in the face of an imminent environmental catastrophe we will all find ourselves equal: and the president with the last "hard worker", the billionaire with the last beggar... in the end the chances will be zero. Comforts. (V. A. Soloukhin)

Elliptical designs give the descriptions a special dynamism: “ Back, home, homeland... "(A.N. Tolstoy), " I go to her, and he hits me with a pistol "(A.N. Ostrovsky).

Complete sentences with predicates meaning movement, motivation, desire, perception, being, etc. are significantly inferior to them in expression.

Default should be distinguished from an ellipse.

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Generalized-personal are called one-part sentences, the main member of which is expressed by a verb in the form of the 2nd person singular. numbers of the present and future tenses (less often - in other personal forms), and the action denoted by the verb in such sentences equally applies to any person, i.e. the character is thought of in a general way. Do you love ride– love to carry sleighs too(last); I'm burning with tearswon't you help (last).

A.M. Peshkovsky wrote: “In these cases, the generalized form of the combination acquires deep life and literary meaning. It is the bridge that connects the personal with the general, the subjective with the objective. And the more intimate any experience is, the more difficult it is for the speaker to show it off in front of everyone, the more willingly he puts it in the form of a generalization, transferring this experience to everyone, including the listener, who is therefore more captivated by the narrative than in a personal situation. form." In Russian studies there is no unambiguous attitude towards the status of generalized personal sentences. In the 30s of the twentieth century, generalized personal sentences, along with indefinite personal ones, were recognized by A.M. Peshkovsky as a special type, occupying an intermediate position between personal and impersonal sentences. A.A. Shakhmatov considered this type of sentence as part of indefinite-personal sentences and did not distinguish it into a special type of one-component sentences.

In modern Russian syntax, the status of generalized-personal sentences, as a rule, is not in doubt, although it is also not recognized by everyone. Research does not have a common view on the grammatical nature and specificity of one-part verbal-personal sentences, hence the differences in their classification, since the basis is predominantly the semantic principle. The nature of a syntactic unit can first of all be explained from a grammatical point of view, without absolutizing the semantic criterion.

Some linguists distinguish three independent types among single-component verbal-personal sentences: definitely-personal, indefinitely-personal, generalized-personal (A.A. Yudin, E.M. Galkina-Fedoruk, V.V. Babaytseva, S.I. Syatkovsky , A.N. Gvozdev, A.G. Rudnev, etc.), others – two: definitely and indefinitely personal (A.A. Shakhmatov, V.I. Borkovsky, L.V. Shcherba,
E.S. Istrina, etc.) or vaguely and generally personal (A.M. Peshkovsky, S.I. Abakumov, V.M. Berezin, etc.).

Using the same principle, one-part verbal-personal sentences are classified in educational literature, but the authors (E.M. Galkina-Fedoruk, A.N. Gvozdev, A.G. Rudnev, N.S. Valgina, V.V. Babaytseva, A.F. Kulagin) define the range of grammatical structures for each of the three types of verbal-personal sentences. As for educational and methodological manuals for schools and teacher training colleges, they present two types of verbal-personal sentences. All this creates great difficulties in teaching practice: firstly, in distinguishing between indefinitely personal and generalized personal sentences when the forms of the predicate are homonymous; secondly, determining the varieties of definitely-personal sentences. Yes, a proposal They love our pilots.... (Tvardovsky). A.G. Rudnev gives as an example of vaguely personal constructions, and A.K. Fedorov considers this proposal to be generalized and personal.

No less discrepancy exists in the qualification of sentences with a predicate-verb in the 1st person plural form. number and imperative mood. Yes, a proposal I'm sorry fever youth and youthful heat and youthful delirium(A. Pushkin). Some scientists (A.N. Gvozdev, A.M. Finkel, N.M. Bazhenov) refer to definite personal sentences, and proverb expressions Let's wait and see, but no, we'll hear; Prepare a sleigh in summer and a cart in winter some refer to generalized personal proposals (E.M. Galkina-Fedoruk, A.G. Rudnev), A.M. Zemsky, N.S. Valgina, some of these constructions qualify as generalized personal sentences, while others ( Let's save the world) – as definitely personal proposals.

By the personal forms of the verbal predicate, you can determine the producer of the action - this is the second person. However, this second person in such sentences is perceived as generalized: Memories of childhood are irresistible in quiet hours, when stay alone with myself(Prim.).

Generalized personal sentences with a predicate in the form of other persons are much less common, since not all persons are equally capable of generalization.

The generalizing nature of people’s activities, the obligation and indisputability of the state of affairs determines the functioning of such sentences in proverbs and sayings due to their figurative meaning and aphoristic nature. V.V. Babaytseva suggests the term for such sentences vaguely generalized, “since in form they coincide with indefinitely personal ones and in semantics they are indefinitely generalized.”

Basically, generalizations in these persons are found in proverbs and sayings. For example:

a) in the form of 1st person unit. h.: Someone else's hand of misfortune
I’ll deceive you, but I won’t put my mind to it(last);

b) in the form of 1st person plural. h.: We don’t keep what we have, we cry when we lose it.

c) in the form of 3rd person plural. h.: Taking off the head, going through the hair don't cry (last);

– also, the 3rd person form receives a generalized meaning at the level of uncertainty: the action relates to any undefined person, the action belongs to others, many, any persons: - What are you doing? – Klava asked... – Or did she lose something? “I lost it,” said Dasha. “I lost my ring, I lost my love.” “They lose what they don’t keep,” Klava responded instructively.(Vl. Lidin). The speaker reports a fact of reality relating to unspecified persons, but includes himself (1st person) and the interlocutor (2nd person) among those to whom this generalized remark applies.

– If the main member is expressed by the form of the future tense of the verb, the semantic structure of the sentence, as a rule, is superimposed with a modal connotation of the possibility or impossibility of action: You don't like it, but at all you won't please (A. Chekhov).

– in generalized personal sentences, the modal meaning of necessity, inevitability, the form of the verb in the position of the main member easily arises; they do not have an actual meaning of time: verbal forms are characterized by timelessness, they mark an action not related to the moment of speech;

According to A.M. Peshkovsky, sentences, the main member of which is expressed in the 2nd person form, “represent a favorite form of personal generalization in the Russian language, and this constitutes its important syntactic feature”: Words from a song you won't throw it away (last); From myself you won't run out, Push you won't leave, you won't hide (Yu. Nagibin);

– Semes of generalization of the acting subject contribute to the expression of intimate thoughts, moods, deep personal experiences, forming a special group of sentences in which the verb is in the form of the 2nd person singular. h. the action of a specific person, most often the speaker himself, is presented: experiencing something like shame when you feel feeling unhappy due to other misfortunes(A. Green).

