Worldview is a set of ideas, concepts and knowledge of a person about objective reality, giving a unified understanding of the phenomena and events occurring in it, determining the place and role of a person in the world, his life position, aspirations and ideals.

Worldview is a system of generalized feelings and intuitive ideas. It includes both theoretical, logical, objective knowledge, and knowledge based on subjective experiences, knowledge that reflects a person’s ability to sensually, emotionally, figuratively master reality.

So, the worldview includes two main areas:

worldview is a person’s passive contemplation of the world at a phenomenal level, in the form of emotionally charged sensations (sensual, emotional-psychic sphere) and worldview is a special form of mastering the world in the system of the cognitive relationship of the subject to the object. At the level of understanding, a person relies on the sensory material of world perception and operates with the categories of certainty, conditionality and integrity (this is the rational, intellectual-cognitive sphere).

The basis of a worldview is knowledge. However, for knowledge to acquire ideological significance, it must be confirmed by our experience and become a belief.

A belief is an intellectual position that is stable psychological attitude, unshakable confidence in the correctness of one’s views and ideals, one’s position in life.

An ideal is a model, perfection, the highest goal that determines the aspirations and behavior of an individual or a social community. (For example, the ideal of a social system, the idea of ​​a perfect person, ideal relationships between people, etc.). The life of a true person, an individual, is unthinkable without ideals, which, as a rule, are oriented towards the future. Ideals are determined by the cumulative experience of humanity and, in turn, have a powerful impact on the life of society and the individual. It is ideals that form the basis of a person’s spiritual life. And the loftier the personal and social ideals, the larger the personality and the more progressive the given society, the richer and nobler the content of individual and social life. Thus, the worldview is not just a reflection of reality, but also focuses on changing it.

The structure of the worldview consists of:

knowledge that has become beliefs; 2) ethical views and assessments; 3) aesthetic views and assessments (sensually and emotionally assimilation of nature, art, human activity and evaluating them in accordance with the understanding of beauty); 4. ideals; 5. faith (special spiritual human condition, psychological attitude towards the perception of an imaginary reality as really existing, confidence in a better future)

2. Historical types of worldview, their characteristics.

Traditionally, there are five main forms of worldview that have more or less distinct specifics: mythological, religious, artistic, scientific or naturalistic, and philosophical. They can be combined in the most different options in the mind of a particular person.

Historically, the first form of worldview is mythology. The concept itself<мифология>has two meanings: the first is a set of legends about gods, heroes, ancestors, the origin and emergence of the Gods and the Earth, about the natural and social world of people; second - mythology is the study of myths, the theory of myth. Myth - (from the Greek mythos - legend) is a legend about an essential event in people's lives. There is no myth about the small and insignificant, the unimportant in people’s lives.

Religious worldview. There is still an opinion, especially widespread in the 30-50s of the twentieth century, that faith (religion) is the opposite of knowledge. However, this is a misconception. Religion is a type of knowledge.

The word religion translated from Latin (religare) means connection, connection.

The peculiarity of the language of the sacred scriptures is that the truth is communicated to people not in its pure form, but symbolically. This makes it possible for everyone to understand the truth hidden by the symbol in accordance with the development of their consciousness. The need for symbolic language follows from the fact that religious teaching is given not for one generation, not for one century, but for dozens, during which each this moment There are people of different mental and moral development. Symbolic language allows the vitality and unfading freshness of the scriptures to be preserved throughout the centuries, but it is also partly the reason for the perversion and false understanding of the teaching.

The Orthodox religious worldview is characterized by the following features:

1) faith; 2) belief in the possibility of supernatural, non-causal and inexplicable phenomena - that which goes beyond the scope of natural laws and the possibilities of human knowledge; 3) the presence of strictly established rites, rituals and cults; 4) availability<Священного Писания>and subsequent theological dogmas, which are perceived as Divine Revelation.

We understand art in the broadest sense as a way of artistic exploration of existence. He has a lot in common with philosophy. Since antiquity, philosophy carries within itself the artistic heritage of myth and ancient literature. Fundamental philosophical ideas are often subsequently expressed in artistic and symbolic form (visual, verbal and even musical). Many great figures of literature and art are at the same time no less great philosophers and thinkers.

Philosophy occupies a kind of intermediate position between other theoretical sciences and art. She inherits traits from both sides. Philosophy is imbued with the investigative spirit of scientific quests, strives to understand the final causes of phenomena, to reflect them in theoretical concepts and categories. But at the same time, like art, it is not directly focused on changing things, on remaking nature, but turns to the person himself, transforms his thinking, helps him realize his place in nature and society and through this influence reality in a revolutionary way. Like art, philosophy gravitates towards a holistic perception of the world, in the center of which stands man.

Science - sphere human activity, the purpose of which is to study objects and phenomena of nature, society and thinking, their properties, relationships and patterns of development. Science is one of the forms of social consciousness.

Literally, the word science means knowledge. However, science is not just a body of knowledge, but knowledge brought into a system in which the natural connection and interdependence of certain facts and laws is revealed. Science moves from the simple collection of facts through their study and the discovery of individual patterns to a coherent, logically harmonious scientific theory; it explains old, already known facts and predicts new ones. Moreover, knowledge becomes a scientific theory as a result of testing the reliability of this knowledge in practice.

The connection between philosophy and medicine.

The main sections of philosophy and the functions of philosophical knowledge.

Philosophy as a type of worldview.

The concept of worldview, its structure and main types.

LECTURE No. 1.

SECTION 1. PHILOSOPHY IN THE HISTORICAL DYNAMICS OF CULTURE

TOPIC: Philosophy as a cultural phenomenon

Questions:

3. Basic philosophical problems, subject field of philosophy.

Concept of worldview, its structure and main types. Modern stage historical development is characterized by an unprecedented complication of relationships between all aspects of society, between continents, countries, and regions. The transformations taking place throughout the world and the exacerbation of global problems have significantly increased interest in general issues social development. The conceptual study of these issues has important methodological significance for studying the processes occurring in modern world, connections of the past, present and future in the history of mankind. In this situation, the importance of a person’s philosophical understanding of his relationship to reality increases, since we are talking about a person’s ability and capabilities to navigate in conditions when there is a change in the deep ideological attitudes accepted in a given society.

Different sides of the world, playing a significant role in human life, are reflected in his consciousness and are expressed in various forms public consciousness. Each such form is not only a reflection of a certain aspect of reality, but also a factor that determines a person’s orientation and determines the direction of his goal-setting activity in a given area of ​​life. Mastering the world around us, going through trial and error, discoveries and losses, man accumulated the necessary knowledge, generalized it and systematized it. This knowledge was passed on from generation to generation, enriched with new acquisitions, discoveries, improved, and helped a person survive and realize himself as an individual.

With the formation and development There was a growing need for people and society to understand the world around them and reveal its “secrets.” individual have always been interested in questions about how the world works, what is man’s place in it, is man the creator of his own destiny, can he become the master of those forces in the struggle with which he has to assert his existence, is it possible to achieve happiness, what is the meaning of human existence and pl. etc. When analyzing questions of this kind, the mind inevitably moves from general considerations to specific dimensions of human existence: how to build your attitude towards nature, society, each other, what knowledge and values ​​should you be guided by? The answers to these and other questions are given by the worldview that is formed in culture.

The concept " worldview» inseparable from the concept of “person”. Worldview is a way of spiritual orientation of a person in the surrounding reality, a certain view of the world. This is a system of the most general ideas and knowledge about the world and a person’s place in it, the values ​​and beliefs of the individual. A complex of such ideas is necessary for an individual to organize his activities, behavior, communication, for self-affirmation, determine his life line and behavior strategy.

The most important components of a worldview are: firstly, the image of the subject himself; secondly, the picture of the world and thirdly, the individual’s life strategy.

When studying worldview, they also distinguishsteps ideological development of the world: “ attitude», « worldview», « worldview». Attitude - the first stage of a person’s ideological development, which represents a sensory awareness of the world, when the world is given to a person in the form of images that organize individual experience. Worldview - the second stage, which allows you to see the world in the unity of its sides and give it a certain interpretation. Worldview can be based on various grounds, not necessarily theoretically justified. The worldview can be both positively and negatively colored (for example, the worldview of absurdity, tragedy, shock of existence). Worldview — highest level ideological development of the world; a developed worldview with complex interweavings of multifaceted relationships to reality, with the most generalized synthesized views and ideas about the world and man. In the real dimensions of the worldview, these steps are inextricably linked with each other, mutually complement each other, forming complete image the world and your place in it.

Analyzing the structure of the worldview, we can highlight its following aspects:: cognitive, axiological, praxeological. Each of these aspects of the worldview represents a complex subsystem, where individual components (aspects) can also be identified.

Cognitive side worldview necessarily includes the so-called naturalistic and humanitarian aspects. Naturalistic aspect The cognitive side of the worldview is knowledge and ideas about nature, space, the universe, and the natural essence of man. Here we consider questions about how the world arose, what life is and in what relation it relates to inanimate things, in what forms life exists in the Universe.

Humanitarian aspect The cognitive side of the worldview is an awareness of one’s social nature, one’s place in the “world of people.” It unites the sociological, socio-political, ethical and aesthetic views and ideas of the individual. How society is structured and functions, what is the direction historical process, what is the meaning of the story, is it predictable social development- these kinds of questions and answers to them constitute the essence of humanitarian issues.

In the system of worldview occupies an important place axiological (value) side worldview . The concept of "value" » used to indicate the human, social and cultural significance of phenomena of reality; The value side of the worldview has always acquired its most current significance in eras of collapse cultural tradition and discrediting the ideological foundations of society.

Two types of value attitudes person to the world are the so-called objective and subjective values. Item values include a variety of subjects of human activity, social relations and those included in their circle natural phenomena, which are considered from the point of view of ethical issues. Subjective values- these are the methods and criteria on the basis of which procedures for assessing the relevant phenomena are carried out. These are attitudes and assessments, imperatives and prohibitions, goals and projects that are fixed in the public consciousness in the form of normative ideas and act as guidelines for human activity. They are formed in the process of socialization of the individual.

Thus, the axiological side of the worldview regulates human activity and is to a certain extent connected with the praxeological side.

Purpose praxeological subsystem - ensure a close connection between the cognitive and value components of the worldview and human activity. This is the spiritual-practical side of the worldview, since here the worldview carries out a kind of “fitting” of various programs of activity, behavior and communication into a practical situation. Thus, the worldview includes certain regulations spiritual and practical activity of the individual. Such regulations can be set through mythological, religious, scientific, philosophical and other views. In addition to regulations and principles, the praxeological side of the worldview also includes such a component as belief.

