Spelling principles of spelling. Principles of Russian spelling. Morphological principle

Introduction

Spelling (from the Greek ορθο – ‘correct’ and γραφος – ‘I write’) is a historically developed system of rules establishing the spelling of words. In school practice, we often use the term spelling (from the Greek Orthos - 'correct' and gramma - 'letter'), it refers to spellings determined by spelling rules.

The theory of Russian spelling began to take shape back in the 18th century. V.K. made a great contribution to its formation. Trediakovsky, M.V. Lomonosov, Y.K. Groth, F.F. Fortunatov.

Modern Russian spelling is based on the Code of Rules published in 1956. The rules of the Russian language are reflected in Russian grammars and spelling dictionaries. Special school spelling dictionaries are published for schoolchildren.

Language changes as society changes. Many new words and expressions, both our own and borrowed, appear. The rules for writing new words are established by the Spelling Commission and recorded in spelling dictionaries. The most complete modern spelling dictionary was compiled under the editorship of the spelling scientist V.V. Lopatin (M., 2000).

Russian orthography is a system of rules for writing words. It consists of five main sections:

1) transmission of the phonemic composition of words in letters;

2) continuous, separate and hyphenated (semi-continuous) spellings of words and their parts;

3) the use of upper and lowercase letters;

4) transferring part of a word from one line to another;

5) graphic abbreviations of words.

Spelling sections are large groups spelling rules associated with different types difficulties in conveying words in writing. Each section of spelling is characterized by certain principles, underlying the spelling system.

Principles of Russian spelling– the basic theoretical principles on which the rules are based. Each principle of spelling unites a group of rules that are the application of this principle to specific linguistic phenomena.

L. V. Shcherba (1880-1944; Russian Soviet linguist, academician, who contributed huge contribution in the development of psycholinguistics, lexicography and phonology; one of the creators of phoneme theory) wrote: “There are four principles: 1) phonetic, 2) etymological, or word production, otherwise morphological, 3) historical and 4) ideographic. Well, phonetic - that's clear. This means that as it is written, so it is pronounced. In Russian and many other languages, there are many words that are written the way they are pronounced, without any tricks. This is best seen in Italian. The alphabetic associations there are complex, but the orthographic principle is basically phonetic.” An example would be the spelling of prefixes in h-With(be h gifted - be With deceased) or a radical change in the initial And on s after prefixes ending in a consonant ( And play - once s play).

The principle behind L.V. Shcherby is in second place, in modern spelling it is called phonemic. It represents the spelling of words according to a rule. In other words, we must determine which phoneme stands in place of the sound we are interested in. And from the phoneme we go to the letter. To define a phoneme, we must place it in a strong position (for vowels this is the position under stress, for consonants - before the vowel, before sonorants ( l, m, n, R, j) and before V). The following rules are based on this principle: spelling unstressed vowels in the root (in O dyanoy - in O yes, r e ka – p e ki, n e demonic - n e bo), spelling of voiced and voiceless consonants in the root (lu G– lu G a, co T– to T ik, co d– to d ovy), spelling of most prefixes and suffixes.

The next principle of Russian spelling is traditional, or historical. This principle applies when the choice of letter cannot be verified by a strong position, since there is no such position in modern language, the word is written according to tradition, and its spelling is determined by the dictionary. Rules such as the spelling of unchecked and alternating vowels and consonants in the root (near O live - near A to go; mo G y – mo and et), spelling of vowels after sibilants and ts (sh e sweat, sh O rokh, ts s gan, prince And p), use ь after sizzling (burn b, things b, gallop b, you hang b), combined and separate spelling of adverbs (wad, rashly, mean, mean, etc.), adverbial combinations and some prepositions (during, as a result), spelling of the endings of masculine genitive adjectives singular -Wow(handsome - beautiful Wow; smart - smart Wow) and etc.

The fourth principle of spelling is semantic, or differentiating. It is implemented in situations where it is necessary to distinguish between equally sounding words by means of spelling: ba ll(score) and ba l(dance evening), ok e g (verb) and ож O g (noun), crying b(verb) and crying (noun), carcasses (masculine noun) and carcasses b(noun female), O reel (bird), and ABOUT rel (city).

In addition to those mentioned, in Russian orthography there are principles regulating continuous, separate and hyphenated spelling, use capital letters, word hyphenation rules, etc.

The basic principles on which the rules for fused, separate or hyphenated spelling of words are based are defined as lexical-syntactic and word-formation-grammatical.

Lexico-syntactic The principle of Russian orthography is associated with the distinction between a word and a phrase: parts of a word are written together, and individual words in a phrase are written separately. Based on this principle, spellings such as chamber are distinguished lightly wounded – slightly wounded in the hand; evergreen bush – evergreen there is grass in the alpine meadows; look into the distance- to peer V sea distance; act at random- hope for good luck; nowhere ever I wasn’t - I didn’t know no where he was, never he is back; not dry cloth - not dry per night clothes, etc.

Spelling difficulties here are associated with the fact that writers have to decide whether a given piece of speech is a separate word or a phrase, which is often difficult to do due to the unclear boundaries between these linguistic units.

Word formation and grammar the principle establishes the continuous or hyphenated spelling of complex adjectives and nouns according to a formal feature - the presence or absence of a suffix in the first part of the complex adjective and a connecting vowel - O- (-e-) in a compound noun. The adjectives fruit and berry are spelled differently O-berry, potato, vegetable and potato But-vegetable, gas-oil and gas in-petroleum, water soluble and water But-soluble. If the first part of a complex adjective has a suffix, the word is written with a hyphen; if there is no suffix, it is written together. Nouns with a connecting vowel - O- (-e-) are written together, and nouns without a connecting vowel are written separately (cf. glands O concrete, wood O park, land e businessman, birds e catch and sofa - bed, sister - hostess, cafe - dining room, etc.).