– However, the verb can denote a generalized action in the 3rd person plural form. indicative numbers. For example: Firewood into the forestthey don't carry (last).

– Sometimes found in a generalized personal sentence is the 1st person singular form. and many more indicative numbers. For example: Whatwe have–don't store it, we'll lose it– we're crying (last).

– Can be expressed by a verb in the form imperative mood: Live and learn(last); Don't rush with your tongue - hurry with your deeds(last).– Special position occupy sentences in which the imperative form is used in a figurative, non-imperative meaning, naming an intended action that will certainly cause another action: It seems that if you move your hand you will scare away the singers(V. Peskov). The seme of incentive in the content structure of generalized personal sentences imposes various semantic shades on the semantics of the sentence:

1) advice, admonitions, requests, wishes that relate not to one interlocutor, but to all people: Bread and salt eat, but the truth cut (last).

2) assumptions of the possibility or impossibility of action: I'm crazy! Why was I scared? To this ghost blow- and he’s gone(A. Pushkin).

3) actions assessed ironically: Tea is all wrong. As I ordered... Rely on me on you!(I. Turgenev);

4) actions that are inevitable, committed against the will: Now he’ll come out among people and turn his nose up, that’s what’s offensive. And you grovel all your life(A. Ostrovsky).

When reporting events in the past, the speaker pushes his personality into the background, emphasizing pictures of the past. The belonging of the action to the speaker, the 1st person, is undoubted, since in such sentences the 2nd person can be freely replaced by the 1st. But such a replacement, although possible, is not adequate, since it deprives the verb, and with it the entire sentence, of its generalized character: There is no sweeter fun for our girls than collecting lilies of the valley. You walk along continuous lily of the valley leaves, large, light green and cool. And there are few flowers: as if someone had just walked here and torn everything off. But you will kneel down, bend your head lower, look from below and from the side, and you will see here, and there, and there - ah, at your very knees, at your very hand! – everywhere, everywhere, hidden under the leaves, pearl balls of lily of the valley glow! (Pan.). Here the speaker relates the action to himself, but he does not oppose himself to others, but unites with them, his action is presented as typical under similar circumstances for many or all; This reflects the generalizing nature of this construction.

– Generalized personal sentences with a verb in the 2nd person singular form. parts of the imperative mood can be subordinate clauses in the composition complex sentence, where they sometimes acquire the character of stable combinations with a generalized meaning of the person of the figure. For example: You are a poet, just like me; And what don't say anything, poets are nice guys! (P.).

– The difference from other one-part sentences with the 2nd person form is that the generalization of the subject is created precisely by the form of the verb, denoting undirected action. Wed. different meanings this form in this context: ... Here in a day you're rocking out, You'll come home - there you are sitting (V. Vysotsky). In the first two sentences, the 2nd person form expresses an unaddressed action, it is attributed primarily to the speaker, but is abstracted from a specific subject and acquires the meaning of generality. And in the third sentence, this form denotes the action of the addressee and is used in its direct meaning.

Generalized personal sentences exist in special contexts:

1) Convey the meaning of timelessness - in conditional constructions: If you visit these places at least once, you will always remember them.

2) In sentences with negation, a general judgment is conveyed with the meaning of the impossibility of action: Tears of sorrow will not help(can't help). Your question won't be answered right away.(cannot answer).

3) Used to convey events that were repeated in the past (with the verb particle “happened”): Sometimes you get up early and run to the river to swim.

4) Denote the actions of the speaker - in a distance from him: I read your “Foma Gordeev” in pieces: you open it and read the page ( A. Chekhov). In lyric poetry: If you look inside yourself, there is no trace of the past...(M. Lermontov).

The main purpose of generalized personal sentences is the figurative expression of general judgments, broad generalizations, which is why they are so widely represented:

– in the descriptions, when they help to paint a picture of the typical, natural course of an action or manifestation of a state: You walk along the edge of the forest, you look after the dog, and meanwhile your favorite images, your favorite faces, dead and alive, come to mind(T.);

– in critical articles, in journalism Suggestions help give judgment greater objectivity: Reading “Notes of a Writer,” you realize with particular clarity the significance of such works as “Sputniks” and “Kruzhilika” in the development of our post-war prose(gas.);

– sometimes used and in scientific style to indicate the usuality of an action: Based on the angle of inclination, equatorial, polar and inclined orbits are distinguished;

– in fiction Such sentences serve as a device for reflecting the world of thoughts and feelings of the writer: In the smell of bird cherry alone you connect with the whole past(Priv.);

– in essay literature: You won’t notice either a hill, a depression, a hill, or any other noticeable landmark.

The ability to imagine an action that applies to all individuals in a given linguistic community is determined sufficiently wide scope use of generalized personal sentences. They are widely used in oral speech, their stylistic properties create the conditions for widespread use in the texts of works of art and in journalistic speech. They help to give the statement the character of objectivity of judgment. The following statements are especially common in essay literature: No hill, no depression, no hill, or any other noticeable landmark. You drive and drive and gradually lose the feeling of movement. It seems that both the bus and you are in it - everything stands still, because nothing changes around(L. Yudasin).

Generalized personal sentences are used for stylistic purposes. This is a convenient form of conveying personal experiences, moods, memories, addressing the reader, expressing general opinions, wishes, advice

Russian syntax is distinguished by its richness and variety of stylistic means. Syntactic units are characterized by functional and stylistic consolidation: some are used in book styles, others in colloquial styles. At the syntactic level, the expressive coloring of speech is clearly manifested.

Stylistics begins where there is a possibility of choice, and in the Russian language such a possibility constantly arises when referring to various structural types of sentences, using parallel syntactic constructions, using various ways of updating individual parts of a statement, etc.

The most important aspect of syntactic stylistics is stylistic assessment syntactic means language, revealing their functional-style fixation and expressive capabilities. In this case, the focus is on syntactic synonymy.

Studying the stylistic use of different types of sentences highlights the functional-style aspect. For a stylistic assessment of a particular type of sentence, it is important to determine its usage in different styles of speech. Functional styles are characterized by selectivity in the use of simple and complex, one-part and two-part sentences. For example, for the scientific style, the predominance of two-part personal sentences is indicative (their frequency is 88.3% of all simple sentences); among one-part ones, generalized and indefinite personal sentences predominate (5.7%), impersonal ones are used less often (4.8%) and as an exception there are infinitives and nominatives, together they make up 1%. Such selectivity in the use of various sentences reflects the specificity of the scientific style: its accuracy, emphasized logic, abstract generalized nature.