Belief - this is a form of deepening, rooting knowledge and values ​​in the worldview system, this is faith in the correctness of the acquired ideas. Knowledge may not translate into beliefs, but beliefs are based on rational knowledge. Beliefs are a link in the transition from knowledge to practice. Only when knowledge becomes beliefs does it become an element of a worldview (therefore, a worldview is often defined as a set of beliefs of an individual). Conviction helps a person in life, makes it possible to make choices and resolve difficult situations, which sometimes seem insoluble.

So, the praxeological side of the worldview includes regulatory principles of activity, behavior, communication and belief. Beliefs synthesize knowledge and worldview views, belief in their truth, social values ​​and ideals, and a person’s readiness to act. Thus, the chain of ideological development of a person includes: knowledge, values, beliefs and will to act.

Worldview as a form of human understanding of the surrounding reality has existed as long as humanity has existed in its modern understanding. However, its content varies significantly in different historical eras, as well as in individuals and social groups. Conventionally, we can highlight the main historical types worldview.

Historically, the first type was the worldview based on mythology. Man's sense of existence, emotional perception and understanding of nature accessible to him were expressed in ancient legends about the omnipotence of the gods and the exploits of heroes, carried out in a metaphorical, artistic and figurative form. With all the diversity of ancient myths (primitive society, ancient Indian, ancient Chinese, ancient Greek, etc.), they revealed similar human ideas about the world, its structure and man. The world here, as a rule, was presented in the form of chaos, a collision of accidents and the actions of demonic forces. Mythological consciousness did not record the differences between the natural and the supernatural, between reality and imagination.

It is also significant that the consciousness of the people of primitive society was completely indifferent to the contradictions found in the legends. In myth, thinking and action, morals and poetry, knowledge and beliefs are fused together. Such integrity, syncretism (indivisibility) of mythological consciousness was a historically necessary way of spiritual mastery of reality. Summarizing the above, we can conclude that mythological worldview is a set of ideas about the world based on fantasy and belief in supernatural forces, their similarity with manifestations of human activity and human relations. This assimilation natural world the human world was called “anthropomorphism”.

As further development society, the mythological worldview is losing its former role, although some of its elements can be reproduced in the mass consciousness in our days. Civilization brought to life new types of worldviews - religion and philosophy. Main signs religious worldview - belief in supernatural forces and the existence of two worlds (the highest - perfect, heavenly and the lowest - imperfect, earthly). Unlike the mythological one, the religious worldview is only partially based on anthropomorphic ideas, orienting a person to comprehend his differences from the natural world and realize his unity with the human race.

At all the above levels present to varying degrees ordinary (everyday) worldview, which is a set of views on natural and social reality, norms and standards of human behavior, based on common sense and the everyday experience of many generations in various fields of your life. Unlike the mythological and religious worldview, it is limited, unsystematic and heterogeneous. The content of the everyday worldview varies over a fairly wide range, reflecting the specific lifestyle, experience and interests of certain social groups.

In parallel with the ordinary, scientific worldview, which is a system of ideas about the world, its structural organization, the place and role of man in it; this system is built on the basis of scientific data and develops along with the development of science. The scientific worldview creates the most reliable general basis for the correct orientation of man in the world, in the choice of directions and means of his knowledge and transformation.

All types of worldviews have its pros and cons. The mythological and religious worldview in their own way, often spontaneously, connects generations, consolidates and transmits the system social values, ideals and norms of behavior. At the same time, reality is perceived in them in an illusory, distorted form, contradicting scientific data. The scientific worldview is based on a rational understanding of the world, not allowing an intuitive, irrational understanding of the world, and it also cannot fully reflect and describe the existing reality and consider all the problems associated with human understanding of the world.

Based on mythological and religious worldviews, as well as the foundations of scientific knowledge, the cultural and historical prerequisites for the genesis of philosophical thinking are formed. Philosophical worldview arose from the need for a rational and irrational explanation of the world. It is historically the first form of theoretical thinking. Unites and complements all the missing points of previous types of worldviews. Philosophical worldview is the most general: it concerns a person’s relationship to the world, and considers all phenomena from the point of view not so much of their substantive characteristics, but from the position of their value directly for a person. This type of worldview is characterized by the desire to develop universal theoretical concepts(categories) and principles and, on their basis, give an essential analysis of reality, identify the ultimate, universal foundations, patterns of existence and development of human culture.

2. Philosophy as a type of worldview.

The origins of philosophy are in the inquisitiveness of the human mind, according to Aristotle, people began to philosophize for the first time as a result of surprise.

Term "philosophy" first appeared in Ancient Greece(literally from the Greek phileo - love, sophia - wisdom, in ancient Russian sources - wisdom). Philosophers appeared first, then the word “philosopher” and a little later the word “philosophy”. According to ancient authors, the name “philosopher” was first found among Pythagoras, and as a designation for a special science, the term “philosophy” was first used by Plato. Ancient thinkers expressed the idea that wisdom as such is the prerogative of the gods, and the destiny of man is the love of wisdom, the attraction to it. In the dialogue “Symposium,” Plato clarifies: “The philosopher occupies an intermediate position between the wise man and the ignorant. None of the gods engages in philosophy, since the gods are already wise. But again, the ignorant do not engage in philosophy and do not want to become wise... Those who are between the gods and the ignorant engage in it" ( Plato, dialogue “Symposium”, 204 a-b).

Not all knowledge from the point of view of the first philosophers, there is wisdom. Much knowledge, as Heraclitus taught, does not add wisdom. Wisdom lies in judging all things and phenomena known to people based on the recognition of their common, enduring basis, and in comprehending the essence of being, finding the universal in the individual, justifying and explaining the diversity of the phenomena of human existence. The need for such an approach is conceptualized in the form of questions that directly affect human existence. These are the so-called eternal philosophical questions that have retained their significance for humans and for humanity for thousands of years.

Unlike mythology, which builds a general picture of the world at the level of emotional and sensory cognition, philosophy creates a view of the world focused on rational cognition, she tries to understand the world based on itself . Philosophy differs significantly from other systems of knowledge and cognition in that it constantly questions itself about its own essence, subject and its purpose.

Philosophy inherited from mythology its worldview scheme, which should be understood as a set of questions about the origin of the world, its structure, and the position of man in it. The process of the emergence of philosophy in general form is presented as a resolution of the contradiction between the mythological worldview and rational thinking. Philosophy, thus, became the rational-theoretical core of the worldview.

The formation of philosophy meant the establishment of a qualitatively new type of worldview in comparison with mythology and religion, which now appears as a system of abstract ideas that determine the principles of a person’s relationship to the world and his behavior in society. In philosophy, people's social self-awareness, social ideals and values ​​received theoretical expression. At the same time, philosophy was an integrative way of spiritual development of socio-historical practice, the contradictions of the progress of culture and civilization. The remark of the English scientist and philosopher B. Russell is fair: in order to understand an era or a nation, we must understand their philosophy.

However, we should not forget that philosophy does not coincide with the worldview, being only the theoretical core of the latter. Philosophy judges the basis that is common to all phenomena of the world, and seeks in it the conditions of its unity and integrity. Philosophy does not coincide with worldview, because: firstly, the emergence of worldview consciousness significantly precedes the formation of philosophy; secondly, the functions of worldview before the emergence of philosophy were performed by mythology, religion, the beginnings of scientific knowledge and everyday knowledge; and, finally, thirdly, worldview preceded philosophy not only in the process of human development, but also from the point of view of the formation of individual, personal consciousness. (A child who has no idea about philosophy, nevertheless, has a certain view of the world, poses ideological questions to adults and answers them in his own way).

3. Basic philosophical problems, subject field of philosophy.

Fundamental problems of philosophy arise along with its emergence. The range of problems classified as philosophical has changed with the development of human culture, knowledge and practice, but there have always been questions to which answers were traditionally expected exclusively from philosophy. German thinker of the 18th century I. Kant believed that the main philosophical questions four can be distinguished: “what can I know?”, “what should I do?”, “what can I hope for?” and “what is a person?” A century later, another German philosopher M. Heidegger considered the ultimate questions of philosophy to be questions about what the world is, finitude, and solitude.

Despite the fact that it is extremely difficult for the various philosophical teachings that existed in the history of culture to recognize a single subject of research, it is possible to isolate the subject area of ​​philosophy, which historically changes within the boundaries determined by the specifics of philosophical knowledge. The subject area of ​​philosophical knowledge is outlined by the range of main problems that philosophy deals with.

-Firstly, this is a problem of the surrounding world, the search for the fundamental principle of all things . This topic is concretized in a number of questions: “Is there an unchangeable beginning of the world or is it in eternal development?”, “Is the world finite or infinite, one or multiple?”, “What is the difference between sensually perceived existence and comprehended speculative reality?” etc. In different historical eras, the answers to these questions took on different “configurations”. Relying on various sciences, synthesizing knowledge from different fields, philosophy delved into the revelation of the essence of the world, the principles of its structure, the fundamental principle of all things. At the same time, various philosophical “models” of the world were formed, retaining at all times paramount importance in the desire to understand its secrets.

- Secondly, the problem of cognition of man and the meaning of his existence . Philosophical anthropology was the focus of many ancient Eastern philosophical schools. Ancient philosophy Through the lips of Protagoras they proclaimed the famous phrase - “man is the measure of all things.” From the point of view of the ancient Greek philosopher Socrates, the cosmos is incomprehensible, and a lover of wisdom should realize that the most important thing for a person is self-knowledge. This anthropophilosophical line was continued many centuries later by I. Kant, who saw the highest purpose of philosophy as helping man to take his rightful place in the world, teaching him “what one must be in order to be human.”

- Third, the problem of relations between man and the world, subject and object, subjective and objective, ideal and material. The relationship “man - world” has historically been considered by philosophical knowledge in different ways. In the era of antiquity, it was interpreted as an idea of ​​the place of man in the integrity of the world Cosmos. In the Middle Ages, the problem of man's relationship to God as the absolute reality and the root cause of all things was of particular philosophical interest. New era thinkers in the “man and world” system emphasized the adequacy of scientific knowledge of reality. For German philosophers of the 18th-19th centuries. For Kant, Fichte, Schelling, and Hegel, what was important, first of all, was the understanding of the “subject-object” relationship. But with all the options for interpreting this system, ultimately, philosophers faced the need to clarify their position on the relationship between consciousness and matter.