Some spellings explained traditional the principle by which parts of a modern single word are written separately, going back to a combination of words: under the arm,carelessly,without waking up,incessantly,skin-tight,in girth,for slaughter etc.

The principles of Russian spelling are considered very complex, but compared with other European languages, where there are a lot of traditional, conventional spellings, the spelling of the Russian language as a whole is quite logical, you just need to understand what it is based on.

This article talks about the morphological principle of Russian orthography, examples of which are the majority of words in our language.

What is morphology

Understanding what the morphological principle of Russian spelling is, examples of which are given already in the first grade primary school, is impossible without the concept of morphology as such. What is morphology? In what areas of knowledge is it customary to talk about it?

The application of the concept of morphology is much wider than the linguistic field, that is, the field of language study. The easiest way to explain what it is is by using the example of biology, where this term actually comes from. Morphology studies the structure of the organism, its components and the role of each part in the life of the organism as a whole. For example, the internal morphology of a person is anatomy.

Thus, morphology in the linguistic sense of the word studies the anatomy of a word, its structure, that is, what parts it consists of, why these parts can be distinguished and why they exist. The “components” of a person are the heart, liver, lungs; flower - petals, pistil, stamens; and the words are prefix, root, suffix and ending. These are the “organs” of the word that are in complex interaction with each other and perform their functions. The topic “Morphemics and word formation” at school is aimed specifically at studying these components words, the laws of their connection.

Preliminarily answering the question about the main principle of our spelling, we can say that we write down the constituent parts of a word (morphemes) as elements of writing; this is the morphological principle of Russian spelling. Examples (the simplest ones to begin with): in the word “balls” we write I, as we write it down, we transfer the root “ball” without changes, just as we hear it in the word “ball”.

Are there other principles of spelling?

To understand the essence of the morphological principle of Russian orthography, it needs to be considered against the background of other principles.

Let us clarify what spelling or spelling is. These are the rules that govern writing. specific language. The main principle that underlies these rules is not always morphological. Besides this, first of all we need to talk about phonetic and traditional principles.

Recording sounds

For example, you can write down a word as it is heard, that is, write down sounds. We would write the word “oak” like this: “dup”. This principle of writing words (when nothing is important except the sound of the word and the transmission of this sound) is called phonetic. It is followed by children who have just learned to write: they write down what they hear and say. In this case, the uniformity of any prefix, root, suffix or ending may be violated.

Phonetic principle in Russian

There are not many examples of phonetic spelling. It affects, first of all, the rules for writing the prefix (without- (bes-)). In cases where we hear the sound C at its end (before voiceless consonants), we write down exactly this sound (carefree, uncompromising, unscrupulous), and in those cases when we hear Z (before voiced consonants and sonorants), we write it down (uncomplaining, carefree, slacker).

Traditional principle

Another important principle is traditional, also called historical. It lies in the fact that a certain spelling of a word can only be explained by tradition or habit. Once upon a time, a word was pronounced, and therefore written, in a certain way. Time has passed, the language has changed, its sound has changed, but according to tradition the word still continues to be written this way. In Russian, this, for example, concerns the spelling of the well-known “zhi” and “shi”. Once upon a time in the Russian language these combinations were pronounced “softly”, then this pronunciation disappeared, but the writing tradition was preserved. Another example of traditional spelling is the loss of connection between a word and its “test” words. This will be discussed below.

Disadvantages of the traditional way of writing words

In the Russian language, there are quite a lot of such “evidence” of the past, but if you compare, for example, with the English language, it will not seem to be the main one. IN English language Most of the writings are explained precisely by tradition, since no reforms were carried out in it for an extremely long time. That is why English-speaking schoolchildren are forced not so much to understand the rules of spelling words as to memorize the spellings themselves. Only tradition, for example, can explain why in the word “high” only the first two letters are “voiced”, and the next two are written simply “out of habit”, denoting zero sounds in the word.

Widespread use of the traditional principle in the Russian language

As mentioned above, the spelling of the Russian language follows not only the morphological principle, but also the phonetic and traditional one, from which it is quite difficult to escape completely. Most often we come across the traditional, or historical principle of Russian orthography, when we write down the so-called vocabulary words. These are words whose spelling can only be explained historically. For example, why do we write “ink” with an E? Or "underwear" with E? The fact is that historically these words are associated with the names of colors - black and white, since at first ink was only black, and linen was only white. Then the connection between these words and those from which they were derived was lost, but we continue to write them that way. There are also words whose origin can be explained using modern words generally impossible, but their writing is strictly regulated. For example: cow, dog. The same goes for foreign words: Their spelling is governed by the words of another language. These and similar words just need to be learned.

Another example is the spelling qi/tsy. Only convention can explain why I is written in the roots of words after T (with the exception of some surnames, for example, Antsyferov, and the words tsyts, chicks, chicken, gypsy), and in the endings - Y. After all, the syllables in both cases are pronounced exactly the same and are subject to no verification.

There is no obvious logic when writing words with traditional spelling, and, you see, they are much harder to learn than “tested” words. After all, it is always easier to remember something that has an obvious explanation.

Why the morphological principle?