When stylistically analyzing different types of sentences, it is also important to show their expressive capabilities, on which the appeal to one or another construction in a certain speech situation depends. Russian syntax provides many options for expressing the same idea. For example, with appropriate intonation, the stylistic device of a tautological combination gives the statement The teacher must teach well-known expressiveness. However, it can be strengthened by choosing more emotional syntactic constructions:

1. The teacher’s duty is to teach...

2. The teacher must be a u-chi-te-lem.

3. A teacher needs to teach.

4. You are a teacher - and be a teacher.

5. You are a teacher - you teach!

6. What should a teacher do if not teach!

7. Who should teach if not the teacher?!

The Russian language is characterized by synonymy of one-part and two-part sentences. Let us show this using experimental examples of two-part sentences correlative with one-part ones.

(EU) 7. Here is this blue notebook with my children's poems (Ahm.). 7. Here in front of me lies this blue notebook with my children's poems.

One-part sentences	Two-Part Sentences
1. I know, in the evening you will go out of the ring of roads, we will sit in fresh hay	1. I know you will come out...
2. What's new in the newspapers? (Shol.)	2. What's new in the newspapers?
3. I lived joyfully, like a child - you wake up in the morning and start singing (Ch.).	3. ...I used to wake up in the morning and sing...
4. I decided to pick this burdock (L. T.)	4. I decided to pick this burdock.
5. I still see Pavlovsk as hilly (Ahm.)	5. All I see is Pavlovsk, which is hilly.
6. I can’t live without Russia (Pr.).	6. I cannot live without Russia.
8. I can’t sleep, nanny... (P.).	8. I can't sleep.

Different types of one-part sentences are often synonymized, for example definitely personal - impersonal: Breathe your last freedom(Ahm.). - We must breathe the last freedom; Don't torture me anymore(Ahm.). - Don't torture me anymore; indefinitely personal - impersonal: Tell loved ones the truth. - It is customary to tell loved ones the truth; generalized-personal - impersonal: Speak, don't talk(last). - You can talk, but you don’t have to talk; You'll go wild in a life like this(M.G.). - You can go wild in a life like this; ...He deliberately gets under the wheels, and you are responsible for him(Adv.). - ... And you have to answer for him; nominative - impersonal: Silence. - Quiet ; Chills, fever. - Chills, fever; infinitive - impersonal: You can't catch up with the crazy three(N.). - It's impossible to get you a crazy three. The wealth of options creates ample opportunities for the stylistic selection of syntactic structures. Moreover, syntactic synonyms (as was easy to notice from our examples) are far from stylistically equivalent. Let's look at one-part sentences.

Definitely personal sentences, in comparison with two-part sentences, give laconicism and dynamism to speech; It is no coincidence that this type of one-part sentence is valued by poets: I love you, Petra creation! (P.); Like him [Byron], I'm looking for peace in vain, I'm driving everywhere with one thought. I look back - the past is terrible, I look forward - there is no dear soul there! (L.); Everywhere I recognize my native Rus'(N.); I stand alone in the naked valley(Es.).

Definitely personal sentences give expression to newspaper headlines: "Don't believe your eyes"(about advertising); "Hello, good man"(about old-timers); “We expect a big effect”(about the development of business contacts).

Definitely personal sentences with a predicate expressed in the 1st person plural form are also used in a scientific style: Let's draw a straight line and mark a point on it; Let's describe the arc; Let us denote the points of intersection of the lines; calculate the mean square error. In such sentences, attention is focused on the action regardless of its producer; this brings them closer to indefinitely personal sentences. The personal form of the predicate activates the reader's perception: the author, as it were, involves the reader in solving the problem posed, introduces him to the reasoning when proving the theorem; Wed Impersonal constructions: if you draw a straight line...

Linguists have repeatedly noted the advantage of definite personal one-part sentences over synonymous two-part ones: indicating a person in the latter only gives speech a calmer tone, makes it “more lethargic, liquefied,” in the words of A.M. Peshkovsky. However, in such cases, not one-part sentences of this type are used, but two-part ones with a subject, an expressed pronoun. The appeal to them is dictated by stylistic considerations. Firstly, we use two-part sentences if it is necessary to emphasize the importance of the 1st or 2nd person as the bearer of action: You live in a huge house; I spend my days on straw amidst grief and troubles(P.); And this is what you say!; We will listen, and you try to convince us. In such cases, subject pronouns are emphasized in oral speech. Secondly, two-part sentences are used to express motivation with a hint of exhortation: Take your time, I'll wait; Yes, don't worry! In this case, the word order has stylistic significance: in such constructions, the subject pronoun precedes the predicate. With a different sequence and corresponding intonation, two-part (motivational sentences with a subject-pronoun of the 2nd person (usually singular)) express disdain, sound sharply, rudely: Shut up!; Leave me alone!; Wait you!

Vaguely personal the sentences do not have any special expressive qualities that would set them apart from other one-part sentences. The main area of use of indefinite personal constructions is colloquial speech: They're knocking!; They sell strawberries; They say, they say... - Well, let them talk!, from where they easily turn into artistic speech, giving it lively intonations: ... And the room is swept and cleaned... (Gr.); It's coming. They bring him a horse(P.); They drag people by the legs and call loudly for doctors(L.). Such one-part sentences are stylistically neutral and can be used in any style. Here, for example, are sentences from a popular science book: Milk is called "light food"; We produce especially a lot of fermented milk drinks, from the monograph: Iron is obtained by reducing it from oxides that are part of iron ores.; Carbon monoxide is used as a reducing agent; from the newspaper: The Rhine has been poisoned more than once by industrial waste. But the river has never been hit like this before.. These examples convincingly indicate that there are no functional-style restrictions for indefinite-personal sentences.

Vague personal sentences are interesting stylistically because they emphasize action: The defendants were taken out somewhere and were just brought back(L. T.); They'll come for you now(Sim.); Of course, they won’t greet you with pancakes... They are still strung up... People are being burned and hanged(Bub.). The use of such sentences makes it possible to focus attention on the predicate verb, while the subject of the action is relegated to the background, regardless of whether he is known to the speaker or not. Particularly expressive in semantic and stylistic terms are such vaguely personal sentences in which the bearer of the action is presented as an indefinite person: - And tomorrow they invite me to the cinema. -Who is this? - asked the mother. “Yes, Victor,” Lusha answered.(Lid.).

The emphasized verbality of indefinite personal sentences gives them dynamism and creates favorable conditions for use in a journalistic style: Reported from Kyiv...; Reported from Damascus... The use of vaguely personal sentences as headlines for newspaper materials is especially effective: “They are making money from duty-free import of cigarettes”; "Stepping Back"(about international politics); “Undesirables are removed”; "Where money is laundered".

