ABSTRACT

Course workconsists of pages, sources.

Keywords: spelling, principles of Russian spelling, morphological principle, phonetic principle, traditional principle, differentiating spellings.

Object of study: basic principles of spelling: morphological, phonetic, traditional principle and differentiating spellings.

Subject of study: spelling rules that are based on morphological, phonetic, traditional principles.

Research method: descriptive

Target course work : description of the principles of Russian spelling operating in the Russian language and their implementation in the school course of the Russian language.

Coursework objectives:

Describe the basic principle of Russian orthography, different points of view on this principle;

conclusions

INTRODUCTION

PRINCIPLES OF RUSSIAN SPELLING

1 The basic principle of Russian spelling

2. Other principles of Russian spelling

IMPLEMENTATION OF SPELLING PRINCIPLES IN SCHOOL TEXTBOOKS

CONCLUSION

LIST OF SOURCES USED

INTRODUCTION

Methodology of the Russian language is a science that determines the content, principles, methods, techniques of teaching the Russian language and the patterns of its acquisition by students. The peculiarity of the methodology as a science is that it is based on data from related sciences: linguistics, psychology, logic and pedagogy.

The subject of the methodology is the process of teaching the Russian language.

The technique solves four problems:

)“why study”, i.e. determining the goals and objectives of teaching Russian as a native language;

2)“what to teach”, i.e. determination of training content; justification and preparation of the program, textbooks and educational complexes for students, benefits;

)“how to teach”, i.e. development of teaching methods and techniques, design of lessons and their cycles, methodological manuals and educational equipment;

)“how to control what you have learned”, i.e. determination of evaluation criteria, control methods.

Knowledge of the history of the Russian language methodology and the patterns of its development is necessary in order to, based on the experience and theory of the past, steadily improve the teaching of the Russian language in modern schools.

The emergence of the methodology of the Russian language as a science is associated with the appearance in 1844 of the book by F.I. Buslaev “On teaching” Russian language"(1844). This book lays the foundations of methodology as a science about the laws, principles, methods and techniques of teaching the Russian language. Characteristic feature it is the theoretical justification of all the provisions put forward by the author and methodological recommendations.

Book by F.I. Buslaeva “On Teaching the Russian Language” laid the foundation for scientific research in the field of Russian language methodology.

One of the outstanding linguists of the second half XIX century was I.I. Sreznevsky. He is known as the author of original methodological works: “Notes on the initial course of the Russian language”, “On the study of the native language in general and especially in childhood" and etc.

His methodological system I.I. Sreznevsky built on the study of questions about what a language is and what it means to study one’s native language.

Ideas F.I. Buslaev and I.I. Sreznevsky on the main problems of Russian language methodology was creatively developed and deepened by K.D. Ushinsky. He is the author of outstanding methodological works and educational books: “On the initial teaching of the Russian language”, “Native Word”, etc.

K.D. Ushinsky is undoubtedly a successor of the ideas of F.I. Buslaev and I.I. Sreznevsky. However, his system also contains a lot of new things: the depth of theoretical justification, the widespread use of the principles of clarity, systematicity, and comparison techniques.

At the beginning of the 20th century. The scientific and linguistic orientation in the methodology of the Russian language has intensified. Major linguists took part in its development: F.F. Fortunatov, who gave a speech in 1903 “On teaching Russian grammar in secondary schools”; A.A. Shakhmatov - one of the organizers of congresses of Russian language teachers in 1904-1917; D.N. Ovsyaniko-Kulikovsky - author of Russian language textbooks 1907-1912; L.V. Shcherba, who gave a report “On the auxiliary and independent meaning of grammar as academic subject" and etc.

So, the history of the methodology of the Russian language as a science begins in 1844, when the work of F.I. Buslaev, who had a great influence on the further development of methodological science.

The authors of subsequent works, despite the difference in their views and directions, continued to develop the basic ideas of F.I. Buslaev, and each subsequent methodological work introduced something new into the development of a particular problem.

The methodology of the Russian language has accumulated significant experience, but the system of scientific concepts and terms still requires streamlining, discussion of the principles and methods of teaching the Russian language, the patterns of mastering the Russian language by students have not yet been sufficiently studied different ages.

The teaching methodology consists of several sections, one of which is spelling.

Spelling methodology is a section of the methodology of teaching the Russian language, which describes the process of developing spelling skills in students.

The method of teaching spelling is based on the following principles:

· the study of spelling in close connection with the study of phonetics, morphemics, morphology and syntax;

· comparison of various phenomena (sound and letter, phoneme in a strong and weak position);

· structural-semantic principle (reliance on knowledge of the composition and meaning of morphemes in a word).