The role of the morphological principle in spelling is difficult to overestimate, because it regulates the laws of writing, makes it predictable, eliminates the need to memorize an endless number of words in traditional writing and “unraveling” spellings in phonetic writing. After all, in the end, the correct spelling of words is not a simple whim of linguists. This is what ensures easy understanding of the text, the ability to read any word “on sight”. Children's writing “vykhodnyi myzbabushkay hadili nayolku” makes reading the text difficult and slow. If we imagine that words will be written differently each time, the reader, his speed of reading the text and the quality of his perception will suffer from this, first of all, since all efforts will be aimed at “deciphering” the words.

Perhaps, for a language that is at least rich in word forms (that is, less rich in morphemes) and has fewer word-forming capabilities (the formation of words in the Russian language occurs very easily and freely, according to the most different models and using the most different ways), this principle would be suitable, but not for a Russian. If we add to this the rich cultural discourse, that is, the complexity and subtlety of thoughts that our language is designed to express, then a primitive phonetic notation is completely unacceptable.

The essence of the morphological principle of the Russian language. Examples

So, having examined the background of the existence of the morphological principle and found out what morphology is, let’s return to its essence. It's very simple. When we write down a word, we choose not sounds or words as recording elements, but parts of words, its constituent elements(prefixes, roots, suffixes, postfixes and inflections). That is, when writing a word, we build it, as if from cubes, not from but from more complex, meaningful formations - morphemes. And “transfer”, each part of the word must be written down unchanged. In the word “gymnastic” after N we write A, as in the word “gymnast”, since we are writing down an entire morpheme - the root “gymnast”. In the word “clouds” we write the first letter O, as in the form “cloud”, since we “transfer” the whole morpheme - the root “clouds”. It cannot be destroyed or modified, because the morphological principle says: write down the whole morpheme, regardless of how it is heard and pronounced. In the word “cloud,” in turn, we write the final O at the ending, as in the word “window” (this is the ending of a neuter noun in the nominative singular).

The problem of following the morphological principle in Russian writing

In Russian, the problem with writing according to morphological principles is that we constantly fall into the traps of our pronunciation. Everything would be simple if all morphemes always sounded the same. However, in speech everything happens completely differently, which is why children, following the phonetic principle, do this a large number of errors.

The fact is that sounds in Russian speech are pronounced differently, depending on their position in the word.

Search for standard morphemes

For example, at the end of words we never pronounce a voiced consonant - it is always stunned. This is the articulatory law of the Russian language. It’s hard to imagine, but this doesn’t happen in all languages. The English, on the contrary, are always surprised when Russians try to apply this law and pronounce a voiceless consonant at the end, say, English word"dog". In a “stunned” form - “doc” - the word is completely unrecognizable to them.

To find out which letter should be written at the end of the word "steamer", we must pronounce the morpheme "move" in such a way as not to put it in the weak position of the absolute end of the word: "go". From this example of the use of a morpheme it is clear that its standard ends in D.

Another example is vowel sounds. Without stress, we pronounce them “fuzzy”; they sound clearly only under stress. When choosing a letter, we also follow the morphological principle of Russian orthography. Examples: to write the word “walk”, we must “check” the unstressed vowel - “pass”. This word has a clear, standard vowel sound, which means that we write it in a “weak” position - without stress. All of these are spellings that obey the morphological principle of Russian orthography.

We also restore other standards of morphemes, not only root ones, but also others (for example, we always write the prefix “NA” one way and no other way). And it is the standard morpheme, according to the morphological principle of Russian orthography, that we write down as an element when we write a word.

Thus, the morphological principle of Russian orthography presupposes knowledge about the structure of the word, its formation, part-speak, and grammatical features (otherwise it will be impossible to restore the standards of suffixes and endings). To write fluently and competently in Russian, you must have a rich lexicon- then the search for “standards” of morphemes will take place quickly and automatically. People who read a lot write competently, since a free orientation in the language allows them to easily recognize the connections between words and their forms. It is during reading that the understanding of the morphological principle of Russian orthography develops.

A branch of linguistics that studies the system of rules for the uniform spelling of words and their forms, as well as these rules themselves. The central concept of spelling is spelling.

A spelling is a spelling regulated by a spelling rule or established in a dictionary order, i.e., a spelling of a word that is selected from a number of possible spellings from the point of view of the laws of graphics.

Spelling consists of several sections:

1) writing significant parts of a word ( morphemes) - roots, prefixes, suffixes, endings, that is, the designation by letters of the sound composition of words where this is not determined by graphics;

2) continuous, separate and hyphenated spellings;

3) use of uppercase and lowercase letters;

4) transfer rules;

5) rules for graphic abbreviations of words.

Spelling of morphemes (significant parts of the word) is regulated in the Russian language by three principles of Russian spelling - traditional, phonetic, morphological (phonemic, morphematic).

Traditional the principle governs the writing of unverifiable vowels and consonants ( from tank, apteka), roots with alternations ( add up - add up), differentiating spellings ( ozho g - ozho g).

Phonetic The principle of spelling is that separate groups morphemes in writing can reflect the actual pronunciation, i.e. positional changes sounds. In Russian spelling, this principle is implemented in three spelling rules - the spelling of prefixes ending in salary (once to beat - to drink once), spelling of the vowel in the prefix roses/times/ros/ras (ra list - painting) and spelling of roots starting with And, after prefixes ending in a consonant ( and history - previous history).

Morphological (phonemic, morphematic) the principle is leading and governs more than 90% of all spellings. Its essence is that phonetically positional changes - reduction of vowels, deafening, voicing, softening of consonants - are not reflected in the letter. In this case, vowels are written as if under stress, and consonants as in a strong position, for example, in a position before a vowel. In different sources, this basic principle may have different names - phonemic, morphematic, morphological.