In formal business style, vaguely personal sentences are used along with impersonal ones: We don't smoke. - Smoking is prohibited; and also with infinitives: No smoking!; They ask you to remain quiet. - Keep quiet! When comparing such constructions, it is obvious that vaguely personal sentences represent a more polite form of prohibition, therefore, under certain conditions, they are preferable for ethical reasons.

In certain genres of official business speech, vaguely personal sentences are firmly established, expressing motivation in a softened, emphatically polite form, for example in advertisements (especially when broadcast on the radio): Comrade Petrov is asked to go to the information desk; Passengers are invited to board.

Generalized-personal sentences stand out from all one-part personal sentences by their expression: Lawless Heart; Naked sheep are not sheared; What we have, we don’t keep; when we lose it, we cry.. The most characteristic form of the predicate for these sentences - the form of the 2nd person singular, which receives a generalized meaning - is also the most expressive: Whatever you go for, you will find; If you hurry, you will make people laugh; While there is life there is hope. The aphorism and brightness of such statements puts them among the highly artistic miniature works of Russian folklore.

The predicate verb of the 1st and 3rd person in generalized personal sentences indicates an action that can relate to any person: In someone else’s eye we see a speck, but in our own we don’t even notice a log; For one beaten they give two unbeaten.

Lines from works of art in which writers resort to generalized personal sentences acquire a folk-poetic tone: You look and don’t know whether its majestic width goes or doesn’t go(G.); Will you look into yourself? - there is no trace of the past... (L.) The expressiveness of such constructions is partly achieved by the figurative use of facial forms: the 2nd person of the verb indicates the speaker himself. In other cases, the effectiveness of speech is enhanced by the use of the long-past tense form: Eh, It happened that you would twist your hat and put your horse in the shafts... (Es.)

The vivid expressiveness of such structures limits their functioning. In addition to colloquial and artistic speech, journalistic style is open to them. In critical articles and journalism, generalized personal sentences impart greater objectivity to judgments: On what scales will you weigh and measure, for example, this little poem...; Write what you think about(from gas.).

The least expressive among generalized personal sentences are constructions with a predicate in the 3rd person plural form: It's raining. Two sons are sleeping at the dacha, as soon as they sleep in early childhood(Past.). In structure and semantics, such sentences are close to indefinitely personal, but, unlike them, they indicate an action that can belong to anyone ( everyone sleeps, everyone sleeps like this in childhood). This structural diagram of one-part sentences is also used in scientific style.

Impersonal sentences are distinguished by a special variety of constructions and their stylistic application in speech. Among them there are those that are typical of colloquial speech: I'm hungry; Hurt!; Can't sleep; Freezing; Not a soul; No money; Time to go home; I'm ashamed to say, and those that stand out with their clerical coloring: It is prohibited to issue extracts from civil registration books without the consent of the adoptive parents; The preservation of legal relations with one of the parents... must be indicated in the decision on adoption. There are constructions that are lyrical in emotional coloring and favorite by poets: And it’s boring and sad, and there’s no one to give a hand to(L.); I remember everything, and it seems, and I imagine that the autumn of past years was not so sad(Bl.); It’s easy to wake up and see the light, shake out the verbal rubbish from your heart and live without getting clogged in the future(Past.); To be your joyful sister was bequeathed to me by ancient fate(Ahm.), and there are sentences used in journalistic speech intended for ordinary information: Builders will have to build a bobsleigh and luge complex; The answer must be sought by all interested organizations. True, journalists draw from the composition of impersonal constructions and emotional ones, which are necessary to enhance the effectiveness of speech: The champion's fans greeted him standing, and there was no end to the delight; He would have to look for[to the athlete] replacement, but there are no worthy candidates in the national team; He is unable to fight on equal terms; It’s always nice to win, but isn’t it wiser to take a break from today and look a little further??

Certain groups of impersonal sentences are constantly used in a scientific style: It is known that...; We have to admit that...; The experiment should begin with infusion of the least concentrated solution and move on to more concentrated ones; It is recommended to apply no more than 7-10 acid irritations per experiment. The impersonal principle of presentation that distinguishes this functional style determines the relatively frequent use of impersonal sentences with predicates expressing various shades of obligation and necessity: When establishing the initial functional state of the body, attention should be paid to objective physiological data; One encounters similar ambiguity with all direct methods for solving structures. It is also possible to use impersonal predicative words here as predicates: You can notice the following pattern...; One sample is not enough to characterize a pegmalite field.

Let's clarify this idea. It is impossible to offer any replacements for impersonal sentences of this type: And suddenly Tatyana became scared(P.); Oh, it really is dawn(Gr.); He felt good about this thought(M.G.); Not a cloud in the sky(Ch.); My leg hurts; People are lucky!; There are no letters. Other impersonal sentences can be easily transformed into two-part or one-part indefinitely or definitely personal; compare: It's melting today. - Snow is melting; The tracks were covered with snow. - The tracks were covered with snow; Sweeps. - Blizzard is sweeping; I'm hungry. - I want to eat; Where have you been? - Where have you been?; You should give up your seats to elders. - Give up your seats to elders; You are supposed to take medicine. - Take your medicine; The Tushin battery was forgotten. - They forgot about Tushin’s battery; It was decided to launch the attack at dawn. - They decided to launch the attack at dawn; I was not there. - I was not there.

If it is possible to express thoughts in two ways, it should be taken into account that “personal constructions contain an element of activity, manifestation of the will of the actor, confidence in the action, while impersonal expressions have a shade of passivity and inertia.” In addition, in certain types of impersonal sentences, a functional-style coloring is noticeable, although sometimes weak. So, conversational sentences are emphasized: Where have you been?; Lucky people!; Not a soul in the house. The following are book-colored: You should give in...; It is supposed to take...; Decided to start...

Infinitive sentences provide significant opportunities for emotional and aphoristic expression of thought: Which have not be avoided(last); Who to love, who to trust? (L.); Keep it up !; You can't escape fate; Be a bull on a string! Therefore, they are used in proverbs, in artistic speech, this construction is acceptable even for slogans: Work without marriage! However, the main area of their functioning is conversational style: I wish I could say this right away!; Shouldn't we go back?; There's no shore in sight. The last construction (common by addition with the meaning of an object) has a vernacular coloring.

Artists of words turn to infinitive sentences as a means of creating a casually conversational coloring of speech: Well, why should you bother with your wife and babysit the kids?? (P.)

Expressive coloring prevents the use of infinitive constructions in book styles. In artistic and journalistic speech, these sentences are introduced into dialogues and monologues rich in emotions: Serve fresh spitzrutens! (L. T.); Quiet the old witch! - said Pugachev (P.). These designs are appreciated by poets: February. Get some ink and cry! Write about February sobbingly... (Past.); Always shine, shine everywhere, until the last days, shine - and no nails! (Lighthouse.) With appropriate intonation design, infinitive sentences carry a huge expressive charge and stand out with special tension.