To teach spelling you need to master the principles of Russian spelling.

The relevance of the study lies in the fact that the history of Russian spelling has not been studied enough from the point of view of the formation of spelling principles.

The purpose of the course work is to describe the principles of Russian orthography operating in the Russian language and their implementation in the school course of the Russian language.

Coursework objectives:

describe the basic principle of Russian orthography, different points of view on this principle;

describe other principles of Russian orthography (phonetic, traditional spellings, differentiating spellings);

monitor the implementation of the principles of Russian spelling in Russian language textbooks operating in modern school.

1. PRINCIPLES OF RUSSIAN SPELLING

A detailed definition of spelling is given by V.F. Ivanov “Spelling is:

) a historically established system of writings that is accepted and used by society:

) rules ensuring uniformity of spellings in cases where variations are possible;

) compliance with accepted rules (in this case they talk about good or bad spelling of manuscripts, letters, dictations and further printed publications),

) part of the science of language (in its written form), studying and establishing the uniformity of spellings (and sometimes officially allowing their variation).

The theory of Russian orthography began to be created in the mid-18th century, its founders were V.K. Trediakovsky and M.V. Lomonosov. Subsequently, the norms of Russian spelling were reflected in the works of F.F. Fortunatova, A.A. Barsova, N.I. Grecha, A.Kh. Vostokova, F.I. Buslaeva, I.I. Davydova, Y.K. Grota.

A significant milestone in the development of the history of Russian orthography are the works of famous linguists: A.A. Shakhmatova, F.F. Fortunatova, A.I. Sobolevsky, F.E. Korsha, A.I. Baudouin de Courtenay, R.I. Avanesova, V.V. Vinogradova, A.N. Gvozdeva, N.M. Shansky, L.V. Shcherby and others.

Modern Russian spelling is based on the Code of Rules published in 1956. The rules of the Russian language are reflected in Russian grammars and spelling dictionaries. Special school spelling dictionaries are published for schoolchildren.

Phonemes located in weak positions can be designated in different ways, but, firstly, the choice of letters to designate them is limited to a certain framework, and secondly, this choice is made on the basis of orthographic principles.

According to V.F. Ivanova, “spelling principles are regulating ideas for choosing letters where a sound (phoneme) can be indicated variably.”

B.N. Golovin understands the “principle” as the main requirement to which spelling rules are subordinated and considers the relationship between principles and spelling rules as follows: “The whole variety of spelling rules operating in different languages ​​is subject to a few requirements, or, as they usually say in the science of language, principles.”

Linguists don't have consensus about the number of principles of Russian spelling and their names. In Russian spelling throughout the twentieth century, from two to six spelling principles were identified. At the same time, different authors highlight different principles of Russian orthography.

The largest number of spelling principles was formulated by A.A. Reformatsky, combining them in pairs as follows:

phonemic and phonetic;

etymological and traditional;

morphological and symbolic.

A.M. Gvozdev, L.R. Zinger, V.V. Ivanov, V.F. Ivanov believe that Russian spelling built on three principles:

· morphological;

phonetic;

· traditional

Yu.S. Maslov names five spelling principles:

· morphological;

· phonetic (phonemic);

· symbolic-morphological (grammatical);

· differentiated;

· traditional (historical).

L.V. Shcherba noted four principles:

·phonetic;

· etymological, or word production, otherwise - morphological;

·historical;

· ideographic.

L.L. Kasatkin identifies the following principles of spelling:

· phonemic (basic);

· morphematic (or morphological);

·traditional;

·phonetic;

· lexico-syntactic;

· differentiating spellings.

The main most frequently identified principles of spelling are phonetic, morphological, traditional.

Moscow spelling specialists I.S. Ilyinskaya and V.N. Sidorov divided all spellings into phonemic and non-phonemic, considering the latter to be a deviation from the phonemic principle.

Russian orthography consists of four sections: depiction of sounds in letters; use of capital letters; hyphenated, continuous and separate spellings; hyphenation. Some methodologists highlight another fifth section - the rules for graphic abbreviation of words. Such parts of spelling were not always clearly identified.

The central section of spelling is the first section: depending on the basis on which the designation of the sound composition of words is built, they talk about the principle of a particular spelling system. The transmission of sounds by letters is based on the morphological, phonemic, phonemic, morphological-phonemic principle of writing words. In the 5th grade textbook, which is used in school today, this principle is defined as phonemic.