There are many spelling rules associated with writing roots, prefixes, suffixes and endings. But the main, guiding principle is one. Let's look at examples.
Why in the word water is the root written o, and in the word grass - a?
Why are there different endings in the noun: from the village and to the village?
Why should you write oak, but soup? After all, the same sound [p] is heard.
Why is sad written with the letter t, but delicious is written without it?

It seems there are different spelling rules here, however, they can be combined on the basis of the guiding principle of spelling, which requires that the writer:

1) did not trust his ears and did not write as he heard;

2) checked doubtful spellings;

3) remembered that verification is possible only in the same morpheme (root, ending, etc.);

4) knew how to choose the right test word.

The main thing is to know the strong positions: for vowels - this is the position under stress, and for consonants - before vowels and before l, m, n, r, v.

Keeping this in mind, you can easily check all the above examples: water - water, grass - grass, from the village - from the river, to the village - to the river, oak - oaks, soup - soups, sad - sad, tasty - tasty.

You can also check the spelling of suffixes and prefixes. What letter (e, i, i) is written in the suffix of the word feather? The word feathery means “consisting of feathers”, “feather-like”. The same suffix is ​​in the words: stony, radiant, granular. Therefore, you need to write the letter and - feathery. Fake or phony? We check: pine, spruce.

It's the same with consoles. Why is the prefix written through A, and a through O? They say you need to remember that there are no prefixes zo- and pa- (by the way, there is a prefix pa- - stepson, flood, pipe). Let's try to check: dark, dark - under the accent a; train, funeral, handwriting - under the emphasis of Fr. The prefix s- in the words make, reset, rot sounds like z, but if you put it in a strong position, it becomes clear that there is no prefix z- in the Russian language: break, cut, rip, tie.

Thus, all rules have the same basis. They determine the leading principle of Russian spelling. This principle, when the sound is checked by a strong position, is called morphological. This principle is the most convenient for Russian writing.

1. Check the unstressed vowel with stress:

yes lky - dl, to full - dl, le s - ls.

2. Check a doubtful consonant (paired in deafness / voicedness) by substituting a vowel or l, m, n, r, v: oak -Oak trees

If you hear a paired sound,

Be careful my friend

Double check immediately

Feel free to change the word:

Tooth to tooth, ice to ice.

You too will be literate!

3. Check an unpronounceable consonant by substituting a vowel: late - be late .

Not wonderful, not wonderful,

It's terrible and dangerous

There is no point in writing the letter T!

Everyone knows how lovely it is

It is appropriate to write the letter T!

Exceptions: feel (but participate), holiday, happy, neighborhood, staircase (but ladder), clearly (but viands), regale (but handwriting), peer (but peer), glass (but bottle), sparkle (but shine), splash (but splash), eyelashes, assistant.

1. Spelling as a branch of linguistics.

2. Principles of Russian spelling.

3. Russian punctuation and its principles.

4. From the history of Russian spelling.

Spelling(Greek orthos “correct”, grapho “I write”), or spelling, is a section of linguistics that establishes a set of rules that determine uniform norms for writing words, their forms, as well as norms for the graphic design of accompanying components of writing. Graphics by themselves are not able to determine the mode of functioning of alphabetic characters. Orthography is recognized to solve this problem.

Spelling, in turn, is integral part orthology - the theory of correct literary speech. Orthology is based on the belief that mastery of the culture of past generations is possible only on the basis of literacy and depends on the degree of mastery of the culture of the written and spoken word.

Usually, when it appears, any sound letter is phonetic. This is how Greek, Latin, Sanskrit, and Old Church Slavonic writing was at first. However, as development national language The pronunciation changes, but the spellings, which are inherently more conservative, remain unchanged. The resulting gap between oral and in writing it is either eliminated (this is done socially consciously) or consolidated. In the latter case, relationships arise between sound and letter, which are elevated to the rank of law. This establishes the principle of spelling of a particular script.

The rules of Russian spelling are developed and improved not for the sake of their accumulation, but in order to maximally facilitate the process of written communication between people by eliminating heterogeneous and contradictory approaches to the use of Russian graphics.

Basic concept spelling is spelling. Spelling- this is a case of problematic writing, where the writer must choose letters to represent a particular sound. For example, the word chocolate may have a number of design options, based on pronunciation: * shakalat, shikalat, shykolad etc. However, spelling sets only one graphic design option of this word in accordance with the requirement of uniformity.

Variants can be phonemes that are in a weak position, i.e. a position in which a sound can be indicated variably. Phonemes in weak positions can be designated in different ways; the choice of letters is determined by orthographic principles.

Orthographic principles are rules for choosing letters to represent a phoneme in weak positions. Modern Russian orthography is built on the basis of several principles. These are phonetic, morphological, historical and ideographic principles.

Morphological principle in the system of Russian spelling is the main, leading principle, because on its basis most spellings were formed.

The essence of the morphological principle is that the basis for writing any morpheme (root, suffix, prefix, inflection) is the graphic appearance of this morpheme that is created letter designation the sounds that form it in a strong position. For example, in the word fruit We must denote the vowel sound of the root morpheme with the letter O, because in the strong position - fetus- this sound is indicated by the letter O.

This means that in order to check spellings that correspond to the morphological principle, it is enough to select a word that is related or contains the same morpheme so that the dubious sound is in a strong position: V O yes - water, wholesale - wholesale, etc e mirovat - bonus; petitions O- celebration, pampering; res A t - create, count, decide; ocal And on - saccharin, analgin,

In words forest And climbed the final consonant sounds the same as a voiceless sound, but in writing it is indicated in different letters, because in a strong position to denote a given sound are used in one case C (lesa - le With), in the other - Z (climb - le h).