Nominative sentences are essentially created for description: they contain great descriptive abilities. Naming objects, coloring them with definitions, writers draw pictures of nature, the environment, describe the state of the hero, and assess the world around him: Confusion, fainting, haste, anger, fear! (Gr.); The cold gold of the moon, the smell of oleander and gillyflower... (Ec.); Black wind, White snow (Bl.); Here it is, stupid happiness with white windows to the garden(Es.). However, such descriptions do not reflect the dynamics of events, since nominative sentences indicate the static existence of an object, even if the nominatives are verbal nouns and with their help a living picture is drawn: Drumming, clicks, grinding, thunder of guns, stomping, neighing, groaning... (P.) Here, as in a photograph, one moment, one frame is captured, since a linear description of events with nominative sentences is impossible: they record only the present tense. In context, it can take on the meaning of the present historical, but the grammatical expression of the forms of the past or future tense transforms the sentence into a two-part sentence, cf.: The battle. - There was a fight. - There will be a fight.

The use of nominative sentences in speech is varied. They also perform a purely “technical” function, indicating the place and time of action in plays, naming the setting of the production: The scenery of the first act. Eight o'clock in the evening. Call(Ch.). But even in dramaturgy, the artistic significance of nominative sentences can increase if the stage directions indicate the behavior of the characters, their state of mind: Pause. Laughter. Murmur and hiss(Ch.). In the new genre of drama - film scripts - nominative sentences have become a powerful tool artistic descriptions: The open space of a large airport, flooded with sun. A grandiose perspective of the planes lined up for the parade. Lively groups of military pilots. Chkalov walks leisurely along the line of planes.

Nominative sentences can also sound with great tension, performing an expressive function with appropriate intonation design. This applies primarily to evaluative-existential and desirable-existent sentences, which are distinguished as part of nominative ones: What a night! I can't... (Ec.); If only you had strength!; If it weren't for confidence!

The clearly pictorial function of nominative sentences was demonstrated by writers back in the last century. Let us recall the famous lines of A. Fet, which amazed his contemporaries: Whispers, timid breathing, trills of a nightingale, silver and the swaying of a sleepy stream... - the entire poem consists of only nominatives, which elevates their stylistic application to the principle. One can name poets of modern times who had a special penchant for nominative sentences. Thus, many of A. Akhmatova’s poems open with nominatives: Empty skies transparent glass; Twenty first. Night. Monday. The outlines of the capital in the darkness; Cast iron fence, pine bed. How sweet it is that I don’t need to be jealous anymore; Here is the shore of the northern sea, here is the border of our troubles and glory... In B. Pasternak, entire stanzas consist of similar constructions:

Autumn, fairy tale palace,

All open for review.

Clearings of forest roads,

Looking into the lakes.

Like at a painting exhibition:

Halls, halls, halls, halls

Elm, ash, aspen

Unprecedented in gilding.

Golden linden hoop,

Like a crown on a newlywed.

The face of a birch tree under a veil

Bridal and transparent.

For many poets, the stylistic use of nominative sentences has become an important artistic device.

Draft

To whom is life, to whom is death, to whom is glory.

At dawn the crossing began.

That shore was steep, like an oven,

And, sullen, jagged,

The forest turned black high above the water,

The forest is alien, untouched.

And below us lay the right bank, -

The snow is rolled, trampled into the mud,

Level with the edge of the ice.

Crossing

It started at six o'clock.

Final edition

Crossing, crossing...

Left bank, right bank,

The snow is rough, the edge of ice...

To whom is memory, to whom is glory,

For whom the water is dark, -

No sign, no trace...

Nowadays, nominative sentences also attract the attention of journalists, who see them as a means of laconic and figurative descriptions of a generalizing nature:

Incomplete sentences that form dialogical unities are created directly in the process of live communication: - When will you come? - Tomorrow. - Alone or with Victor? - Of course, with Victor. From colloquial speech they penetrate into artistic and journalistic speech as a characteristic feature of the dialogue: - What's the news? - asked the officer. - Good! (L. T.); - “It’s a wonderful evening,” he began, “so warm!” How long have you been walking? - No, recently(T.). Journalists use incomplete sentences most often in interviews: - But like any other country, you obviously have problems too. What are they? - The most relevant of them is a turning point in our economy. However, addressing contextually incomplete sentences, which are remarks and responses during a conversation, is very limited in the journalistic style, and almost impossible in other book styles. Here, even when dialogizing the style, full sentences characteristic of the syntax of written speech are used.

Incomplete sentences, which are parts of complex and complex sentences, are used in book styles, and especially in scientific ones: It was believed that geometry studies complex quantities(continuous), and arithmetic - discrete numbers. The use of them is dictated by the desire to avoid repetition of similar structures.

Other motives determine the preference for elliptical sentences - they act as a strong means of emotional speech. Their main area of application is colloquial speech, but they invariably attract word artists as well. Elliptical designs give the descriptions a special dynamism: Grigory Aleksandrovich squealed no worse than any Chechen, the gun was out of its case - and there; I'll follow him... And sometimes we'd decide to tease him, so his eyes would become bloodshot, and now for the dagger(L.); I go to her, and he hits me with a pistol(Acute); Aksinya - to the shop! (M.G.); To the barrier! (Ch.); Back, home, homeland... (A.T.) Complete correlative sentences with such elliptical sentences, having predicates with the meaning of movement, motivation, desire, being, perception, speech, etc., are significantly inferior to them in expression.

For poets, the synonymy of elliptical constructions and complete sentences opens up the possibility of choosing an option convenient for versification:

Winter has passed. I am sick.

I'm back in the corner, among the books.

He seems happy

My idle double.

Yes, I have no leisure

Talk about all sorts of nonsense.

Did we understand each other?

Well, the doors are locked.

(A.A. Blok)

The use of a predicate in the highlighted sentences would lengthen the duration, which is unacceptable in poetic speech.

Sentences with the omission of words that are not of value in an informational sense have become widespread in newspaper language: "To your table"; "Only for women"; “Shop - on the sofa”; “Technical teaching aids - in classrooms”; “Computer technology - in the classroom”; "All power goes to the government"- these are the typical titles of newspaper articles. In such incomplete sentences, only the target words of a given statement are indicated; everything else is filled in by the text and the speech situation. Various ellipses used in titles have now become a syntactic norm in their structure. They formulate an idea in an extremely concise form, have a functional, stylistic and expressive coloring, which attracts the reader’s attention. However, the fascination with such incomplete sentences is also fraught with danger: ambiguity and aesthetic inferiority may arise in them.