Two opposing approaches to the solution of the question of nature, the essence of the world and man, they identified the essence of the main question of philosophy as the question of the relationship of spirit to nature, consciousness to matter, thinking to being. Recognition of the material and ideal as the ultimate foundations of the world and man inevitably led to the solution of the question of what is primary - matter or consciousness. The formulation and solution of this question constituted the first aspect of the main question of philosophy. Depending on how philosophers answered this question, what they considered primary and what secondary, they were divided into materialists and idealists. This is how materialism and idealism arose as two main directions in philosophy.

Materialism comes from that the world is material in nature, eternal, uncreated, matter is primary; that consciousness is a product, a property of highly organized matter (brain), consciousness is thus secondary. The material world, according to materialism, exists independently of man with his consciousness, or of any other forces. In history philosophical thought long time materialism viewed man only as a natural being, without seeing in him, first of all, a socio-historical essence. Nature (the world, space, the Universe) was so extolled by man that it was often deified, and human consciousness was sometimes attributed to it as its comprehensive property (pantheism, hylozoism, etc.). As a result, consciousness was explained at the natural, biological, rather than at the social level. Despite all its limitations, such a materialistic explanation of consciousness removed the mystical shell from man, raised the question of real, earthly well-being, of man’s natural desire for a better life, happiness, goodness, beauty, etc.

Idealism comes from the primacy of spirit, consciousness, thinking and secondary nature, matter, being. Those of them who believe that consciousness exists outside and before nature, independently of it, are called objective idealists(Plato, Hegel, etc.). In their view, nature and man himself are created by some impersonal spirit (world mind, idea, will, God). This world mind is nothing more than human consciousness itself, divorced from man and transformed into an independent, objective, all-encompassing force capable of creating the world around us. A different version of the idealistic solution to the main question of philosophy is offered by those thinkers who generally do not allow any reality outside and independent of our consciousness. This subjective idealists(J. Berkeley, D. Hume, etc.). Subjective idealism focuses on the subjective side of a person’s life, his ambiguous and contradictory attitude towards the world, which is perceived only through the prism of a complex system of assessments and really acts as a person’s sensory world.

- And finally, the fourth philosophical problem is related to the resolution of subject-subject relations, considering a person in the “world of people”. Here philosophy seeks to resolve the most complex issues related to the search ideal model society (starting with the ideal state of Plato and Confucius, More's "Utopia", Campanella's "City of the Sun" and ending with the Marxist model of the so-called harmonious communist society), the problem of individual self-improvement, the problem of alienation. The search for agreement, mutual understanding, the ideals of tolerance, flexibility, and communicative resolution of all emerging conflicts are becoming the leading philosophical themes of modern philosophical thought.

None of the identified philosophical topics can be completely isolated from the other. They complement each other, but at the same time, in various philosophical teachings, priority is given to one or another philosophical topic - either the construction of an ideal model of the world, or the problem of man, or the relationship between man and the world, and the formulation of epistemological questions. We must also not forget about the problem of the relationship between man and society, a person immersed in society and in the world of people. In historical dynamics, the emphasis in solving these problems has changed philosophical problems, however, already in ancient philosophical teachings it is possible to fix the formulation and unique solution of each of the identified philosophical themes that determined all later types of philosophical worldview.

Thus, opportunity different interpretations The subject of philosophy lies in the complexity and versatility of the subject of research itself. Each time, L. Feuerbach noted in this regard, has exactly the philosophy that suits it, and recommended not to forget about the time when this or that work was created. The most subtle and precious thoughts of his time and people are concentrated, according to him, in philosophical ideas.

4. The main sections of philosophy and the functions of philosophical knowledge.

We have outlined only individual contours of the problematic field of philosophical knowledge, which make it possible to determine the dynamics and diversity of the subject of philosophy. Within the framework of philosophical knowledge proper, already in the early stages of its formation, its differentiation began, as a result of which such philosophical disciplines as ethics, logic, aesthetics were identified and the following sections of philosophical knowledge gradually took shape:

- ontology - the doctrine of existence, the principles of all things, the criteria of existence, general principles and laws of existence;

- epistemology - a section of philosophy in which the problems of the nature of knowledge and its capabilities, the relationship of knowledge to reality are studied, the conditions for the reliability and truth of knowledge are identified;

- axiology - the doctrine of the nature and structure of values, their place in reality, the connection between values;

- praxeology - the doctrine of the practical relationship between man and the world, the activity of our spirit, goal-setting and human effectiveness;

- anthropology - philosophical doctrine about man;

- social philosophy - a branch of philosophy that describes specific features society, its dynamics and prospects, the logic of social processes, the meaning and purpose of human history.

These sections are not reducible to each other, but are closely related to each other.

The role and place of philosophy in society is determined by its functions, by which we mean its impact on people and on their diverse objective activities. This influence, in a broad sense, appears as an influence on a person’s thoughts and behavior, as well as on their justification, stimulation and orientation. Functions philosophies are multifaceted. The fundamental function of philosophy is to identify the universals of culture and express their content in the system of philosophical knowledge. Universals (the most general ideas) of culture are recorded in folklore, art, religion, and ethical teachings, often through images, allegories, parables, i.e. not always in a logically coherent and information-rich form. Philosophy expresses their content primarily in a system of categories, which provides it with greater opportunities in the spiritual reproduction of reality and in the development of its mechanisms. This is accomplished in the process of philosophy performing a number of functions.

The most important of them:

- ideological- consists in developing a person’s generalized ideas about reality, his behavior and activities;

- methodological- is associated with the development, within the framework of philosophy, of ideas about the optimal way of human actions in the sphere of knowledge, practice and communication;

- epistemological- consists in creating a generalized picture of the knowledge of the world, formulating the principles of the cognitive relationship of the subject to the object, developing universal methods scientific knowledge and logical thinking;

- axiological- focused on a critical analysis of the fundamental theoretical foundations of people’s value orientations, their moral and aesthetic ideals, and spiritual regulators of behavior in the world;

- praxeological- manifests itself in its indirect impact on the practical activities of people, the determination of their social goals and ideals, the choice of means and methods of individual and collective action;

- critical- consists in identifying, by means of philosophy, misconceptions, dogmas and outdated stereotypes of thinking;

- prognostic - is associated with the development by means of philosophy of ideas that reflect the possible states of natural formations and society, trends in the development of events in various spheres of human activity and global processes.

Revealing the specifics of philosophy as a form of social consciousness, its content and functions is an important condition for the transformation of philosophical positions into ideological guidelines that help a person determine his attitude towards the world and himself. The study of the historical dynamics of the subject of philosophy, comparison of philosophy with mythology, religion, science, art, worldview allows us to conclude that philosophy cannot be reduced to any of these phenomena of human culture in an unambiguous way. She herself exists only when we philosophize. Philosophy is philosophizing (M. Heidegger). “Philosophy is, in fact, nostalgia, the desire to be at home everywhere,” wrote the poet and thinker Novalis. Philosophy can be a similar craving when we who philosophize are “not at home” everywhere. Philosophical truth is essentially the truth of human presence in the world.

Worldview, its structure and historical types.

Man is a rational social being. His activities are expedient. And in order to act expediently in difficult real world, he must not only know a lot, but also be able to do it. Be able to choose goals, be able to make this or that decision. To do this, he needs, first of all, a deep and correct understanding of the world - a worldview.

Man has always wondered what his place is in the world, why he lives, what is the meaning of his life, why life and death exist. Every era and social group has some idea of ​​how to resolve these issues. The sum of all these questions and answers form a worldview. It plays a special, very important role in all human activities.

There are two ways to master the universe:

1) through psychological associations, through images and ideas;

2) through a logical system of concepts and categories.

There are 2 levels of worldview:

1) emotional-figurative - associated with the world of sensations (art, mythology and religion);

2) logical-rational (philosophy and sciences that form the worldview).

Worldview- a system of ideas about the world and a person’s place in it, about a person’s relationship to the surrounding reality and to himself, as well as the basic life positions of people, their beliefs, ideals, and value orientations determined by these views. This is a way for a person to master the world, in the unity of a theoretical and practical approach to reality. Three main types of worldview should be distinguished:

Everyday (ordinary) is generated by the immediate conditions of life and experience transmitted over generations,

Religious – associated with the recognition of the supernatural principle of the world, expressed in emotional and figurative form,

Philosophical - appears in a conceptual, categorical form, to one degree or another relying on the achievements of the sciences of nature and society and possessing a certain measure of logical evidence.

Worldview is a system of generalized feelings, intuitive ideas and theoretical views on the world around us and man’s place in it, on man’s multilateral relationship to the world, to himself and to other people, the system of not always conscious basic life attitudes of a person of a certain social group and society, their beliefs, ideals, value orientations, moral, ethical and religious principles of cognition and assessment. Worldview is a kind of framework for the structure of an individual, class or society as a whole. The subject of the worldview is the individual, social group and society as a whole.

Based on the lessons of the past, A. Schweitzer stated: “For society, as well as for the individual, life without a worldview represents a pathological violation of the highest sense of orientation.”

The basis of a worldview is knowledge. Any knowledge forms a worldview framework. The greatest role in the formation of this framework belongs to philosophy, since philosophy arose and was formed as a response to the ideological questions of humanity. Any philosophy performs a worldview function, but not every worldview is philosophical. Philosophy is the theoretical core of a worldview.

The structure of a worldview includes not only knowledge but also its assessment. That is, the worldview is characterized not only by informational, but also by value (axiological) saturation.

Knowledge enters the worldview in the form of beliefs. Beliefs are the prism through which reality is seen. Beliefs are not only an intellectual position, but also an emotional state, a stable psychological attitude; confidence in the correctness of one’s ideals, principles, ideas, views, which subjugate a person’s feelings, conscience, will and actions.

The structure of a worldview includes ideals. They can be both scientifically based and illusory, both achievable and unrealistic. As a rule, they are facing the future. Ideals are the basis of the spiritual life of an individual. The presence of ideals in a worldview characterizes it as a proactive reflection, as a force that not only reflects reality but also orients it towards changing it.

Worldview is formed under the influence of social conditions, upbringing and education. Its formation begins in childhood. It determines a person’s life position.