It is necessary to pay attention to the fact that the morphological principle applies to all morphemes - prefixes, suffixes, inflections. For example, in predict the prefix (prefix) is written with the letter D, since the corresponding consonant in a strong position is indicated by the letter D - suggest, predict.

Spelling, based on a morphological principle, outwardly diverges from pronunciation, but not sharply and only in certain parts of speech: at the junction of morphemes and at the absolute end of the word for consonants and within morphemes for vowels. In this case, the discrepancy between spelling and pronunciation is carried out on the basis of a strict relationship with pronunciation, and not in isolation from it, not chaotically. Morphological writing is a consequence of native speakers’ understanding of the structural division of a word into its constituent significant parts (morphemes) and results in a uniform transmission of these parts in writing. A method of writing with a uniform graphic representation of significant parts of words makes it easier to “grasp” the meaning.

The name of the principle “morphologically” is associated with the uniform transmission of morphemes. It is common knowledge that all morphemes have a specific meaning. Yes, suffix -schik carries the meaning of “a person who does something” (mason, glazier). Console pre- has as one of the meanings “very” (bright, exaggerate, beautiful).

If we wrote the way we pronounce it, then the morphological composition of words would not be clear and we would have difficulty recognizing even related words. But since we, despite different pronunciations, write morphemes in the same, uniform way, then significant part words have a single graphic image.

Thus, the morphological principle facilitates quick understanding and comprehension of the text, because attention does not linger on the designation of pronunciation features. We immediately see the root, prefix, suffix, ending in words transformation, colorless, doing.

Morphological spelling suppresses differences in pronunciation in our minds: liquid - thin; form - formal, signalman - communication; approach - pick up. The morpheme remains in consciousness in the form liquid-, form-, connection-, sub-, although individual sounds in it can be replaced by others. The morphological principle exists primarily as a consequence of the awareness of the “relatedness” of roots, prefixes, suffixes, and endings. We write words depending on our understanding of their composition. In this case, changes in the sound composition of the word and its parts do not destroy the unity of the morpheme. The morpheme remains in consciousness as a certain semantic unit, and a spontaneous, unconscious desire do not change its spelling.

The morphological principle of Russian orthography historically developed spontaneously, and later it was consciously maintained for the uniform spelling of related words.

Traditional (historical) principle writing is that the spelling fixed by tradition is preserved, even if it does not correspond current state language. Examples of traditional spellings include the spellings zhi, shi, qi in words expanse, live, compass. Once these consonants were soft, the spelling reflected the phonetic principle. Over time, these sounds hardened in the Russian language, but the spelling remained. This writing is also supported by morphological analogies: verb ending -it, -i (flies, chops; luggage, carry).

Traditional principle is that it reflects the spelling of phonemes V weak positions: sounds are represented by one of a number of possible letters.

Unlike the morphological principle, in the traditional one the choice of letter to represent a phoneme was determined on the basis of the writing tradition, based on historical writing, or simply conventionally. However, the choice of letters here is limited and completely specific.

For example, in words isotope, coefficient, atom, the choice of the letter O is determined from its possible alternation with A. Words solution, standard, magnet are written with the letter A, because in principle the alternation A/O could be represented here. The choice of letter is not based on pronunciation, but traditionally: on the basis of etymology, transcription, transliteration, or simply convention.

Traditional spellings have a significant feature that brings them closer to morphological spellings. They create graphically uniform images of morphemes: To A bluk, podk A lover; With O tank, with O big guy, turn it off e eh, will replace e l; peasants e, townspeople e.

The traditional principle specifies the following spellings:

Unstressed vowels, unverified by stress (m O loko, with A paradise);

- alternation of vowels in roots (R A sti – p O drain; Sun O read – sk A roll; fast e pour - post And bark);

Writing G to indicate [v] in endings -oh, -his (fifth, mine, blue, kind, strange, lost;

Writing Ch to indicate [w] in combination chn (bakery, birdhouse;

- b after hissing at the end of nouns, verb forms, adverbs and particles (mascara, rye, night, riding, talking, galloping, backhanding, just);

- hyphenated, continuous, separate spellings;

Choice of capitalization and lowercase letters when designating improper names;

Design of graphic abbreviations.

Phonetic principle is defined as the motto “write as you hear.” With the phonetic principle, phonemes are designated by letters in writing: house, floor, temple, table, soul, immediately, leads. The phonetic principle underlies all phonemographic writing systems. The Serbo-Croatian orthography is built on this principle; partially (in the area of ​​writing vowels) – the spelling of Belarusians.

The phonetic principle is opposed to the morphological one, since sounds in strong and weak positions are designated by different letters: once s play – And gra; ra With put - ra h pick up

Spellings written according to the phonetic principle can be written according to the morphological principle. Therefore, phonetic spellings are considered to be violations of the morphological principle.

Phonetic spellings include:

Writing prefixes with final Z: without-, air- § up-, down-, once-, rose-, through- (through-). Morphologically, these prefixes should always be written with Z, because this is how we write all other prefixes: sang and passed, got hooked and hit me up.

Writing Y instead of initial I at the root after prefixes ending in a hard consonant: unprincipled, refined, play, uninteresting. The spelling of the initial I is fundamentally preserved at the present time after Russian prefixes inter-, over-. After inter- And it is written in force general rule zhi-, shi-, and then above-- because the Russian/language does not have the combinations KY, GY, XY (over-ideological, inter-institutional). After foreign language prefixes I is preserved so that the writer and reader can quickly recognize the root and quickly understand the word: Sub-Inspector, Pan-Islamism;

- writing O in suffixes -onk, -onk- after the hissing ones: little jackdaw, little cap. The morphological spelling would be E, cf.: owlet, hut.