When studying the stylistic order of words in a sentence, various aspects arise - the use of word order for the correct and stylistically justified expression of thought, enhancing the effectiveness of speech with the help of inversion, features of word arrangement in different functional and semantic types of speech. In this case, the study of word order as a means of semantic organization of a sentence is of utmost importance.

In recent decades, knowledge about the dependence of word order on the semantic structure of a sentence, which in turn reflects the semantic relationships that arise in speech between individual sentences that depend on each other, has expanded significantly. A strong impetus for the study of these problems was the doctrine of the actual division of utterances, created in the late 40s by the Czech linguist V. Mathesius.

To understand the importance of the theory of actual division of statements for studying word order in a sentence, consider an example: The editor read the manuscript. The meaning of this simple sentence will become fully clear only in speech, because it can be used in various situations and in ambiguous contexts. The following options are possible:

1. We know that the editor has the manuscript, but we do not know whether he read it. This can be found out in such a dialogue. - Has the editor read the manuscript? - The editor read the manuscript.

2. The person asking does not know what the editor has read (the manuscript or the reviewer’s review). Then the meaning of the question and answer in dialogical unity will change: - Has the editor read the manuscript? - The editor read the manuscript.

3. The questioner knows that someone has already read the manuscript, and wants to clarify who did it (editor or reviewer): - Did the editor read the manuscript? - The manuscript was read by the editor.

The use of a sentence in speech necessarily requires adaptation of its grammatical structure to the expression of this or that information. This is where the actual division of the utterance is expressed, which should be understood as the semantic division for a given context or situation.

What parts will we single out in the actual division of our statements? Depending on the content of the answer, different parts are distinguished. In the first case, the meaning of the information is conveyed by the phrase read the manuscript; in the second - only the word manuscript (since the questioner knows that the editor read something, but maybe it was not a manuscript, but a review...); in the third - the word editor. As we see, with actual division, the statement is divided into two parts: the first contains what is already known - the topic of the statement, the second contains what is reported about it - the rheme. The combination of theme and rheme is the subject of the message.

Actual division, in contrast to the grammatical organization of a sentence, is always two-membered, and both parts of the utterance can combine several members of the sentence and include either major or minor members in different combinations (see examples). The main content of the statement is contained in the rheme; the topic states something that is already known (or quite obvious, or follows from the previous context). The theme only establishes the connection of a given statement with the previous one, and the rheme contains the main message. Any statement must have a rheme, but the topic may not be specified. So, in our examples, answers were possible in the form incomplete sentences; compare: - Has the editor read the manuscript? - Read; - Did the editor read the manuscript? - Editor. The topic may be reconstructed from context, or it may simply be missing. For example, it does not stand out in statements containing only a message about a particular fact or event: A year has passed; It is snowing; Night. Street. Flashlight. Pharmacy(Bl.).

A multi-stage actual division of a statement is also possible, if it is widespread enough: Editor / read the manuscript carefully and with great interest. Having highlighted the word editor as a topic, we can additionally highlight the “second rheme” in the rheme - carefully and with great interest.

What is the connection between the topic - the rhematic division of the statement and the order of words in the sentence? This question can be answered by considering our examples: in them the theme comes first, and the rheme comes second; It is no coincidence that in the third dialogue the word order changed: the subject, which became a rheme, took its place. Thus, word order cannot be considered in isolation from the actual division of the utterance, “the concepts of “direct” and “reverse” word order does not mean the sequence of arrangement of the grammatical members of a sentence (subject, predicate, definition and circumstance), but the sequence of arrangement of theme and rheme and their components".

With direct word order, the topic comes first in the sentence, and the rheme comes second, as was the case in each of our three examples. In this case, the use of the subject in second place (3rd example) may correspond to the norm: in this case, the subject is a rheme, it contains new information. For a similar statement, subject preposition would not be justified. However, such a construction of a sentence is possible, but it is necessary to highlight the rheme intonationally, compensating for the loss of the actualizing function of word order with logical stress: The editor read the manuscript[and not anyone else!]. this word order for this particular case will be inversion.

Thus, in the light of the doctrine of the actual division of a statement, the traditional concepts of direct and reverse word order change: direct word order includes all cases of transition from topic to rheme. Subject preposition is most characteristic of the syntactic structure of the Russian language. Typically, this situation also corresponds to the actual division of the statement, since the subject is most often the topic: Nikolai / took two letters. One / was from the mother, the other / was from Sonya(L. T.); Catching bream or perch is such bliss! (Ch.); Kyiv / - the city of my childhood; Day / sunny and warm. This word order is traditionally considered direct. At the same time, it should be borne in mind that in the Russian language there are many constructions with direct word order, in which the subject is also postpositive. These include primarily those in which the predicate is the topic: There is/another remedy: you can recoup(P.); The closest were / Fyodor Vasilyevich and Pyotr Ivanovich(L. T.); Consolation served / letters from numerous students(Leon.). The prepositive predicate together with the subject can form a rheme, indivisible in semantic terms, and the topic in these cases is the name in front in the indirect case: Jacob, / apparently, was overcome by ecstasy(T.); I was immediately overcome by an unpleasant, motionless dampness(T.); Bright northern sky / faintly illuminated by the foggy moon(Kaz.). The same is the sequence of the main members of the sentence in constructions with a zero topic, which from the point of view of actual division are indivisible: It was a warm June, there were white nights (Paust.); It was raining; The harvest has begun; The phone rang.

Usually the prepositive predicate in interrogative and exclamatory sentences: Will you or won't you?; Will my grandfather or aunt stand up for me?(P.); What a pleasant activity these dances are! (Acute); How thin is his face, how short is his hair! How long are the arms! How has he changed since she left him?! (L. T.) True, the actual division of such sentences is special; in them the rheme comes first and the logical stress highlights it.

Finally, constructions with a prepositive subject are possible, in which the word order is nevertheless reversed: Only an accident saved him from falling(Fad.) - here the rheme occupies an unusual position - it stands at the beginning, it is emphasized by intonation and the intensifying particle only, which compensates for the violation of word order.

Determining the place minor members sentences, it should be borne in mind that a sentence is usually built from phrases that are used with their usual word arrangement: agreed words precede the core word, and controlled words follow it. With this order of components, “the phrase represents a single nomination and denotes one concept.” Violating the order of words in a phrase deprives it of unity or even destroys the phrase. For example, the arrangement of words in a statement is required a hole is made in each piece of nickel, since with a different sequence - “a hole is made of nickel in the part” new connections arise that distort the meaning. Typically, phrases as part of a statement receive a certain communicative function, acting as either a theme or a rheme; compare: in a part made of nickel - theme, a hole is made - rhema.