It should be especially emphasized that a worldview is not only content, but also a way of understanding reality. The most important component of a worldview is ideals as decisive life goals. The nature of the idea of ​​the world contributes to the setting of certain goals, from the generalization of which a general life plan is formed, ideals are formed that give the worldview effective force. The content of consciousness turns into a worldview when it acquires the character of beliefs, confidence in the correctness of one’s ideas.

Worldview is of great practical importance. It affects norms of behavior, attitudes towards work, towards other people, the nature of life aspirations, tastes and interests. This is a kind of spiritual prism through which everything around us is perceived and experienced.

Structure worldview includes:

1) Knowledge is a set of information about the world around us. They are the initial link, the “cell” of the worldview. Knowledge can be scientific, professional (military), everyday practical. The more solid a person’s stock of knowledge is, the more support his worldview can receive. However, the worldview does not include all knowledge, but only those that a person needs to navigate the world. If there is no knowledge, then there is no worldview.

2) Values ​​are a special attitude of people towards everything that happens in accordance with their goals, needs, interests, one or another understanding of the meaning of life. Values ​​are characterized by such concepts as “significance”, “usefulness” or “harmfulness”. Significance shows the degree of intensity of our attitude - something touches us more, something less, something leaves us calm.

Utility shows our practical need for something. It can characterize material and spiritual values: clothing, shelter, tools, knowledge, skills, etc.

Harmfulness is ours negative attitude to some phenomenon.

3) Emotions are a person’s subjective reaction to the influence of internal and external stimuli, manifested in the form of pleasure or displeasure, joy, fear, etc.

Life constantly gives rise to a complex range of emotions in people. These may include “dark” emotions: uncertainty, powerlessness, sadness, grief, etc.

At the same time, people have a whole range of “bright” emotions: joy, happiness, harmony, satisfaction with life, etc.

Moral emotions give a powerful impetus to worldview: shame, conscience, duty, mercy. A clear expression of the influence of emotions on the worldview are the words of the famous philosopher I. Kant: “Two things always fill the soul with new and increasingly stronger surprise and awe, the more often and longer we think about them - this starry sky above me and the moral law is within me."

4) Will - the ability to choose the goal of activity and the internal efforts necessary for its implementation.

This gives the entire worldview a special character and allows a person to put his worldview into practice.

5) Beliefs - views actively accepted by people that correspond to their vital interests. In the name of beliefs, people sometimes risk their lives and even go to their death - so great is their motivating power.

Beliefs are knowledge combined with will. They become the basis of life, behavior, actions of individuals, social groups, nations, peoples.

6) Faith is the degree of trust a person has in the content of his knowledge. The range of human faith is very wide. It ranges from practical obviousness to religious beliefs or even gullible acceptance of outlandish fictions.

7) Doubt - a critical attitude towards any knowledge or values.

Doubt is an essential element of an independent worldview. Fanatical, unconditional acceptance of any views without one’s own critical reflection is called dogmatism.

But you can’t go over a certain limit here, because you can go to the other extreme - skepticism, or nihilism - disbelief in anything, loss of ideals.

Thus, a worldview is a complex, contradictory unity of knowledge, values, emotions, will, beliefs, faith, and doubts that allows a person to navigate the world around him.

The core, the basis of a worldview is knowledge. Depending on this, the worldview is divided into ordinary, professional and scientific.

1) An ordinary worldview is a set of views based on common sense and everyday life experience. This spontaneously emerging worldview covers the widest strata of society, is very important, it is a really “working” worldview of many millions of people. However scientific level this worldview is not high.

2) A higher type of worldview is professional, formed under the influence of the knowledge and experience of people in various fields of activity, etc. This could be the worldview of a scientist, writer, politician etc.

Worldview ideas that arise in the process of scientific, artistic, political, and other creativity can, to a certain extent, influence the thinking of professional philosophers. A striking example of this is the enormous influence of the work of L.N. Tolstoy and F.M. Dostoevsky to domestic and world philosophy, but even at this level a person is not immune from mistakes.

3) The highest level of worldview is a theoretical worldview, to which philosophy belongs. Unlike other types of worldview, philosophy is not only the creator of a worldview, but also professionally analyzes the worldview and subjects it to critical reflection.

The concept of the structure of a worldview presupposes the identification of its structural levels: elemental, conceptual and methodological.

The elemental level is a set of ideological concepts, ideas, views, assessments that develop and function in everyday consciousness.

The conceptual level includes various ideological problems. These can be various concepts of the world, space, time, social development of man, his activity or knowledge, the future of humanity, etc.

Methodological level- highest level worldview - includes the basic concepts and principles that form the core of the worldview. The peculiarity of these principles is that they are developed not simply on the basis of ideas and knowledge, but taking into account the value reflection of the world and man.

Being included in the worldview, knowledge, values, behavior are colored by emotions, combined with will and form the conviction of the individual. An obligatory component of the worldview is faith; it can be both rational and religious faith.

So, a worldview is a complex, intense, contradictory unity of knowledge and values, intellect and emotions, worldview and attitude, a reasonable justification of faith.

The life-practical worldview is heterogeneous; it develops depending on the nature of education, the level of intellectual and spiritual culture, and the national and religious traditions of its bearers.

Historical types of worldview:

1) mythological,

2) religious

3) philosophical.

Historically, the first was the mythological view of the world (myth - legend, tale; logos - word, doctrine, concept, law) a product of imagination, an attempt by people to explain the world, the origin of the earth, rivers, lakes, the secrets of birth and death, etc. Human psyche requires a myth. This is the main way of understanding the world in primitive society - worldview.

The mythological worldview is characterized by an unclear separation of subject and object, the inability of a person to distinguish himself from the environment. In the process of cognition, the unknown is comprehended through the known; Man knows his own existence and the existence of the race, from which he does not initially distinguish himself.

The basic principle for solving ideological issues in myth is genetic, i.e. the origin of the world and nature was explained by who gave birth to whom (the book of Genesis). Myth combines two aspects: diachronic (a story about the past) and synchronic (an explanation of the present and future). The past was connected with the future, which ensured the connection of generations. People believed in the reality of the myth; the myth determined the norms of behavior in society, the value system, and established harmony between the world and man. This animation of myth is expressed in primitive forms of religion - fetishism, totemism, animism, primitive magic. The evolution of ideas about the mysterious spiritual forces underlying natural phenomena takes the classical form of religion. Along with mythology, there was also religion.

Religion(from Latin religio - piety, holiness) is a form of worldview, the foundation of which is the belief in the presence of certain supernatural forces that play a leading role in the world around humans and specifically in the fate of each of us. In the early stages of the development of society, mythology and religion formed a single whole. So the main elements of religion were: worldview (in the form of myth), religious feelings (in the form of mystical moods) and cult rituals. Religion is a belief in the supernatural, based on faith.

The main function of religion is to help a person overcome the difficulties of existence and elevate him to the eternal. Religion gives meaning and stability to human existence, cultivates eternal values ​​(love, kindness, tolerance, compassion, home, justice, connecting them with the sacred, supernatural). The spiritual principle of the world, its center, the specific starting point among the relativity and fluidity of the world's diversity is God. God gives integrity and unity to the whole world. He directs the course of world history and establishes the moral sanction of human actions. And finally, in the person of God, the world has a “higher authority”, a source of strength and help, giving a person the opportunity to be heard and understood.

The problem of God, translated into the language of philosophy, is the problem of the existence of the absolute, the supramundane rational principle, actually infinite in time and space. In religion, this is the beginning of the abstract-impersonal, and the personal, expressed in God.

The mythological and religious worldview was of a spiritual and practical nature and was associated with low level mastering reality, human dependence on nature. Later, with the development of civilization, people began to rise to a theoretical understanding of worldview problems. The result of this was the creation of philosophical systems.

Philosophy is an extremely generalized, theoretical vision of the world.

The term "philosophy" comes from the Greek "phileo" (love) and "sophia" (wisdom) and means "love of wisdom", of theoretical reasoning. The term “philosopher” was first used by the ancient Greek scientist and philosopher Pythagoras (580-500 BC) in relation to people striving for high wisdom and the right way of life.

The very concept of wisdom carried a sublime meaning; wisdom was understood as a scientific comprehension of the world, based on selfless service to the truth.

Wisdom is not something ready-made that can be learned, solidified and used. Wisdom is a search that requires effort of the mind and all the spiritual powers of a person.

As a result of this emergence, the development of philosophy meant dissociation from mythology and religion, as well as going beyond the framework of everyday consciousness.

Philosophy and religion as worldviews often solve similar problems of explaining the world, as well as influencing human consciousness and behavior.

Their fundamental difference is that religion, in solving ideological problems, is based on faith, and philosophy is a reflection of the world in a theoretical, rationally understandable form.

1) The original types of worldview are preserved throughout history.

2) “Pure” types of worldview are practically never found and in real life they form complex and contradictory combinations.

Worldview- a system of a person’s stable views on the world and his place in it. The broad meaning is all views, the narrow meaning is objective (within the corresponding form of worldview: mythology, religion, science, etc.). The term “worldview” supposedly appeared in the 18th century and has been popular since the 19th century.

Features of a worldview: active knowledge (position-action), integrity, universality (implies the presence of one or another worldview in every person).

Subject – relationships in the system world-man.

Structureworldview– elements and connections between them. Levels of worldview structure:

Everyday-practical (“attitude”, “emotionally colored vision of the world”, “everyday worldview” of each person);

Rational-theoretical (“worldview”, “intellectual worldview”, uses concepts, categories, theories, concepts).

Structural elements: knowledge, values, ideals, action programs, beliefs(by which the authors mean not “firm principles”, but “accepted” - “knowledge and values” more or less approved by scientists), etc.

Functionsworldview: 1) axiological(value) and 2) orientational.

Historical types of worldview:

- mythological worldview (fantasies predominate, unity with nature, anthropomorphism, many supernatural forces, dominance of feelings);

- religious worldview (monotheism): psychological structure (feelings and actions of people, rituals) + ideological structure (dogmas, scriptures): the world is doubled (meaning, first of all, the Christian worlds of this and other worlds), God is spiritual, He is a creator outside the world, Holy Scripture is a source of knowledge, a hierarchy descending from God;

- philosophical worldview (free intellectual search for truth): understanding the ultimate foundations of being and thinking, justification of values, striving for integrity, logical argumentation), reliance on reason.

ADDITION: The above answer is quite suitable for answering question No. 1 of the Approximate list of questions for the entrance exam to graduate school at the Belarusian State University: "Worldview, its essence, structure and historical types."