Until recently, this principle was defined nominally as morphological and consisted in the uniform design of a morpheme, regardless of how it is pronounced (i.e., according to its phonemic composition). Under the morpheme in this definition only the root was implied. Those. the principle regulated the writing of verifiable roots. Currently, this principle is formulated through the concept of phoneme (we said that this concept was introduced in grade 5). In a weak position, the same phoneme is written in the same morpheme as in a strong position: mowing - braids. To write a word correctly, you need to put the phoneme in the morpheme being checked in a strong position: beat off - drive away. This principle is used to determine the spelling of all parts of a word that can be verified, i.e. put the phoneme in a strong position: describe - inventory, stick - board, spirit - sock.

You see that, despite the fact that the concept of phoneme comes first, it matters which morpheme the spelling is checked. In this regard, the principle is also called morphological-phonemic.

The second principle of this section is the phonetic principle according to which the spellings correspond to the pronunciation: break, saw. This principle is characterized by a comparison of sound with its phonetic environment. According to pronunciation, prefixes are written in z-/s-, vowels in the prefixes raz-/ras and roz-/ros-; ы after consonant prefixes, etc.

Finally, many spellings inherited from past eras refer to the traditional principle. By tradition, unverifiable words are written: quotation marks, dog; roots with alternating vowels; borrowed words: amateur; g in gender endings. pad. units including adjectives husband. and Wed gender, pronouns and ordinal numbers.

In the section of spelling devoted to the use of capital letters, a comparison principle has developed own name and proper name and common noun, taking into account the presence of proper and common nouns in the nominative fund of the Russian language.

When determining continuous, separate and hyphenated spellings, the structure of a word belonging to a certain part of speech, its syntactic position in a phrase and sentence are taken into account, i.e. the principle of comparing the semantics of a word and the structure of a word; comparison of part of speech and part of a sentence.

When transferring words from line to line, the technique is based on the principle of observing the syllabic composition of the word.

1.1 The basic principle of Russian spelling

In domestic science, two directions have developed in the study of the phoneme and the leading principle of orthography, the so-called Leningrad, or Shcherbov (L.V. Shcherba, L.R. Zinder, M.I. Matusevich, A.N. Gvozdev, Yu.S. Maslov, L.L. Bulanin, V.F. Ivanova), and Moscow (R.I. Avanesov, P.S. Kuznetsov, V.N. Sidorov, A.A. Reformatsky, L.Yu. Maksimov, M .V. Panov).

Representatives of the Leningrad phonological school assert the morphological principle as the leading one, while representatives of the Moscow phonological school insist on the phonemic principle. However, in defining the very concept of a phoneme as the minimum sound unit of a language, they adhere to one point of view.

V.V. Ivanov, calling the main principle of Russian orthography morphological, since all significant parts of a word, repeated in different words and forms, are always written the same way, regardless of how they are pronounced, gives it the definition of “phonemic” or “morphophonematic”, understanding by this the principle of transmission in writing the phonemic composition of morphemes.

In different sources, this basic principle may have different names - phonemic, morphematic, morphological.

Tracing the alternation (the change of sounds-phonemes within a morpheme), that is, the phonemic difference between variants (alloforms) of the same morpheme, as well as the formation of phoneme series and cases of intersection of phoneme series, V.F. Ivanova gives the following definition: “The morphological principle is a principle of designating positionally alternating phonemes in which the graphic uniformity of the morpheme is preserved; To achieve this goal, phonemes in weak positions are designated by letters that are adequate to phonemes in strong positions.”

Subsequently L.R. Zinder will replace the term “morphological” with the term “morphematic”, believing that it is clearer in its internal form. The morphematic principle requires that in order to reflect the identity of a morpheme in writing, its phonemic composition must be transmitted in writing according to a stronger phonetic position.

This principle of spelling is also called morphematic by L.B. Selezneva.

The term “morphological” should be understood as the uniform transmission of the same morphemes in writing, despite different pronunciations.

Thus, the morphological principle of orthography consists in the requirement of uniform spelling of the same morphemes. This principle is implemented in cases where the same morpheme in different words or forms of the same word has a different phonemic composition.

Preservation of the graphic unity of the same morphemes (roots, prefixes, suffixes, endings) in writing, where this may be characteristic feature Russian spelling.

The morphological principle has developed historically; we continue to write the same letters that we once wrote in accordance with pronunciation. However, this is not just a tribute to tradition; there are reasons for preserving in writing those letters that were previously written according to pronunciation.

The morphological type of writing is a consequence of the awareness of the “relatedness” of certain roots, prefixes, suffixes, and endings. Native speakers write words depending on their understanding of their composition. Changes in the sound (phoneme) composition of morphemes, caused by different positions of its constituent sounds (phonemes), do not destroy the unity of the morpheme, namely its meaning and the awareness of this meaning by the writer. “The morpheme remains in his consciousness a certain semantic unit, hence the spontaneous, unconscious desire not to change its spelling, if this is pronunciationally possible.”