Ideographic principle It turns out that words with the same sound shells differ graphically: burn (noun) - burn (verb past tense, m. p., singular); company (cheerful) - campaign (election); ball ( graduation party) - score (score); crying (noun) – cry (verb); Nadezhda (proper name) – hope (common name). Those. Differentiating spellings are used to distinguish the meanings of homonyms.

Punctuation is part of the language's graphical system. But the functions of letters and the role of punctuation marks differ significantly. If with the help of letters the sound and graphic shell of words is indicated, then with the help of punctuation marks a written statement is divided into certain structural parts, thereby making the task of the writer easier when preparing the text, and for the reader - the perception of its content. Text written without punctuation (and without capital letters) is read three to five times slower than text written correctly. With the help of punctuation, the division of the text, its purposefulness, structure and main features of intonation are conveyed.

Russian punctuation is a system of graphic signs that, in accordance with certain rules, divide the text into paragraphs, sentences, and indicate certain components within a sentence, which is a necessary condition for written communication in Russian.

Punctuation marks are graphic (written) signs needed to divide text into sentences and convey in writing the structural features of sentences and their intonation. Punctuation marks are used according to the rules that are necessary so that the writer and reader equally understand the meaning and structure of the text.

Russian punctuation marks include:

1) a period, a question mark, an exclamation mark - these are the marks of the end of a sentence;

2) a comma, a dash, a colon, a semicolon - these are signs for separating parts of a sentence;

3) brackets, quotation marks (“double” signs), which highlight individual words or parts of a sentence; for this purpose, commas and dashes are used as paired signs; if the construction being highlighted is at the absolute beginning or end of the sentence, then one comma or dash is used;

4) ellipsis; being a “semantic” sign, it can be placed at the end of a sentence to indicate the special significance of what was said or in the middle to convey confused, difficult or excited speech.

Principles of Russian punctuation- these are the basics of modern punctuation rules that determine the optimal use of punctuation marks. Punctuation marks reflect the semantic and structural division of speech, as well as its rhythmic and intonation structure. The basis of Russian punctuation is the structural-semantic principle. Modern punctuation is based on the meaning, structure, and rhythmic-intonation division of the utterance in their interaction.

The structural and semantic division of the text is carried out when performing the basic functions of punctuation marks.

1. The structural function is to separate paragraphs from each other, adjacent independent sentences within a paragraph. The separating marks are the red line (paragraph mark), period, question mark and exclamation mark. In addition, a comma, semicolon, dash and colon can perform a structural function if they are placed on the border between parts complex sentence. The same function is performed by punctuation marks to indicate the boundaries of those semantic segments that complicate a simple sentence: with introductory words and constructions, when addressing, for isolation minor members, in direct speech, in a position between homogeneous members of a sentence. For example: Everything in a person should be beautiful: his face, his clothes, his soul, his thoughts.(Chekhov).

2. The logical-semantic function is performed by a colon and a dash in a non-union two-part sentence. A colon indicates a deductive sentence (The prime number 19 can be represented as the product of two natural numbers only one way: 19=4x19.) Dash - in an inductive sentence (The discovery of a colossal public sound has been accomplished - a high-temperature superconductor has been obtained).

3. An exclamation mark and an ellipsis perform an expressive function. They serve as indicators of the emotional elation of the statement or its incompleteness at the moment of emotional appeal: Spring...

The punctuation system was unified in Europe with the advent of printing. Most of the punctuation marks in them modern form and meaning was introduced in the 15th-16th centuries by the Venetian printers Aldo Manutius (grandfather and grandson, who bore the same name).

Russian spelling- a historical phenomenon. Spelling was not always in the form in which we know it now. The norms of Russian spelling were not established immediately, but evolved as general literary norms developed in the areas of phonetics, vocabulary, word formation, and the grammatical system

Russian spelling has gone through several major stages of development. The history of Russian civil writing began in the Petrine era with the introduction of a civil font and the approval of a sample alphabet improved on the basis of the Slavic-Russian Cyrillic alphabet. Peter's reform was a reform of graphics. The history of Russian spelling originates in Lomonosov’s “Russian Grammar” (1753), which laid down theoretical basis morphological principle. But Russian letter remained complex and contradictory, therefore late XIX century, scientists have done work to simplify the alphabet and streamline the Russian spelling system. In 1904, the commission under Russian Academy Sciences published a draft of a new spelling, but there were so many opponents of the reform that it was possible to carry it out only with Soviet power in 1918, the Russian spelling reform coincided with the breakdown of the old state machine, so its implementation became possible.

However, the reform, having resolved the major issues of simplifying Russian writing, did not touch upon many specific issues of spelling.

In 1929, a commission was organized under the Main Directorate of Science of the People's Commissariat for Education to solve the problem of streamlining Russian spelling. The 30-50s were the period of the creation of a unified set of rules for Russian spelling and punctuation. In 1956, the “Rules of Russian Spelling and Punctuation” were published, approved by the USSR Academy of Sciences, the Ministry higher education USSR, Ministry of Education of the RSFSR. “Rules...” became a document, all points of which were mandatory for educational institutions, press organs, for government and public organizations in their official correspondence and public publications. “Rules...” have become a source for all compilers of textbooks, Russian language dictionaries, encyclopedias and reference books.