Let us characterize the word order in phrases that are most often used in Russian constructions.

I. In combinations of nouns with adjectives, the latter are usually prepositive: good person, fun walk, abstract thinking. The postpositive adjective stands out semantically and stylistically and is emphasized by intonation: Here you will meet the only sideburns, passed with extraordinary and amazing art under the tie, sideburns velvet, satin, black as sable or coal... Here you will meet a wonderful mustache, no pen, no brush can depict... Here you will meet the only smile, a smile - the height of art(G.). It is important to note: if a phrase with a postpositive adjective is part of the topic, then this does not affect the actual division of the statement: An empty street generally makes a terrible impression, but here somewhere in the pit of my stomach there was a tormenting and nagging premonition(Bulg.). But an adjective can also carry the main semantic load in postposition, and then it becomes a rheme: Belinsky was a strong and determined person(Black). In such cases, the adjective is strongly emphasized by intonation: Life began in the village peaceful, charming days(Boon.).

Of stylistic interest are constructions in which postpositive adjectives do not receive special semantic meaning in the context and, therefore, do not carry logical emphasis. In this case, their unusual position in the phrase gives it a colloquial coloring: Gray moss lies far around the fields, for hundreds of miles, on it snubnosed pines the height of a man and gnarled birches can only grow(Priv.); in other contexts - a poetic connotation:

Heavenly clouds, eternal wanderers!

The azure steppe, the pearl chain

You rush as if like me, exiles

From the sweet north to the south.

(M. Lermontov);

folk-poetic flavor:

Here the king frowned his black eyebrows

And he focused his keen eyes on him,

Like a hawk looked from the heights of heaven

On the young blue-winged dove

(M. Lermontov.)

If the integrity of the phrase is violated in a sentence and the adjective is separated from the noun by a verb, then regardless of the topic-rhematic division of the statement, such an adjective is always strongly inverted: I was tormented by terrible boredom(T.); Early snowfall(Shol.). However, the variant with a poetic coloring represents only communicatively undifferentiated sentences (in them the adjective is connected in meaning only with the noun, and the verb has little information content): A strong blizzard was blowing(Safe.); Large green buds(Priv.); The invisible lark rang(Naked). It is these variants of word arrangement that are widespread in poetic speech.

II. In phrases of two nouns, the dependent word form is usually postpositive: mother's love, moonlit walk, path to victory. However, the dependent form of a noun in the genitive case, indicating the appearance, size, color and other properties of an object, can also be prepositive, always appearing in obligatory combination with an adjective: [Sobakevich] ... this time it seemed to him very similar to medium sized bear. (G.); On her head she was wearing a high flat top hat... (L.T.) Such a dependent word form in the prepositive position often appears among homogeneous defining members: A crafty, changeable, impenetrable man with a subtle mind, easy charm and great stubbornness, he knew how to force even Napoleon to reckon with himself.(Naked).

A dependent noun always precedes another in stable phrases like guard senior lieutenant, mahogany buffet; in phraseological units - birds of a feather.

It is important to emphasize that in substantive phrases with the preposition of a dependent noun, a colloquial coloring appears if this inverted noun receives a special semantic meaning in the context and, therefore, is highlighted with logical stress: Once the regiment stood in the first line; there was a shootout with the Turks for a whole week... (Garsh.) However, with the same word arrangement, but with intonation and semantic emphasis on the core noun, such phrases acquire a poetic coloring: The sea mud of the white nights draws in the sieve(Leon.). A similar inversion is used in the “ornamental”, decorated style: It seemed to her that days before flowering was coming(A.B.). In journalistic speech, this arrangement of words creates a rhetorical connotation: “ Glorious names of heroes", "Cup of multicolored faces"(titles of newspaper articles).

III. In phrases with a core adjective word, the adverb usually comes first: very kind, deathly pale, implausible big. The same position is occupied by a noun indicating the qualitative attribute of an adjective: extremely patient, fundamentally wrong. However, nouns with other meanings in indirect cases are usually prepositive: An old man with a black and gray beard... stood motionless, holding a cup of honey(L. T.); Northern nature, stingy with colors, has never seen such a rich combination of colors(Shol.).

Further, without dwelling on noun phrases, we note that word order has an important semantic meaning in combinations of cardinal numerals with nouns. When denoting a number precisely, the numeral is prepositive: two hours, one hundred rubles, twenty steps; compare: I ate three plates(Kr.); a different word order indicates the approximate quantity: two hours; compare: I laughed internally and even smiled twice (but, fortunately, he didn’t notice it) (L.).

IV. In verb phrases with the dependent case form of the noun, it is usually in second place: I love a thunderstorm, I write with a pencil, I went to the window. However, preposition of a noun is also possible if it indicates a quality or method of action: She walked quickly towards the house(G. Nik.); Then he looked at Kocharyan and Mitya with the same searching gaze(Kettle.). If two nouns refer to a verb, then word forms with the meaning of the addressee or adverbial, instrumental meaning are placed immediately after it: wrote a manual for students, took a paper from the closet, opened the door with the key; the final position is occupied by a word form, which in meaning is more closely related to the verb: received a response from the editor, writes letters to friends. This word arrangement is explained by the fact that in the absence of a special communicative task in speech, “there is a tendency in the language to eliminate from the final position a word form that could potentially become an independent rheme.” Depending on the actual division of the utterance, the word order in such verb phrases may change: The reviewer returned the manuscript to the editor and the Reviewer returned the manuscript to the editor(the final position is occupied by the rheme).

Inversion of the dependent word form, emphasized by logical stress, creates a vivid expression: Fate has reached its conclusion(L.); But the daughter is a criminal... legends are silent about her. Her suffering Her destiny, her end They are closed from us by impenetrable darkness(P. Poltava), and in other cases gives the speech a conversational coloring: Natalya spent evenings knitting a traditional scarf for the groom(Shol.); I heard the commissar say: “Whoever offends will have to deal with the company.”(Sand.).

In combinations of verbs with adverbs, the word order depends on the semantic division of the statement: adverbs are postpositive if they bear the main semantic load and, therefore, logical stress: He worked artistically(M.G.); Met on friendly terms(Furm.); The fire burned hot(Ch.). If the adverb is excluded from the rheme, then it is prepositive in relation to the verb: A song was heard from afar(A.T.); Grass dries quickly(T.). Collocations in which the adverb follows the verb, but the intonation center remains on the verb, have a conversational coloring: ... That Stepan Arkadyevich could never understand well(L.T.). With the same intonation emphasis of both components of the phrase, in such cases a poetic connotation of speech may arise: ... And the whole oak grove will rustle broad-leaved and noisy(P.).