The following orthographic themes correspond to the morphological principle:

· spelling of unstressed vowels, voiced and voiceless consonants, unpronounceable consonants, except for unverified words that are written according to a different principle;

· spelling of unstressed vowels, voiced and voiceless consonants in prefixes and suffixes, at the junctions of morphemes (except for certain cases, for example, prefixes with -Z, which are written according to a different principle, this case in primary school not studied);

· spelling of unstressed vowels in the endings of word forms: in the case endings of the 1st, 2nd and 3rd declension of nouns, in the case endings of adjectives, in the personal endings of verbs of the 1st and 2nd conjugations of the present and future tense;

· transferring words from line to line, since when transferring, not only syllabic, but also morphemic division of words is observed;

· to a certain extent, the morphological principle also operates in combined and separate spellings of words, in particular, in distinguishing between prefixes and prepositions, as well as in the use of Ъ after prefixes, since the application of the corresponding rules requires a morphemic analysis of words and the determination of their morphological features.

Even such orthographic topics as indicating the softness of consonants in writing, the use capital letter in names, double consonants also rely on children's morphological knowledge and skills.

So, the morphological principle is the basic principle of Russian orthography. As mentioned above, its essence lies in the fact that all significant parts of a word (roots, prefixes, suffixes, inflections), repeated in different words and forms, are always written the same way, regardless of how they are pronounced in one position or another.

Thus, based on the morphological principle:

1)writing unstressed vowels in all significant parts words checked by stress:

in the roots: running - move, garden - garden, wavy - waves;

in prefixes: sign - signature, go - train, missed - pass;

in suffixes: linden, oak, low, wide

in endings: on the river - on the river, in the city - in the table, lake - window

)writing voiced and voiceless consonants: oak - oaks, fairy tale - say, wedding - wedding, meadow - meadows, carving - cut, threshing - thresh;

3)spelling of hard and soft consonants: adorable - charm, joyful - joy, starry - star, sun - sunny, local - place, sad - sadness;

)spelling of hard and soft consonants of an assimilative nature: bow - bow, grass - grass;

)spelling And after prefixes with a hard consonant and the first root starting with -I- in a compound word: pedagogical institute, disinformation.

The connection between the writing of morphemes and pronunciation is expressed in the fact that the sound composition of morphemes is conveyed in letters separately for each sound in the most differentiated position of the sounds: vowels are most differentiated under stress, consonants - in the position before vowels, sonorant consonants and [v]. This creates a single graphic image of morphemes as carriers known value, without reproducing their specific sound composition, partial changes of which do not affect the inherent meaning of the morpheme.

Given the widely developed system of intramorphemic alternation of sounds in the Russian language and the morphological complexity of most Russian words, the morphological principle of spelling (uniform designation of morphemes in writing) represents the most valuable quality of Russian orthography.

Checking spellings that are written according to the morphological principle includes:

)understanding the meaning of the word being tested or a combination of words, without which it is impossible to select a related test word, determine the grammatical form of the word, etc.;

2)analysis of the morphemic composition of a word, the ability to determine the place of the spelling - in the root, in the prefix, in the suffix, in the ending, which is necessary for choosing and applying the rule;

)phonetic analysis, determination of stressed and unstressed syllables, identification of vowels and consonants, understanding of strong and weak phonemes, positional alternations and their causes. Next - solving a spelling problem using an algorithm.

)grammatical analysis of a word (phrase) - determination of the part of speech, word form, etc.

It should be noted that the assimilation of spellings that correspond to the morphological principle cannot be effective without strong speech skills of students: choosing words, forming their forms, constructing phrases and sentences.

The unity of the orthographic appearance of morphemes is achieved by the fact that the letter indicates not the pronunciation in a particular case, but the phonemic composition of the morpheme formed strong phonemes. Therefore, the basic principle of Russian orthography can also be called phonetic, meaning by this the principle of transmitting the phonemic composition of a morpheme in writing.

school Russian spelling

1.2 Other principles of Russian spelling

Deviations from the morphological principle of spelling may be different. Some of them are based on the coincidence of the spelling of words with their pronunciation: “write as you hear.” Such spellings are based on the phonetic principle.

Essence phonetic principle- “in complete or extremely close literal correspondence of the word to its sound composition, correspondence of the graphic appearance to its sound.”

Attempts to orient Russian writing to the phonetic principle have been made more than once. Back in 1748 V.K. Trediakovsky, in his scientific treatise “Conversation about Orthography...” raised the question of the principle of spelling and proposed using phonetic writing as the basis. And in subsequent periods there were statements in favor of the phonetic principle, but it is difficult to accept it entirely for Russian orthography, since pronunciation does not have strict unity.