COMMENTS :

1. When exposition of philosophy starts with worldview, and philosophy itself is presented as an organic part of this worldview - is it any wonder at the subsequent mixture of “wheat and chaff” - wisdom and stupidity?! Not at all! The vast majority of existing worldviews are a similar mixture, against the background of which those who thirst for pure wisdom look like rare eccentrics. Nevertheless, they are the real philosophers (“lovers of wisdom”). And others love the mess in their own heads and push their own illegibility as the norm for everyone.

2. Worthy of attention and triad of historical types of worldview. When the true authors of this triad - the positivists, at the suggestion of O. Comte, divided all possible worldviews into mystical, philosophical and scientific, this had its own clear logic. After all, if we consider as scientific only such views of the world that do not allow any super-experimental conjecture, then the direct opposite of such a worldview will be “mysticism,” which invents supersensible causes of sensory facts. And philosophy will turn out to be a mixture of mysticism and science - the conjecture of all-encompassing generalizations (universalities), not confirmed by limited (far from comprehensive) experience.

Our mystifiers shy away from such purity and clarity of thought; they would like to both know and speculate at the same time, so for them only mixtures of knowledge and mysticism are acceptable without a clear definition of the doses of these ingredients. As a result, “mythology” is called polytheism, religion is called monotheism, and philosophy is a personal combination of pseudo-scientific rantings.

3. The authors tend to downplay the mental abilities of all people who are not familiar with philosophy. Therefore, our most ancient ancestors, committed to the mythological worldview, turn out to be the most stupid, preferring to act by touch - at random, and the only benefit from them is that the ancestors were able to pass on their primitive (sensory-practical experience) to more developed, philosophizing descendants. At the same time, it is argued that “mythological fantasy” is supposedly the first type of abstract and holistic (almost philosophical) thinking.

4. We must constantly keep in mind that our authors’ “worldview” and all its “fillers” (including all philosophy) are some very independent things that penetrate each of us from the outside, like mysterious spirits, invisible diseases or obsessive ideologies.

The origin of philosophy, changes in its subject in the course of historical development. Functions of philosophy.

This topic is central and fundamental for philosophy, as it allows us to clarify the specifics of philosophical knowledge, as well as what philosophy is needed for and what it gives to a person.

Subject philosophy is the world as a whole, i.e. This is the science of the most general, fundamental things in the world and thinking. Philosophy does not study changing empirical objects; it studies the patterns and foundation that stand behind these objects.

Functions of philosophy:

1. epistemological (cognitive) - has the goal of correct and reliable knowledge of the surrounding reality (that is, the mechanism of cognition);

2. ideological - provides the basis for a picture of the world; contributes to the formation of the integrity of the picture of the world, ideas about its structure, the place of man in it, principles of interaction with the outside world;

3. methodological – develops methods of understanding reality;

4. social and practical,

5. ideological,

6. theoretical - teaches you to think conceptually and theorize, to extremely generalize the surrounding reality, to create mental and logical schemes, systems of the surrounding world;

7. axiological - assessment of the phenomena of the surrounding world from the point of view of various values ​​- moral, ethical, social, ideological;

8. social – explains society, the reasons for its emergence and evolution, its structure, elements, driving forces; reveals contradictions, indicates ways to eliminate or mitigate them, and improve society;

9. educational and humanitarian - cultivates humanistic values ​​and ideals, instills them in people and society, helps strengthen morality, helps a person adapt to the world around him and find the meaning of life;

10. prognostic - forecasting based on existing philosophical knowledge about the world around us and man, achievements in knowledge of the main development trends, the future of matter, consciousness, cognitive processes, man, nature and society;

11. critical - develops skills of critical thinking and logical argumentation; questions the surrounding world and existing meaning, looks for their new features, qualities, reveals contradictions. The ultimate goal of this function is to expand the boundaries of knowledge, destroy dogmas, ossify knowledge, modernize it, and increase the reliability of knowledge.

Philosophy studies the world as a whole, man’s place in the world and the laws of his thinking and knowledge. Therefore, if we define philosophy as a science, then it is necessary to indicate its specifics as a form of knowledge through the most general concepts.

That., philosophy(from “phileo” - love and “sophia” - wisdom) - the science of the most general laws of development of nature, society, and thinking. It does not study changing empirical objects, but only what underlies them, something constant, unchanging.

The core of philosophy is metaphysics. Metaphysical problems are problems of being and nothingness, the problem of man, wisdom, existence, etc. Metaphysics there is questioning beyond what exists, going beyond its limits; going beyond everything that exists, we get the world as a whole. Metaphysical method– considers each phenomenon in isolation, without connection and interaction of phenomena with each other.

THE EMERGENCE OF PHILOSOPHY. CRITERION OF PHILOSOPHICAL KNOWLEDGE. RELATIONSHIP OF MYTHOLOGY, RELIGION, PHILOSOPHY, SCIENCE

How does philosophy arise, why does it arise? In the beginning, in all societies, human consciousness was thoroughly mythological. In myth, everything is possible, i.e. Any transformation is possible. Myth does not divide the world into parts. He perceives the world as a whole. Any miracles are on this side of the world. Myth is different from religion and science. Mythology is an undifferentiated syncretic consciousness, and religion divides the world into two parts: the other world and the world of this world. Science, in general, and philosophy, in particular, also divide the world into two parts: the world according to truth, the world according to opinion. In mythology there is no question of truth. The highest level of mythology is wisdom.

Philosophy as a science first appeared in ancient Greece in the 6th-5th centuries. BC. It arises with the question of the truth of our knowledge. Philosophy means the love of wisdom for the purpose of seeking truth.

Basic functions of philosophy:

- ideological(worldview integrator);

- methodological(initiates into the methods of thinking, theoretical activity); ATTENTION: This point is especially near and dear to our authors, as a direction of their own “philosophical” specialization. Therefore, it is here that it is proven that philosophy is important for everyone, as a producer of “heuristic ideas” (discoveries) in other sciences, an arbitrator between warring hypotheses, a border guard-customs officer on the borders of spiritual culture, deciding “to let in or not to let in.” Any doubts about the actual performance of these functions for the examinee are fraught with negative consequences.

- evaluative-critical.ATTENTION: If it seemed to someone that both the worldview and methodological functions already contained “criticism-evaluation”, and this point is only a sub-point of the two previous points, fight with yourself so as not to confuse the examiner with your own “much-mindedness”.

The main question of philosophy. Features of materialism and idealism.

The question of the relationship between matter and consciousness, i.e. in fact, the relationship between the world and man is the main question of philosophy. The main question has two sides.

1. What comes first, consciousness or matter?

2. How do our thoughts about the world relate to this world itself, i.e. do we know the world?

From the point of view of revealing the 1st side of the main question of philosophy in the system of general philosophical knowledge, the following directions are distinguished: a) materialism; b) idealism; c) dualism.

Materialism is a philosophical movement that asserts the primacy of matter and the secondary nature of consciousness. Idealism is a philosophical movement that asserts the opposite of materialism. Dualism is a philosophical trend that asserts that matter and consciousness develop independently of each other and proceed in parallel. (Dualism did not stand up to the criticism of time)

Variations of Materialism and Idealism (Forms of Materialism and Idealism)

1. Naive materialism of the ancients (Heraclitus, Thales, Anaximenes, Democritus) Essence: Matter is primary.

By this matter were meant material states and physical phenomena, which, through simple observation, were discovered to be global, without attempts at scientific substantiation, simply as a result of ordinary observation of the environment at the level of naive explanation. They argued that what exists en masse around people is the origin of everything. (Heraclitus - fire, Thales - water, Anaximenes - air, Democritus - atoms and emptiness.)

2. Metaphysical - matter is primary to consciousness. The specifics of consciousness were ignored. The extreme version of metaphysical materialism is vulgar. “The human brain secretes thoughts the same way the liver secretes bile.” Metaphysical materialists of the late 18th century - Diderot, Mametrie, Helvetsky.

3. Dialectical materialism (Marx and Engels)

Essence: Matter is primary, consciousness is secondary, but the primacy of matter in relation to consciousness is limited by the framework of the main philosophical question. Consciousness is derived from matter, but, having arisen in matter, it in turn can significantly influence and transform it, i.e. There is a dialectical relationship between matter and consciousness.

Types of Idealism:

1. Objective - independent of human consciousness.

The essence: the primary idea of ​​consciousness is objective: Plato - the world and the day, the idea, the memory. Hegel is an absolute idea.

2. Subjective idealism (Berkeley, Mach, Hume). Essence: The world is a complex of my sensations.

Historical stages in the development of philosophy. Features of ancient Eastern philosophy: Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism.

It is possible to identify and consider the following main stages in the development of philosophy:

Pre-philosophy.

Ancient philosophy.

Medieval philosophy.

Philosophy of the Renaissance.

Philosophy of the New Age.

German classical philosophy.

Non-classical philosophy.

Post-non-classical philosophy.

In Indian philosophy, the first thing that is noted is its religious character: the Vedic canon (in the center of the “Rig Veda” of the 14th century BC) and the Upanishads (allegedly commentaries on the Vedas).

Basic categories: Brahman (absolutely perfect), Atman (perfect spirit), Prakriti (nature), samsara (the flow of changing life), karma (fate-retribution), dharma (duty), moksha-nirvana (liberation from vanity). ( ATTENTION: We must never forget that all terms in Indian philosophy are very, very vague and ambiguous.)

Here the main problem– achieving the eternal (imperishable) through getting rid of the transitory. Different schools offer their own ways and methods to solve this problem.

Essential features: psychologism (virtualization - that is, fictionality), traditionalism, appeal to internal experience, philosophizing for the sake of salvation.

Formation of philosophical schools– VI-V centuries BC First, unorthodox ones appeared (denying the infallibility of the Vedas and Brahmins and appealing to the masses), and in response to them - orthodox ones, committed to traditional canons.

3 unorthodox schools: Buddhism(salvation from suffering through the eightfold path of freedom from desires), Jainism(from time to time, rescue teachers - genies - come) lokayata(there is only this world - we will enjoy it).

6 Orthodox schools: Vaisesika-nyaya(moksha = liberation from mortal things through internal perfection), Samkhya Yoga(Moksha through bodily exercises-postures), Vedanta-mimamsa(Moksha through rituals).

The essence of the teachings of Buddhism comes down to the so-called “four noble truths” ( chatvari arya-satyani), revealed to the awakened consciousness of Siddhartha:

1) life in the world is full of suffering;

2) there is a cause for this suffering;

3) there is liberation from suffering, “radiant Nothingness” or nirvana;

4) there is a path leading to liberation from suffering - the “eightfold” path.