“Rules of Russian spelling and punctuation” is the first truly complete set of clearly formulated and scientifically based rules and regulations in the history of Russian spelling.

It is necessary to understand that the “Rules...” were aimed at streamlining and unifying Russian spelling based on the principle of historical and cultural continuity. This was not a reform of Russian spelling, since its fundamentals were preserved.

On the other hand, “Rules...” did not use all the opportunities to improve Russian writing. Its compilers were too careful about numerous exceptions, leaving cases of clearly outdated spellings. After the publication of the “Rules...” numerous letters and appeals were sent to the governing departments regarding spelling imperfections. In 1962, at the Institute of Russian Language of the USSR Academy of Sciences, an Orthographic Commission was created to improve Russian orthography under the chairmanship of Academician. V. V. Vinogradova. After the collapse of the USSR, the Spelling Commission works under the President Russian Federation. At the turn of the XX-XXI centuries. An attempt was made to improve Russian spelling. However, the reform project, when widely discussed, did not meet with the approval of Russian society.

The work of a document specialist and archivist necessarily requires such professional qualities as automatic spelling skills and spelling vigilance. Spelling skills must be maintained throughout the entire period of active professional activity. The main source and way to maintain the required level of professional qualifications is constant reference to standard dictionaries and linguistic reference books, as well as work with sets of spelling and punctuation rules.

List of used literature

1. Vetvitsky V.G., Ivanova V.F., Moiseev A.I. Modern Russian writing. – M.: Education, 1974.

2. Gvozdev A.N. Modern Russian literary language. Part I Phonetics and morphology. – M.: Education, 1973.

3. Gorbunova L.I. Writing in its history and functioning: educational method. allowance. – Irkutsk: Irkut Publishing House. state University, 2007.

4. Ivanova V.F. Modern Russian language. Graphics and spelling. M., 1976.

5. Ivanova V.F. Modern Russian spelling.

6. Modern Russian language / Ed. V.A. Beloshapkova. – M.: Azbukovnik, 1999.

7. Rozhdestvensky Yu.V. Lectures on general linguistics. M.: " graduate School", 1990 (Lecture 1,2, 8, 11, 12).

8. Russian language. Encyclopedia/Ch. ed. Yu.N. Karaulov. – M.: Great Russian Encyclopedia; Bustard, 1998.

9. Linguistics. Large encyclopedic dictionary. – M.: Great Russian Encyclopedia, 1998.

Questions for independent work and self-control

1. Define the concepts of orthography, spelling, spelling principle.

2. What is the essence of the morphological principle of Russian orthography?

3. Describe the traditional, phonetic ideographic principles of Russian spelling.

4. Define concepts punctuation, punctuation marks, punctuation principle. What functions do Russian punctuation marks perform?

The phonetic principle of spelling is traditionally understood as one in which successive chains of sounds in word forms are designated on the basis of a direct “sound-letter” connection, without taking into account any other criteria.

This principle is briefly defined by the motto “write as you hear.”

But a very important question is what sounds should be designated using the phonetic principle, and with what detail.

In practical writing, which is any letter-sound letter, and with the phonetic principle of spelling, only phonemes can and should be designated.

The phonetic principle of spelling with the advent of the concept and term “phoneme” could be called the phonemic principle of spelling, but since the latter term in modern linguistic literature (by IFS scientists) is used in a different sense (see about this below, pp. 145 et seq.), it is more convenient to leave it the same name1.

The phonetic principle as a specific orthographic principle is proclaimed when positional alternations of phonemes (if they occur) are specifically reflected in the letter. The phonetic principle is the principle of designating phonemes when phonemes weak positions, with which phonemes alternate strong positions, are designated by letters adequate to phonemes of weak positions based on the direct connection “phoneme - letter adequate to it”2.

But the designation of certain phonemes of strong positions also falls within the scope of the phonetic principle. This is the designation of the stressed vowel /o/ after sibilants (as is the case with the morphological principle), which is associated with the “transition” of /e/ into /o/ and the peculiarity of the letter series e - e - o, for example: galchonok, cap, etc. .

The phonetic principle is the antagonist of the morphological principle. Spellings written according to the phonetic principle may, if deemed appropriate, be written according to the morphological principle; That is why they are considered to be violations of the morphological principle.

There are few spellings that correspond to the phonetic principle in Russian spelling. Let's look at them.

1. Writing prefixes with final s: without-, voz-, vz-, iz-, niz-, raz-, roz-, through- (through-).

Morphologically, these prefixes should always be written with z, i.e. one should write not only painless, but also “non-partisan”, not only escaped, but also “stained”, etc. Exactly like that, without changing graphical view, all other prefixes are written: sang and passed, repaid and thanked, sat down and ran up, etc.

Meanwhile, we write prefixes with -z based on the phonetic principle: they are written either with the letter z or with the letter s, depending on the pronunciation (see “Rules...”, § 50). According to the law of alternations, the sound /z/ before the next voiceless consonant is replaced by /s/, and this sound alternation, contrary to the morphological principle, is reflected in the letter:

It should be noted that prefixes starting with -з are not written completely phonetically. So, in the words ruthless and reckless, in place of the final spelling z in the prefix it sounds /zh/, and in place of the final spelling s in the prefix it sounds /sh/. In these words, an alternation of a different nature occurs - alternation according to the place of formation.