The phonetic principle is the antagonist of the morphological principle. Spellings written according to the phonetic principle may, if deemed appropriate, be written according to the morphological principle. That is why spellings written according to the phonetic principle are considered to be violations of the morphological principle.

There are few spellings that correspond to the phonetic principle in Russian spelling.

Based on the phonetic principle:

) writing prefixes in z- (s-): without-, voz-, niz-, from-, once-, through-, through-. So, before a root that begins with a voiceless consonant, the letter C is written, and before a root that begins with a voiced consonant - Z: classless - harmless, arise - exclaim, publish - fulfill, spill - lose;

) spelling of vowels in prefixes raz- (ras-) / roz- (ros-): O is written under stress; in an unstressed position - A: search - to search, painting - to sign;

) writing Y instead of the initial I at the root after consonant prefixes: play - play, search - find, history - background;

) writing under the stress O and in the unstressed position E in the suffixes of nouns, adjectives, in adverbs and in the endings of nouns and adjectives after hissing ones: with soul, but porridge, big, but red, hot, fresh, but melodious;

) writing Y after C in the endings of nouns, adjectives: cucumbers, fighters, chubby, pale-faced, as well as in the suffix -UN: lisitsyn, sinitsyn, sisters;

Spellings based on the phonetic principle occupy a relatively small place in Russian orthography, therefore educational literature the term "phonetic spellings" is used.

Traditional principleconsists in preserving writings that no longer have support in modern word-formation and formative relations, but are preserved only by tradition.

The traditional principle is, as it were, a morphological principle intended for implementation, but not having the opportunity to move into it. Since when designating phonemes of weak positions on the basis of the traditional principle, phonemic oppositions in word forms are not violated, this principle could be called the phonemic-traditional principle.

Traditional spellings include spellings that have long been established in the language and cannot be explained from a modern point of view.

Based on the traditional principle:

)writing unverified unstressed vowels in the roots of words: dog, product, boot, roll, sand;

2)writing roots with alternating vowels: dawn, plain, set fire, subtract, offer;

)writing untestable consonants: station, noodles, ham, football, backpack, here;

)writing double consonants in borrowed words: class;

)writing the consonant G in the endings -Ого, -ИГ: kind, smart, blue, spring;

)writing b in 2nd person verb forms: read, play, write;

)writing roots with partial combinations RA-, LA- at the beginning of a word, associated with the influence Old Slavonic language: work, grow, rook;

)writing words with full-vowel combinations -ORO-, -OLO-, -ERE--ELO- between consonants within the same morpheme, without supporting spellings: cow, milk, swamp, transition, stun.

Differentiating spellings occupy a special place in the spelling system of the Russian language.

Differentiatingare called unequal spellings of similar sounding, but semantically different words, word forms, morphemes.

Differentiating spellings include:

)writing b to distinguish the grammatical form of a word (feminine - with b, masculine - without b): night, rye, help, rook, knife, pencil;

2)writing -О-, -Ё- to differentiate parts of speech (-О- - in nouns, -Ё- - in verbs): burn, arson - burn, set fire;

)merged, separate, hyphenated spellings, with the help of which the lexical and grammatical meaning of homophones is determined: about - about.

2. IMPLEMENTATION OF SPELLING PRINCIPLES IN RUSSIAN TEXTBOOKS

In modern school textbooks in the Russian language orthography (from the Greek ortho - correctly, grapho? I write) - spelling is a system of rules:

) about writing words and their parts;

) about continuous, hyphenated and separate spellings of words;

) about the use of uppercase and lowercase letters;

) about transferring words from one side to the other.

A spelling is a spelling that requires the application of a spelling rule, or reference to spelling dictionary.

In 5th grade school textbooks, spelling is presented in the following sections:

) tested unstressed vowels at the root of the word;

) spelling of unstressed vowels in case endings of nouns;

) spelling O, E after hissing words at the root;

) spelling O, E after sibilants and C at the endings of nouns and adjectives;

) spelling of vowels in prefixes;

) vowels O, E after sibilants and C in suffixes of nouns and adjectives;

) spelling of consonants in the root of the word;

) spelling of consonants in prefixes;

) letters Z and S at the end of the prefixes;

) spelling Y, I after consonant prefixes;

) unverified unstressed vowels and root consonants

) spelling of roots with alternating vowels O-I

) spelling of roots with alternating vowels E-I;

) spelling I, Y after C;

) spelling b after sibilants.