Studying the sequence of components in phrases cannot, however, provide a complete picture of the order of words in a sentence, since the types of syntactic connections in it are more diverse and broader.

At the sentence level, one should consider the word order when using homogeneous members connected by a coordinating connection. Of particular stylistic interest is the use of several definitions that occupy the same syntactic positions in a sentence: By wide big highwayless road rode at a fast trot tall blue Viennese stroller in a train(L.T.). As can be seen from the example, adjectives that name more are placed closer to nouns. important sign. If qualitative and relative adjectives are combined, then the latter will appear directly next to the noun: highway-free road, Viennese carriage. If all adjectives are qualitative, then you need to take into account their meanings and place next to the noun those that indicate a more constant attribute: warm summer evenings, beautiful gray eyes. If all definitions are expressed by relative adjectives, “they are usually arranged in order of ascending semantic gradation (from a narrower concept to a broader one)”: illustrated children's magazine, weekly editorial meetings. If in a row homogeneous definitions turns out to be a pronoun, it moves forward: On his head he had a cap (made of lamb fur) of some strange shape(Ch.); Yes, I haven’t seen the commandant yet, but I need to hand over some government things(L.); But still, there’s no need to go back, that’s why I didn’t get it on time, like love, like sadness, like joy, your beautiful Ryazan scarf(Es.).

Particular attention should be paid to the order of words in a sentence when using determinants - minor members that are not formally related to other words in the sentence, characterized by some independence of functioning and relating to the entire sentence as a whole: K In the evening the snowstorm intensified; Fog fell over the river at night(Paust.). The determinants are usually circumstances and additions, which, however, do not depend on the predicate verb, but relate to the entire sentence as free word forms. Their connection with other members of the proposal is in the nature of free accession. The determining members of a sentence are usually prepositive. How homogeneous members they can be lined up in a “chain”: And far behind the station, behind the houses, behind the factories, as if painted on the edge of the sky, the white building of the university could be seen(Ant.).

With inversion, the determining members of the sentence end up at the end: The ivy rustles by the balcony and a sleepy bird fusses in the bushes(A.T.); A woman truly loves only once(Gonch.).

An additional note can be made about the order of words in a sentence when using the infinitive. The dependent infinitive is always postpositive: Sasha... blushed, ready to cry(Ch.); I would like to live and die in Paris, if there were no such land - Moscow(Lighthouse.); She was not yet in danger of becoming a widow(Mark.). The prepositive use of the infinitive gives speech a conversational coloring: I’ll buy it, I’ll buy it, just stop crying; I don’t have long, I’ll send pots to the kitchen to steam(Acute) - or archaic connotation: The wind in the forests forgot to make noise(Scrap.).

Observations of variants of word arrangement in sentences and phrases have repeatedly turned us to inversion - a stylistic device consisting of a deliberate change in the usual word order for the purpose of emotional, semantic highlighting of any part of the statement: Nice bekesha from Ivan Ivanovich(G.); This Dubrovsky, a retired lieutenant of the guard, was his closest neighbor(P.); The starry sky above this incomprehensible land seemed immense(A.T.). Inversion is strong stylistic device creating emphatic intonation. If direct word order, as a rule, has no stylistic meaning, then inversion is always stylistically significant. It is legitimate to ask the question: how is inversion assessed in different functional styles?

Inversion is possible only in expressive speech. This stylistic device is appreciated not only by writers, but also by publicists:

Protected places.

Svetloyar Lake lies in the Nizhny Novgorod Trans-Volga region, keeping one of the most poetic legends of Ancient Rus' - the legend of the invisible city of Kitezh. When I came to its shores a quarter of a century ago as a student collecting folklore, the lake struck me with its reserved peace... It seemed A huge bell once fell into the thicket and filled with spring freshness...

(Yu. Andrianov)

In scientific and official business styles, as a rule, word order is not used for expressive function and therefore inversion cannot be justified. As for the preference for constructions with preposition or postposition of the subject, they are chosen taking into account the nature of the presentation of the material. In scientific speech, word order performs an important semantic function, emphasizing the logical division of the text.

According to experts, most sentences in scientific speech begin not with a subject, but with an adverbial, complement or predicative member: Behind last years in studies concerning descending influences of the cerebellum, ... the reaction of the spinal cord is used; Two tests were carried out in this area.

In the official business style, other constructions predominate: the subject, as a rule, is prepositive; Moreover, the text usually repeats the same type of constructions: Parents are obliged to raise their children, take care of their physical development and education, prepare them for socially useful work, and raise them to be worthy members of society.; Parents are legal representatives their minor children and advocate for their rights and interests...; Father and mother have equal rights and responsibilities regarding their children. This construction of statements not only contributes to the utmost clarity of wording, but also serves to achieve uniformity in presentation, which leads to strict standardization linguistic means, characteristic of similar genres of official business style.

Of special stylistic interest is the use of word order in various functional and semantic types of speech. In this case, two constructions are in conflict: subject - predicate, predicate - subject. In narration, description, and reasoning, these constructions are used in different ways.

Also N.M. Karamzin, who worked a lot on developing word order in Russian artistic prose, gave an example of two constructions typical of the Russian language: The bell rang and the horses started moving.(subject preposition) and The sun is shining; Autumn has come; It's raining(preposition of the predicate). Both constructions reflect direct word order, but their stylistic application is different. Sentences of the first type are used more often in narration:

We swam quite slowly. The old man had difficulty pulling his long pole out of the viscous mud... Finally we got to the reeds, and the fun began. The ducks rose noisily, “rushed” from the pond, frightened by our unexpected appearance in their domain, shots rang out in unison after them... these short-tailed birds tumbled in the air, splashed heavily on the water... Easily wounded, they dived; others, killed on the spot, fell into such a thick mayor that even Yermolai’s lynx eyes could not open them; but still, by lunchtime our boat was filled to overflowing with game.

(I.S. Turgenev)

These structures vividly convey movement and development of action, reflecting the dynamics of events in the best way possible.

Sentences with a prepositive predicate are used when describing a situation, stating a particular fact, or the presence of an object:

It was a beautiful July day... Merry and majestic, as if taking off, the mighty luminary rises. Around noon, a lot of round high clouds usually appear... Here and there bluish stripes stretch from top to bottom: then barely noticeable rain falls... Everything bears the stamp of some touching meekness...

(I.S. Turgenev)

This word order is characteristic of an epic, calm tone of speech; it is most suitable for creating static pictures.

Without dwelling specifically on the features of word order in other functional-semantic types of speech, we note that both in reasoning and in dialogical unity, the topic-rhematic division of the utterance depends on the communicative attitude and the nature of the preceding text.

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