The Buddha's truths can be explained as follows. The presence of suffering in the world is a self-evident fact. Suffering is one of the many phenomena of this world, and, like all other phenomena, they do not appear by chance, but have their own cause. The cause of all earthly suffering, according to the Buddha, is birth, each of which in the circle of samsara is caused by the attachment of the human soul to everything earthly. The power of this attachment draws the soul to earthly things, causing a new birth. All human desires stem from ignorance: if a person had a clear understanding of the things of this world, understood their coming nature and the nature of suffering, he would not have an addiction to them, and then birth and the misfortunes it causes would cease. Since suffering, like all other phenomena, has a cause, it can cease as soon as the cause is eliminated.

Thus, the path leading to liberation from suffering lies in the elimination and quenching of all desires. This path is known as eightfold noble path, since it consists of eight rules: right behavior, right living, right effort, right direction of thought and right concentration.

These rules are aimed at clarifying the impermanence of all earthly things; following them destroys ignorance, extinguishes addictions and generates perfect equanimity and tranquility, i.e. nirvana. Suffering in a state nirvana cease, and new births are made impossible.

For some time, Buddhism was part of the official Indian ideology, but was later forced out into Tibet and China under the influence of Hinduism, which more organically fit into the state and socio-political structure of India. There are a huge number of different schools and directions in Buddhism, which are traditionally divided into two main branches - Hinayana(“Little Vehicle” of Buddhism) and Mahayana("Great Chariot"). The most important difference of opinion between these schools is the interpretation nirvana. If for the Hinayanists, the earlier and more authentic, orthodox branch of Buddhism, the goal nirvana– liberation of the individual from suffering, then Mahayanists believe that the goal nirvana- not the cessation of one’s own suffering, but the acquisition of wisdom, with the help of which a liberated person can save all living beings from suffering.

Currently, Buddhism, in its most diverse manifestations and forms, is rooted in Mongolia, Nepal, Bhutan, Sri Lanka, in the countries of Southeast Asia (Burma, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam), in the territory of China inhabited by Tibetans ( Tibet, Qinghai and western Sichuan). In Russia, Buddhism is widespread in Buryatia, Kalmykia and Tuva.

Philosophical teachings Ancient China: Confucianism, Taoism, Legalism.

Chinese philosophy emphasizes a secular character with a statist bias. The central figures are the teacher and the official. Detailed rules of conduct (rituals and codes) - like the path of righteous life, universal harmony of the dark (yin) and light (yang) principles.

The basis of all teachings is the “Book of Changes,” where 64 hexagrams (six-digit numbers), composed of “yin” and “yang,” designate all the fundamental phenomena of this world.

Features: instead of abstract systems, applied and aphoristic teachings. In addition, stability is put above all else.

The origin of philosophical schools China (period of 100 schools) in the VI-III centuries. BC.

Taoism. The origin and development of Taoism is associated with the name of the semi-legendary thinker and public figure Lao Tzu, who, according to legend, was an older contemporary of Confucius and created the main canonical text of Taoism - “ Tao Te Ching" ("The book about Tao and its manifestations”, or “The Book of the Path and Grace”).

The central concept of Taoism is Tao. The term " Tao"has the following basic, closely related meanings:

1) the source, fundamental principle and cause of all existence;

2) the law, the first principle of the existence of all things and phenomena in the world;

3) the ultimate goal of any existence;

4) true and at the same time path To her.

Tao unknowable, but omnipresent. What we can talk about Tao, is denoted by the term “ de». Dae– emanation of Tao in the world, it demonstrates action Tao, realizing its potential energy in manifested existence, in available objects. What follows Tao(person, thing or natural phenomenon), filled with energy de. Wherein Tao is understood as the natural path of all things, and any active, violent influence is the opposite Tao. Therefore, the basic principles of the “path Tao“- following naturalness and “inaction”. " Tao constantly carries out non-action, but there is nothing that it does not do” 1. This is also, according to Taoism, the path of the “perfect sage.”

The world, being an immanent revelation of the transcendent, is a manifestation of ideal perfection, unity and harmony. Based on this, any attempt to actively change the world is an encroachment on the perfection of the Absolute, which can only be discovered by following “non-action”, i.e. being in a state of naturalness. The path to perfection, therefore, is the rejection of the unnatural (the superficial and violent ordering of the world by man according to his subjective ideas) and the pursuit of the natural (towards natural unity and harmony).

Confucianism. Confucianism demonstrates a different view of the world and the place of man in it from Taoism, but the opposition between Confucianism and Taoism, which many researchers come to as a result of analyzing the dispute between these schools about the natural and ritual side of the “way of Tao,” is clearly exaggerated.

The founder of Confucianism is the Chinese thinker, master of rituals and ceremonies, as well as public figure Kun Tzu, or Kung Fu Tzu (551-479 BC), i.e. Great Teacher Kun(Confucius is the Latinized version of the name), who created a philosophical doctrine of a pronounced socio-ethical nature.

Confucius accepts the conceptual basis of Taoism, but interprets it in a slightly different way than Lao Tzu. Thus, according to Confucius, the basis for the harmonious coexistence of man, society and nature is following Tao. Wherein Tao in Confucianism it has the meaning of the true moral and ethical principle of the existence of man and his actions, but is not considered as a cosmological principle, the law of the existence of all things, the Absolute (whose place in Confucianism is occupied by the concept of Heaven).

The standard of the person who follows Tao, is junzi (« noble husband", or, literally, "son of the ruler" (of Heaven)), whose main qualities include, first of all, ren- humanity, philanthropy, and whether– rules, etiquette, ritual. Wherein whether considered as the highest manifestation ren. “Reverence outside of ritual is tiresome, and caution outside of it leads to cowardice; with courage outside the ritual they cause trouble; with directness outside the ritual they become intolerant. If a noble husband is attached in soul to his loved ones, humanity flourishes among the people; if old friends are not forgotten by them, people do not act basely” 2.

Ren means building relationships between people in society in the spirit of solidarity, when everyone realizes and fulfills their responsibilities to others in accordance with their “rank”, place in the social hierarchy, role in society. The establishment of justice in society presupposes the implementation of the concept of “correcting names”, following which the ruler must behave like a ruler, the subordinate as a subordinate, etc.

Of great importance for the “correction of names” (first of all, for the correction of oneself) and the reign of justice is following a ritual that has sacred meaning, since “the ritual exists so that order is maintained in the Celestial Empire.” This order is an integral part of the universal, cosmic order, the “law of heaven,” and is inseparable from it, because it follows its rhythm, “breath,” which the ritual allows you to feel. “The Great Prince of Qi asked Confucius what government was. Confucius replied: “Let the sovereign be the sovereign, the servant the servant, the father the father, and the son the son.” 3

Thus, if Taoism reveals the unity, harmony and perfection of the world in the natural environment of man, then Confucianism sacralizes the social sphere of existence, and interprets ritual as actions in which the principle of the harmonious hierarchical structure of the Universe directly reveals itself. Law sky- the basis of the life of the Celestial Empire - is a premium principle, the awareness of the action of which occurs during the ritual, which is the most complete and clear, symbolic disclosure of the transcendental absolute in immanent form.

Confucianism and Taoism have long been the two main foundations of Chinese culture, complementing each other, because almost every Chinese person followed Taoism in his personal life, and Confucianism in his public life. Only in the twentieth century did the traditions of Confucianism and Taoism recede under the aggressive onslaught of first communist ideas established in Chinese society by Mao Zedong, and then the traditional values ​​of Western capitalist society.

Nevertheless, the ideology of China still preserves the cult of traditions, rituals, and beliefs aimed at preserving the “social stable cosmos” (order), laid down by the religious and philosophical systems of Taoism and Confucianism.

Legalism: fair and strict laws, rewards and punishments are the means of achieving harmony.

Ancient Greek philosophy: pre-Socratic period.

Basic opposition (the main opposition of concepts inherent in ancient Greek philosophy): Cosmos (harmonious) – Chaos (chaotic). Harmony is the essence of beauty, justice and truth.

Three main stages:

Themes:

As already noted, the pre-Socratic stage begins with the school of physiologists, which developed such fundamental concepts as phisis (φϋσίς) - nature and logos (Λογος) - thought, word, teaching. However, the usual dictionary and lexical translation of the terms physis and logos does not express either the completeness or depth of the primary meanings of physis and logos in ancient Greek philosophical thinking. According to Martin Heidegger, φϋσίς originally meant “the dominion of the ruler” or “controlling oneself by one’s own power.” Consequently, for the ancient Greek thinker, nature (physis) is that which arises from itself (collects itself from itself), preserves itself with its own power, grows with the same power and descends into itself, remaining in all these changes by itself. Λογος has an even more complex semantic architecture. For the ancient Greek thinker, Logos is: 1) secret name myth, the hidden order of chaos; 2) power that allows the fusis to control itself; 3) the mind, which makes the essence of existence visible and the soul of a person - seeing; 4) necessity, which gives everything that exists a place, measure and boundary of being, order and time of being; 5) law, i.e. the necessarily established order of beings, which beings cannot violate without harming their being. As we see in their original meanings, both fusis and logos are much richer than what their dictionary and lexical meanings have preserved for us.

Historically, the school of physiologists begins with the Milesian school, i.e. with philosophers from the city of Miletus, located in Asia Minor on the coast of the Ionian Sea. The founder of the school was Thales, one of the seven Greek sages. According to the ancient philosophers themselves, speaking about Thales, the latter argued: “water is the best.” Aristotle reports that Thales thought that water is the primary basis - the first principle, and everything else is formed from it; he also argued that “all things are full of gods.”

Anaximander is the second philosopher of the Milesian school. Anaximander argued: “And from what all things arise, they are resolved in the same way, according to necessity. For they are punished for their wickedness and receive retribution from each other at the appointed time.” It is “from which all things arise”, i.e. the fundamental principle of all things, was designated by Anaximander as apeiron (ancient gr. - infinite). Apeiron is infinite, eternal, timeless and “encompasses all worlds.”

Anaximenes is the third of the Milesian thinkers. He said: “Just as our soul, being air, holds us back, so breath and air embrace all the worlds.”

One of the most prominent representatives of the school of physiologists was Heraclitus from the city of Ephesus, nicknamed “the dark one.” Heraclitus made the following statements:

“People do not understand this Speech (Logos) that exists forever, both before listening [to it] and after listening once. For, although all [people] directly encounter this Speech (Logos), they are like those who do not know [it]..." (Fr. 1).