The following rules can be attributed to the morphological principle:

· tested unstressed vowels at the root of the word;

· spelling of unstressed vowels in case endings of nouns;

· spelling of consonants at the root of a word;

For the rule - tested unstressed vowels at the root of a word - the textbook provides exercises of the following type:

Assignment: Write it down. Insert the missing letters. Write test words in which the root vowels are stressed.

Example: shine a lantern - light, dedicate a poem - holiness.

Sew..swallow in the choir - boil..swallow medicine, sit..sit in the garden - sit..sit from grief, split..spread with tongs - spread..pour until red, half..roll a child - half..roll the linen .

For the rule - spelling unstressed vowels in case endings of nouns - the textbook provides exercises of the following type:

Task: Write down the word combinations. Complete the endings of the nouns, determining their declension and case.

Fly into the sky.., a man in a hat.., play on the computer.., wander into the woods.., approach Lid.., run along the roads.., swing on a tree.., attach to the gate.., live in joy.., no sadness.. playful.. .

For the rule - spelling consonants in the root of a word - the textbook provides exercises of the following type:

Assignment: Select (orally) cognate verbs for these nouns. Write it down by filling in the missing letters. Highlight the roots of the words.

Try..ba, milk..ba, fuck..ba, fuck..ba, fuck..ba.

The phonetic principle includes the following rules:

· spelling O, E after sibilants and C at the endings of nouns and adjectives;

· spelling O, E after sibilants and C in suffixes of nouns and adjectives;

· the letters Z and S at the end of the prefixes;

· spelling Y, I after consonant prefixes;

· spelling Y, I after C.

For the rule - spelling O, E after sibilants and C at the endings of nouns and adjectives - the textbook provides exercises of the following type:

Assignment: Read. Write by inserting the missing letters. Explain the spelling O, e in endings.

A bigger ship has a bigger voyage. 2. You can’t get warm by someone else’s fire. 3. It is not with an iron key that the heart... opens, but with kindness. 4. Be attentive to the advice of your older brother, and take care of your younger brother yourself. 5. With more patience comes skill.

For the rule - spelling O, E after sibilants and C in suffixes of nouns and adjectives - the textbook provides exercises of the following type:

Assignment: Write it down. Fill in the missing letters and make up phrases with these words.

Reed..wy, penny..wy, canvas..wy, cherry plum..wy, horsetail..wy.

For the rule - the letters Z and S at the end of the prefixes - the textbook gives exercises of the following type:

Assignment: Write it down. Fill in the missing letters and indicate the prefixes.

Ra..fall, ..fall, ra..beat, ..close, ra..fall, ..cook, ra..load, ..load, ra..move, ..move.

For the rule - spelling И, И after consonant prefixes - the textbook contains exercises of the following type:

Task: Write down, insert the missing letters.

Sum..summarize the results, with..a well-rounded ensemble, find out..to find relatives, play..play a role, super..interesting production, without..initiative worker, ring..finger, previous..next, previous.. story, un..similar, suggestive, over..inventive.

For the rule - spelling Y, I after C - the textbook gives exercises of the following type:

Assignment: Read. Copy the words by filling in the missing ones s, And.

Ts..rk, ts..fry, akats..ya, hare.., ts..plata, cucumber.., streets.., station..ya, police..ya, rehearsal..ya, dance.. , demo..i, pages...

The traditional principle includes the following rules:

· unverified buzudny vowels and consonants of the root;

· spelling of roots with alternating vowels O - A;

· spelling of roots with alternating vowels E - I.

For the rule - unverifiable buzudic vowels and root consonants - the textbook provides exercises of the following type:

Assignment: Write down useful joke tips by inserting the missing letters. If you have any difficulties, consult a spelling dictionary.

If immediately after sleep you do morning gymnastics with at least ten exercises, and then wash your face and carefully brush your teeth, then your work will go twice as fast.

If you make your bed in the morning, carefully folding your blanket and pillows, your mood will be twice as good.

If before dinner you help your mother cut the b..ton, pour soup from the pan into bowls, and k..mpot into glasses, then the food will seem twice as tasty.

For the rule - spelling roots with alternating vowels O, A - the textbook provides exercises of the following type:

Assignment: Write it down. Insert the missing letters Aor O. Place the emphasis.

Very tanned, burnt out from the sun, lit a candle, smells of burning, gas heater, heated milk.

For the rule - spelling roots with alternating vowels E, I - the textbook provides exercises of the following type:

Assignment: Write down, distributing the phrases into two columns. Insert the missing letters eor And. Indicate the conditions for choosing the letter at the root of the word.

Collect flowers, get ready for school, tidy up the room, voter trust, lay out the carpet, lay out the laundry, lean..lean on the table, lean..lean on elbow.