Thus, the phonetic nature of writing prefixes in -z has a limit: it is limited to showing in writing either the voicedness or the voicelessness of the final consonant sound of the prefix before subsequent voiced (before which z is written) and voiceless (before which it is written s) consonants. There is one peculiar exception here. The word tasteless is written with the spelling variant bez-, although in place of the spelling z in the prefix a dull sound /s/ is pronounced: be/s/tasty (before the subsequent dull sound /f/, pronounced in place of the letter v). But since in the letter we see the sign of a voiced consonant, namely the letter v, and not f, we write the prefix without the letter z (i.e., with the sign of a voiced consonant) in relation to the subsequent letter v (the sign of a voiced consonant), and not to the unvoiced sound it denotes /f/. Here the real sound recedes in our consciousness before the force of the letter1.

2. Writing the prefix rose-.

In the spelling of this prefix, in addition to reflecting the alternation of /z/ with /s/ - distributed, but the painting also reflects positional alternation stressed /o/ with unstressed /a/. The “Rules...” says: “...the prefix raz- (ras-) is always written without stress, for example: distribute (at birth), schedule, receipt (at birth )".

Thus, the prefix roz- has four written variants: roz-, ros-, raz-, ras-.

Removal of unstressed variants of times- (ras-), i.e. the ability to write “distribute” instead of the now accepted distribution (since there is a birth); “rospiska” instead of the now accepted signature (since there is a painting), etc., some cases of stress on /a/ interfere: r?zvit, r?zvito, r?zvity - from developed; developed (along with developed), developed (along with developed), developed (along with developed) - developed1.

But the phonetic nature of the vowel spelling in the rose prefix is for a long time was limited by one exception: the word search with unstressed /a/ was written with o (since search). Latest edition Spelling dictionary Russian language (M., 1991) gives the spelling of this word with a - search, search (see p. 305).

3. Writing ы instead of the initial and (in pronunciation) at the root after prefixes2 ending with a solid consonant: artless, refined, unprincipled, pre-Yuly, etc.3

These spellings are phonetic. After prefixes ending in a hard consonant, it is pronounced in accordance with the phonetic laws of the Russian language /ы/.

Before the publication of “Rules of Russian Spelling and Punctuation” in 1956, instead of the etymological and after prefixes, it was written only in Russian words (play, search, etc.), in foreign language roots, according to the rules, and ("ideless", " uninteresting" etc.). Since in modern language such words as idea, interest, history and many others. etc., are no longer perceived as foreign words, in 1956 it was considered advisable to give a single rule for both Russian and borrowed words. And indeed, writing is not always easy

can determine whether the root part of a word is borrowed. It is no coincidence that there were hesitations: idealess and unprincipled, uninteresting and uninteresting, which took place in the practice of the press before the publication of the “Rules...” in 1956.

The spelling of initial and radical after hard consonants is currently preserved after Russian prefixes inter- and super-, as well as after foreign language prefixes and particles. After the prefix inter- and is written due to the general rule, according to which s are not written after z, and after super- - because the combinations gy, ky, xy are not characteristic of the Russian language. After foreign language prefixes, it is saved so that the writer can quickly see and understand the root, for example in the word subinspector, etc., and thanks to this, quickly understand the word. The rule is set out in § 7 of the “Rules of Russian Spelling and Punctuation”.

4. Writing about in the suffixes -onok, -onk(a) after hissing words: galchonok, cap, etc. (cf.: owlet, hut, etc.). Writing with e would correspond to the morphological principle.

Traditionally, it was considered consistent with the phonetic principle to write e/o after sibilants and c in the endings of nouns and adjectives, as well as to write e/o in the suffix -ok- (-ek-) after sibilants1. But these writings can be considered morphological (see above, p. 109).

IN common system Russian spelling, built on the morphological principle, spellings based on the phonetic principle, as falling out of the system, make it difficult for writers to to a greater extent than morphological ones, and therefore they should be given special attention.

It must be emphasized once again that spellings such as house, hold, floor, etc. are not within the scope of the phonetic principle (just as they are not within the scope of any other orthographic principle). There are no spellings here2.

Such spellings as country, suk, etc. do not correspond to the phonetic principle. 3 The letters a and k are written not on the basis of a direct phoneme-letter connection, but on the basis of morphological comparisons (country?, since countries; suk , so how are bitches?), i.e. according to the morphological principle.

1 Baudouin de Courtenay called this method of writing phonemography: “... phonemography denotes a one-sided, exclusively phonetic way of writing, in which the breakdown of a sentence into syntagms or syntactic elements and the breakdown into morphemes, i.e. morphological elements, is not taken into account. , in morphemography attention is drawn to mental kinship, i.e. associations based on the similarity of a sentence with other sentences and words with other words" (Baudouin de Courtenay I.A. The influence of language on worldview and mood; also in the book: Selected works on General Linguistics, Moscow, 1963, Vol. 2, p. 332.

2 The name “phonemic” (and not “phonetic”) principle is used for these cases: Maslov Yu.S. (Introduction to linguistics. M., 1987. P. 259); Zinder L.R. (Feature article general theory letters. L., 1987. P. 91); Selezneva L.B. (Modern Russian writing... Tomsk, 1981. P. 56).

1 The literal aspect of the rule about prefixes ending with -з was noted by A.I. Moiseev. (Russian language: Phonetics. Morphology. Orthography. M., 1980. P. 233); Kuzmina S.M. (Theory of Russian spelling. M., 1981. P. 251).

1 See: Russian literary pronunciation and stress: Dictionary-reference book / Ed. R.I. Avanesov and S.I. Ozhegova. M., 1959. P. 484; Orthoepic dictionary of the Russian language. M., 1983. P. 480.

2 ы instead of and (according to pronunciation) it is written in the prefix iz-, if it follows another prefix: siznova, sizmalstva.