“And with what they are in the most constant communication [with the logos that governs all things], with what they are at odds, and with what they encounter every day, it seems unfamiliar to them.” (Fr. 4).

“Much knowledge does not teach intelligence...” (Fr. 16).

“It is given to all people to know themselves...” (Fr. 23e).

“Having listened not to mine, but to this Speech (Logos), I must admit: wisdom is to know everything as one” (Fr. 26).

“This cosmos, the same for everyone, was not created by any of the gods, nor by any of the people, but it always was, is and will be an eternally living fire, gradually kindling, gradually dying out” (Fr. 51).

“War (Polemos) is the father of all, the king of all: he declares some gods, others people, some he creates slaves, others free” (Fr. 29).

“One must know that war is generally accepted, that enmity is the usual order of things, and that everything arises through enmity and borrowing [at the expense of another] (Fr. 28).

“On those entering the same rivers, some waters flow at one time, and at another time other waters” (Fr. 40).

“The Sun will not overstep [the prescribed] measures, otherwise the Erinyes, the allies of Truth, will find him” (Fr. 52).

“For [everything] is completely predetermined by fate” (Fr. 28, p. 1).

The given fragments from Heraclitus show that:

The world was not created by either gods or people. He is eternal and the bearer of this eternity is fire, the transformations of which form everything that exists in the world.

Fire is ruled by the eternal Logos - the Mind that speaks itself, which gives everything that exists in the world a measure, a boundary, a time, i.e. order, and which curbs the struggle (polemos) of opposites, bringing difference and opposition to the harmony of unity.

Everything in the world moves, changes, passes into each other, but fire and Logos remain themselves.

As a rule, historians of philosophy next to the name of Heraclitus put the name of Democritus from the city of Abdera. Democritus believed that “the world is atoms and emptiness.” Atoms are the smallest, physically indivisible particles that move in the void according to necessity. There is an infinite number of atoms that differ from each other in shape, size, and weight. As a result of the collision of atoms, their vortices arise. As a result of the vortex-like movement of clusters of atoms, things and the whole world arise (other group cosmos). Democritus believed that: “Not a single thing arises without a cause, but everything arises on some basis and due to necessity.” Philosophically, the teachings of Democritus can be characterized as conscious and consistent materialism.

The school of sophists, to a certain extent, was a skeptical reaction to the excessive confidence of physiologists in the validity of their philosophical images of the structure of physis-nature. The founder and leader of the school was Protagoras. Protagoras is credited with the statement: “Man is the measure of all things, those that exist that they exist, and those that do not exist that they do not exist.” Regarding this thesis, the history of philosophy has developed several interpretations:

Man as a “measure” is a witness to the existence or non-existence of things, as well as the “what” and “how” of their existence;

Man as a “measure” is the source of being and non-being, because outside of man the very question of being or non-being is meaningless. This interpretation is commonly called subjectivism.

Man as a “measure” is the one who draws the line between true and false, objective and subjective, good and evil. As it is carried out, so it is, for there is no single truth “for everyone”, there is no single criterion of truth and lies, good and evil for everyone. This interpretation is commonly called relativism.

Protagoras is credited with the statement: “I cannot say about the gods whether they exist or not and what their appearance is. After all, there are many obstacles to knowledge - the obscurity of the matter and the brevity of human life.” The sophists also taught, usually for a fee, the art of argument, so that regardless of the justice or injustice of the original position, you would win the argument by forcing the other to agree with your position. Plato, in his dialogue Euthydemus, cites the following dialogue between two sophists and a simple-minded man named Ctisippus:

“Tell me, do you have a dog?” “And very evil,” answered Ktisipp. “Does she have any puppies?” - “Yes, they are also evil” - “And their father, of course, is a dog?” “I even saw him having sex with a female.” - “Well, this dog is yours?” - “Of course” - “So this father is yours, therefore, your father is a dog and you are the puppies’ brother.” From this dialogue it is clear why “sophist” became a household name.

The position of extreme skepticism in the school of sophists was represented by Gorgias, who argued that nothing exists, and if something exists, it is unknowable, and even if it exists and is knowable for one person, he cannot convey his knowledge to others.

As Bertrand Russell notes in his History of Western Philosophy, the Greeks were not inclined to moderation either in their theories or in their practice. Heraclitus argued that All changes, and Parmenides objected that Nothing does not change. Parmenides was the leader of the school of philosophers from the city of Elea. Parmenides outlined his teaching in the poem “On Nature.” In it, Parmenides speaks of two paths of reason: “the path of truth” and “the path of opinion.” The path of truth is as follows:

“You cannot know non-existence,

Not to express in a word...

Thought and being are one and the same...

Thought and what is thought are one and the same thing..."

From Parmenides' thesis it follows:

Nothingness - no; there is only Being;

Being, if it really “is” and does not become, is identical to thought, if it is true. For for true thought there is no discrepancy between thought and what is thinkable in it, what is thinkable and thought are identical;

That being about which we can say “is” cannot need anything (otherwise it either does not exist yet, or no longer exists), it is complete and self-sufficient, therefore, immutable, and therefore conceivable, otherwise we would we thought about something that no longer exists, something that has already passed away at the moment of thinking. Change, becoming, is the appearance that sensuality gives us. Truly, i.e. thoughts - everything is unchanged.

The students of Parmenides, Zeno and Meno, tried to prove this immutability of truly existing things and the appearance, illusory nature of change and formation. They put forward the so-called aporia (other words: division by thought, division in thought). There are four of them: “Arrow”, “Pedestrian”, “Achilles and the Tortoise”, “Stages”. The point is that if we try to think about motion, we will come to a logical contradiction like a “round square”. A thought that contradicts itself is false, therefore, it is impossible to think about movement. But thought and being are one, so movement has no real existence, it is an illusion.

Ancient Greek philosophy: the Socratic period.

This is the highest form of ancient philosophy generally recognized among us.

Basic opposition (the main opposition of concepts inherent in ancient Greek philosophy): Cosmos (harmonious) – Chaos (chaotic). Harmony is the essence of beauty, justice and truth.

Features: ontologism (all teachings are interpretations of the world as a whole), rationality, diversity of schools and approaches.

Three main stages:

Early philosophy (Pre-Socratics: Milesians, Eleans and Atomists) VI-V centuries. BC.;

Ancient or classical philosophy (classics: Sophists, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle) ​​V-IV centuries. BC.;

Hellenistic philosophy (Stoics, Epicureans, Skeptics) IV-I centuries. BC.

Themes: first principles (physical, mathematical or atomistic); the relationship between being and non-being; man is the measure of things; the common good of Socrates; Plato's ideas; Aristotle's matter and form; pleasure or duty is the basis of virtue (Epicureans and Stoics).

The above, of course, are only the theses of the answer, which are not difficult to fill in with banal erudition.

The schools of physiologists, sophists and Eleatics showed that the world can be thought in many and different ways, that on every path of thinking something irrefutable is discovered, self-certifying in its immutability. However, there are many paths, but the world is one. Question: how to bring diverse images of the same world to unity?; how to collect them into one whole worldview? The philosophizing of the Socratic or classical stage was intended to answer this question.

The classical stage of ancient philosophy begins with the teachings of Socrates. Thesisically, Socrates’ system of thoughts can be articulated in the following statements:

Know yourself;

If you want to move the world, move yourself first;

It is better to suffer injustice than to inflict it on another;

You cannot give your thoughts to “another,” but you can, firstly, help him in the birth of your own and, secondly, distinguish ghosts of thoughts from truly, truly thoughts. This ability and concern for nurturing thinking in another person is maieutics.

Dialectics is the path of care, the path of cultivating thinking both in oneself and in others. The essence of dialectics: through a series of questions that do not degrade human dignity, do not cloud, but clarify human thinking, to show that certain grounds, accepted as indisputable, “self-evident,” are not so indisputable and self-evident when you subject them to the test of questions and reflections. Thus, through identifying the controversial, unclear, illusory, thinking sees a direction towards the clear, indisputable, genuine.

Knowledge of truth, justice, goodness and beauty and life according to truth, justice, goodness and beauty are inseparable. Knowing good and being kind are the same thing.

These provisions form the spiritual and semantic, “smart” world of Socrates, in which, in fact, a significant part of humanity still resides. Choosing between renouncing his assertions, his paths of thought to the truth, and death, Socrates, as we know, chose death. Showing that thought, knowledge and life, according to what is conceivable and known, are inseparable for him, even if the price for this is life itself.

Plato (real name Aristocles) was a student of Socrates for almost ten years. The execution of Socrates by the verdict of thirty tyrants shocked young Plato and raised the question: what kind of world is this that first gives birth to people like Socrates, and then sends them to execution? Is it possible to consider such a world genuine, true and the only possible one? Plato's entire philosophy, in essence, is a search for answers to this question, relying on the wisdom of his predecessors, the wisdom of Socrates and his own love for wisdom.

In Plato's teachings, a number of fundamental themes can be distinguished: 1) the doctrine of the hierarchy of being, eidos, Good and eidols; 2) the doctrine of the relationship between soul and body, the fate of the soul after separation from the body, immortality and metempsychos; 3) the doctrine of knowledge as anamnesis or recall; 4) the doctrine of the types of structure of the state in accordance with the idea of ​​justice.

In his doctrine of being, Plato distinguishes: true being, half-being or being-non-being, non-being. The main characteristics of true being are perfection, eternity, purity. The main characteristics of half-being are imperfection, temporaryness, confusion, ambiguity. Non-existence is an “empty place”, which, being nothing in itself, when eidos enter it, begins to move, is “fertilized” by them and gives birth to things - eidols. The basic unit of authentic being is the eidos (έτδος) or idea. Many ideas form a world of ideas full of harmony and order, in which the idea of ​​ideas – the Good – reigns. This world of eidos-ideas, “imprinted” in non-existence, together with non-existence gives birth to eidols (similarities) or sensory-corporeal things, which form the world of being-non-existence or half-being. This is our earthly world. If we compare eidos-ideas and eidols-things, we get the following characteristics of eidos and eidols: eidos - perfect, eternal, pure, incorporeal, essence, intelligible, supersensible, not subject to either creation or destruction, the prototype of all eidols defined by it and, at the same time, a model for them; eidol - imperfect, temporary, mixed, bodily, sensually comprehended, emerging, changing and dying, the image and likeness of eidos as a prototype and model. Plato said that the idea or eidos is “beauty as such”, “justice as such”, valid for any place, time, circumstances and mind, and independent of place, time, circumstances and the perceiving mind. The characteristics of eidos are, in fact, the characteristics of the ideal. The characteristics of an eidol are the characteristics of a material thing. Consequently, philosophical thought begins with Plato’s system of thoughts in theory clearly and distinctly demarcate, demarcate material And perfect as two ways, horizons of being, which in the practical world are intertwined, penetrate each other, “shine” in each other, which is what myth and religion record.