The differentiated principle is not presented in textbooks for the 5th grade by any rules.

Spelling is studied in 5th grade and repeated in 10th grade.

In the 10th grade textbook, the morphological principle is presented by the following rules:

· checkable spellings

To consolidate the material, the following exercises are given:

Task: Write down, insert the missing letters. Indicate the test words in brackets.

To think about your merits is to ask for help, to live in the city - to live on a sandwich, the number of heartbeats - the frequency of the Russian language, the lighting in the room - dedication. .to give life to what you love, to reconcile those who have quarreled - to try on a new dress, to create a new schedule - to do good, to embrace the wind - to develop memory, the flowers have become soft... to give - to respect a friend, to be kicked out of a room - a pattern to be removed, to lose prestige - to rub your hands with pleasure, to pay expenses - to unite in the name of a common cause, meet deadlines - pay the entire amount.

Assignment: Add endings

Approach the village.., come from the village.., memory of the village.., thanks to correspondence.., task in the notebook.., written in the notebook.., sheet from the notebook.., exercise from the notebooks.., from names. .., in the sanatorium.., on the alley.., in the building.., in the jam.., about genius.., in the other.., on the blade.., on the edge.., in the food.., in the dress. .., to the coast.., in consciousness.., about the mind.., about the fairy.., to forget.., at the conference.., about Marie.., about Mary.. .

Phonetic principle:

Assignment: Preparatory dictation

Without..meaningful, without..pity, without..tasty, without..caring, without..noisy, without..malevolent, without..trace, without..countable, in..excitement, in..walking, in..slumber, in..set, in..boil, and..rule, and..follow, inexhaustible, inexhaustible, neither..cast down, nor..send, nor..walking, event , ..giving, ..burn, ..condensed milk, ..dravnitsa, ..delicious, ..sew, ..take care, ..keep.

Traditional principle:

Task: Fill in the missing letters a, o, e, and. If you have any difficulties, use a dictionary

B..derol, alg..rhythm, engineer..ner, b..seda, excavator, m..rinad, s..rpantin, depend..venie, ur..gan, p..rtiera, b..lkon, f..asko, s..nata, num..radiation, v..rnisazh, v..ktsina, g..razh, r..zonans, agr..gat, t..buret, south..lir, ak..bat, v..rtuoz, or..ol, k..bluk, r..tual, el..xir, k..lchan, g..rmony, r..residence, reflection, tr..toire, d..directive, comp..tent, b..rière, r..cochet, b..cal, sovereign, k..libri.

CONCLUSION

To summarize, we can say that the variety of rules of Russian orthography is explained, on the one hand, by the peculiarities of the phonetic and grammatical structure of the Russian language, the specifics of its development, and on the other hand, by interaction with other languages, both Slavic and non-Slavic. The result of the latter is a large number of words of non-Russian origin, the spelling of which has to be memorized.

When working on the development of spelling skills in students, it is necessary to rely on knowledge of the basic principles of spelling at school, as well as take into account the age and psychological characteristics of children, the characteristics of the topic being studied, etc.

LIST OF SOURCES USED

1.Baranov, M.T. Methods of teaching the Russian language: a textbook for pedagogical students. institutes for special No. 2101 “Rus. language or T." / M.T. Baranov, T.A. Ladyzhenskaya, M.R. Lvov and others - M.: Education, 1990. - 368 p.

2.Litnevskaya, E.I. Methods of teaching the Russian language in secondary school: a textbook for higher education students educational institutions/ E.I. Litnevskaya, V.A. Bagryantseva. - M.: Academic project, 2006. - 590 p.

.Babansky, Yu.K. Selected pedagogical works / Yu.K. Babansky. - M.: Pedagogy, 1989.

.Ivanova, V.F. Principles of Russian spelling / V.F. Ivanova. - Leningrad: Leningrad State University Publishing House, 1977. - 229 p.

.Bozhenko, L.N. Modern Russian orthography as a system in comparison with Belarusian orthography: educational method. A manual for students. higher educational institutions studying in special fields: 1-020302 Russian language and literature; Russian language and literature. Additional specialty / L.N. Bozhenko. - Mozyr: Moscow State Pedagogical University named after. I.P. Shamakina, 2011. - 183 p.

.Ivanova, V.F. Modern Russian orthography: a textbook for philologists. specialist. universities / V.F. Ivanova. - M.: Higher. school, 1991. - 192 p.

.Khmelevskaya, E.S. Modern Russian language: Graphics. Spelling / E.S. Khmelevskaya, T.G. Kozyreva. - Mn.: graduate School, 1981. - 175 p.