Plato believes that a living person is a union, a communion of soul (psyche) and body (soma). Death is the destruction of this connection. The soul, according to Plato, includes the desire for the highest, harmonious, ordered, beautiful and good, and the desire, attraction for the lower, chaotic, disorderly, spontaneous, unbridled, formless. These two intentions, i.e. The orientations of the human soul by “nature”, by original being, are held in some conjugation, agreement by the power of reason. This power of reason is the wisdom that the lover of wisdom, the philosopher, strives for. Wisdom is achieved through understanding– consideration of eternal prototypes and samples of things, i.e. discretion of the eidos, and reflection– a conversation between the soul and itself about what it saw. The soul sees ideas, turning to itself and freeing itself from the power of the body, everything sensory and corporeal, as if “remembering” that it exists in itself, i.e. by it's nature". And she is, according to Plato, the eidos of life, an immortal and incorporeal essence, in which the eternal eidos-ideas (essences) of the entire infinite and changeable, mixed world of eidols-things are captured in all their purity. Since to know a thing means to know its essence - the generating and determining principle, the soul receives true knowledge (episteme) through turning on itself, entering-remembering itself in the course of cleansing itself from power and imprints of everything corporeal, sensory, changeable, mortal, ambiguous... This recollection of one's own original essence or self-knowledge is true knowledge, true gnosis or anamnesis. Hence Plato’s famous formula: knowledge is memory, to know means to remember, to know means to remember (anamnesis).

Plato, as already noted, understands death as the disintegration of the connection, communion of soul and body. After separation from the body, the soul moves either upward - into the world of eidos-ideas, i.e. to the Mountain, or remains in the world of eidol-things, i.e. walks like a ghost around the Dale. Up goes the soul that all its life in the body has strived for wisdom, loved wisdom, at the same time neglecting everything sensually corporeal, striving to “die” to sensual pleasures, desires and passions. It was the soul already in the body that “left” the body for self-knowledge, for anamnesis.

In the world of sensual things, in the world of birth and death, that soul remains which, while living in the body, loved everything corporeal and gave itself up to sensual pleasures and lusts. After parting with its body, such a soul in the form of a disembodied ghost wanders around the world looking for a new body and sooner or later finds such a body according to its inner depravity and baseness. This process of bodily transformations of the soul is called metempsychosis.

In his “social philosophy,” Plato teaches about an ideal state with an ideal government and an ideal structure for the social life of people (politeia). Such an “ideal” state is the embodiment of the eidos-idea justice, where everyone is in his place (defined by his idea), does his job (according to his essence-idea), does not interfere with everyone else doing their job and, each embodying in his own business, beauty and rationality, the harmony of the world of ideas, everyone does it together the common cause of filling the world with wisdom, beauty and goodness. This is Plato's utopia. In accordance with the degree of implementation of this ideal of the state, Plato distinguishes the following types of government:

aristocracy, or the power of the best in beauty and purity of soul;

democracy is the power of the people, which follows the principles of freedom of speech (izogory), equality before the law (izanomiya) and the equal right of all to participate in power (izatimiya);

timarchy, or the power of the vain, ambitious;

tyranny, or power that places itself above the law.

The English mathematician and philosopher of the early twentieth century A. Whitehead said that all Western philosophy, up to the present time, is a good or bad commentary on the teachings of Plato. The first to begin such a tradition of explicit or implicit “commenting” on Plato was Plato’s student Aristotle.

Aristotle was born in 384 BC. in the city of Stagiri, which is why it is often called “Stagirite”. He remained at Plato's Academy for about twenty years until Plato's death in 347 BC. Aristotle also managed to be the tutor of Alexander the Great. In Aristotle's Metaphysics, the following topics can be distinguished: criticism of Plato's theory of ideas, the doctrine of general concepts, the doctrine of First Principles, the doctrine of essence and essences of different orders, the doctrine of matter and form (hylemorphism), the doctrine of types of causes. Aristotle also wrote three treatises on ethics, a treatise on the soul, a treatise on physics, books on logic - "Analytics" (1st and 2nd Analytics) and a book called "Categories". In fact, Aristotle was the first systematically and encyclopedically thinking and writing philosopher.

In his work Metaphysics, Aristotle gives a brief outline of the history of Greek philosophy. Particularly emphasizing that philosophical thought itself begins with a conscious distinction between “mythologists” and “physiologists”, practical and theoretical attitudes towards the world. Aristotle begins his own original philosophizing by criticizing the doctrine of Plato’s ideas, citing the argument of the “third man”: if a person is a person through communion with the idea of ​​a person, then there must be an idea of ​​“involvement of a person and the idea of ​​a person” and so on ad infinitum. In his doctrine of general concepts, Aristotle says: “I call general that which can be attributed to many, and individual – that with which this cannot be done...”. The individual is an individual essence - “this”, the general concept is not an individual essence, it points to the “kind of thing”, and not to a given individual thing, and this “kind” does not exist outside and apart from individual individual things, for “the essence of each thing there is something that is peculiar only to it, that does not belong to anything else; But general concept is common because that which is called common is that which belongs to more than one thing.” For Plato, the “kind of things” existed as a separate, pure and perfect, intelligible (noumenon) essence-idea, outside and apart from individual sensible bodies and things. For Aristotle, no. Aristotle believed that true wisdom is interested only in “first causes and principles.” There are two of these First Principles:

God or Mind. He is the Form of Forms and the Prime Mover. The mind is the eternal cause of the world order and everything perfect in existence. God is the highest essence, the Source of all forms (possible and actual). Forms are thought-logoi of the Mind, which it always has in front of it. God, Mind is pure thinking, the limit of existence, true reality or Being.

Matter. Aristotle refers to matter as hyle, meaning by it the possibility of formation, which “in itself,” without form, is nothing and becomes something through the adoption of form.

According to Aristotle, changing a thing consists in obtaining a new form, which makes the thing more complete, more complete, and therefore more valid. This is a kind of evolution of existence, i.e. his ascent along the degrees of formation from possibility to reality, from one degree of reality to another, more essential.

In his classification of causes, Aristotle distinguishes: material cause, formal cause, efficient cause, target or teleological cause.

The basis of Aristotle's political teaching is the ethical doctrine of the “golden mean”. According to the “golden mean,” virtue is the mean between two extremes, each of which is a vice: courage is the mean between cowardice and recklessness, generosity is the mean between extravagance and greed...

For Aristotle, the state is human society in its full development, therefore the state is higher than the family, higher than the individual, as the whole is higher than the part. Only in the state do laws exist, and without law man is the worst of animals. The goal of the state is a good life. Government is good when its goal is the benefit of the whole society, and bad when it cares only about itself. There are three kinds of good governments: monarchy, aristocracy and constitutional government (or polity); There are three bad ones: tyranny, oligarchy and democracy. Monarchy - the rule of the king; aristocracy - the rule of virtuous people; oligarchy - rule by the rich. Virtuous are those people who are abundantly adorned with a pure heart and an accurate mind, who are moderate in their desire to possess external goods and have moderate fortunes, while at the same time possessing great internal goods. The state, according to Aristotle, should educate cultured people whose aristocratic mind is combined with a love of science and art.

Features of ancient Roman thought. Philosophy of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance.

The term “worldview” appeared and entered scientific circulation at the end of the 18th century in connection with the scientific creativity of representatives. But this does not mean at all that it was then that all the conceptual provisions of this phenomenon were formed. First of all, it should be said that many ideas, without which no worldview today can be imagined (no matter what type we are talking about, mass or individual), came to the ideological conglomerate from completely different ones. Moreover, the worldview itself was expressed mainly through the content of such spiritual phenomena as philosophy, mythology, metaphysics, religion.

Worldview, its essence and structure, as a rule, were expressed through those ideas of individuals, which they formulated in the process of generalizing the knowledge that was acquired as a result of social practice. As a result of such generalizations, an understanding of worldview was formed as a specific form of consciousness of an individual, which reflects his views on the surrounding reality and his place in this reality.

In numerous sources one can find a variety of definitions of worldview, but despite all their dissimilarity, it can be argued that they all almost equally interpret the structure of worldview as a polysyllabic phenomenon.

The structure of the worldview in philosophy includes the following essential components, as knowledge, attitudes, beliefs and ideals with the help of which a person expresses his attitude to the surrounding reality and forms his own position in this world.

The structure of the worldview as its most important elements includes:

• information and knowledge system;
• views, attitudes and criteria for assessing the surrounding world;
• attitudes and beliefs that predetermine a person’s behavioral motives;
• human ideals are images that predetermine the development of man and his movement as an active, world-transforming subject.

But the structure of the worldview does not end there, since all the elements listed above can be classified into objective (this includes knowledge) and subjective (these are mainly views, beliefs and ideals).

All components of the ideological structure have a very specific functional purpose.

Knowledge, which is a processed system of scientific information in a certain way, helps a person to comprehend the world around him and the phenomena occurring in it. Within this component, certain inconsistencies may also be observed, which are objective and quite explainable. For example, people can have approximately comparable intellectual potentials, but at the same time be completely different in their worldviews.

The structure of the worldview, which includes people’s views, involves their consideration as judgments, which, unlike knowledge, express the individual’s subjective conclusion about reality. For example, representatives of scientific and completely different views of the issue

Knowledge, like views, does not always act as a factor motivating behavior. More important, in terms of this issue, are beliefs. Formed on the basis of an idea, beliefs reflect a synthesis of objective knowledge and aspirations, which consolidates a person’s social position in society and his activities.

The structure of a worldview provides for the presence of ideals as its organic element. In the simplest understanding, an ideal is an image that captures the anticipated, perfect, something for which a person has a strong desire and a high (from the point of view of criteria) attitude. As a rule, they embody the best examples of human thinking and behavior.

Thus, a worldview is a systemic unity of its constituent components. The relationships between these components may change over time, and then one of them may become dominant not only at the social level.