.Shansky, N.M. Modern Russian language: a textbook for pedagogical students. Institute for specialties No. 2101 “Rus. language and lit.": at 3 o'clock / N.M. Shansky, V.V. Ivanov. - 2nd ed., rev. And additional - M.: Education, 1987. - Part 1: Introduction. Vocabulary. Phraseology. Phonetics. Graphics and spelling. - 192 p.

.Ivanova, V. F. Modern Russian language. Graphics and spelling: textbook. manual for pedagogical students. Institute with a degree in Russian. language or T." / V.F. Ivanova. - 2nd ed., revised. and additional - M.: Education, 1976. - 228 p.

.Babaytseva, V.V. Principles of Russian spelling / V.V. Babaytseva // Russian language at school. - 2008. - No. 3. - P. 33-38.

.Kuzmina, S.M. Theory of Russian spelling / S.M. Kuzmina. - M.: Nauka, 1981. - 263.

.Murina, L.A. Russian language: textbook for 5th grade. general education Institutions with Belarusian and Russian language training: at 2 hours. Part 2 / L.A. Murina, F.M. Litvinko, G.I. Nikolaenko. - Minsk: Nat. Institute of Education, 2009. - 144 p.

.Modern Russian language. In 3 parts. Ch-1., N.M. Shansky, V.V. Ivanov. M., "Enlightenment", 1987

.Matusevich, M.I. Modern Russian language. Phonetics / M.I. Matusevich. - M., 1976.

.L.L. Bulanin. Phonetics of the modern Russian language. M., “Higher School”, 1970

.Textbook "Russian Language" edited by L.L. Kasatkina (Moscow, ACADEMIA 2001).

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Basic principles of spelling

The first part of orthography - the letter designation of the sound composition of words - is its main part, since it corresponds more than other parts to the general letter-sound type of modern Russian writing and is directly related to two other factors of writing - the alphabet and graphics. The basic principle of this part and Russian orthography in general is morphological.

The morphological principle of spelling consists in the requirement (or establishment) of a uniform (within positional alternation sounds) writing morphemes (each specific morpheme separately: a given root, a given suffix, etc.), even if they are pronounced differently when the phonetic positions change. For example: word root city should always be written the same way - city-, although it is pronounced differently in different words and word forms: [ burnt], [proud]A, [city]A, at[gur't] and so on. Through uniform notation of morphemes, uniform spelling of words is achieved, which is the ultimate goal of orthography.

But the morphological principle is not the only possible principle of the orthography of letter-sound writing. In Russian writing there are other principles of spelling: phonetic (or purely sound), phonemic (phonemic), historical (traditional), etc. (there is also a differentiating principle).

The phonetic principle of spelling orients writing directly towards pronunciation: its main rule is “Write as you pronounce it!” Uniform spelling of words is achieved through uniform designation of individual speech sounds. The phonetic principle is used, for example, in Serbian and Belarusian orthography. In Russian writing, based on this principle, it would be possible to write something like vada, sat, gorath, piti and so on. Prefixes are written phonetically h (With): distribute — pull apart and etc.

With the phonemic principle, uniform spelling of words is achieved through uniform designation of phonemes. Some researchers believe that modern Russian orthography is built precisely on this principle. It is written mountain, garden, since in the roots of these words, from the point of view of the Moscow phonological school, phonemes /O/ And /d/. From the point of view of the St. Petersburg school, here the phonemes are respectively /A/ And /T/. In general, it is very difficult to be guided by the phonemic principle.

The historical principle of spelling advocates traditional spelling. Its main requirement can be briefly expressed by the formula: “Write as you wrote before!” (This principle is widely used in English spelling.) Traditionally spelled O in words O ding, O weight, With O tank and etc.

The differentiating principle consists in distinguishing in writing what is indistinguishable in pronunciation, although different in meaning: To A company And To O company, pla h (noun) - pla whose (leading, inclined verb), that w — that sew.

Guided by the phonetic principle, it is difficult to follow pronunciation when writing. In addition, pronunciation does not have strict uniformity: it is not without reason that we can say that everyone speaks and hears in their own way. If you are guided only by the phonetic principle, then achieving uniformity in writing is almost impossible.

The phonemic principle will require writers to do the very complex and difficult work of translating specific speech sounds—phoneme variants—into phonemes. In addition, the issue of the phonemic composition of words has not been resolved. Therefore, if the same facts of writing can be interpreted from the point of view of both phonemic and morphological principles, as is noted for many spellings ( garden, mountain, watch etc.), then it is easier to interpret them morphologically and consider the principle itself morphological.

The historical principle of spelling is designed mainly for memory and, as a result, is very irrational.

The differentiating principle has a very narrow scope of application - distinguishing certain homonyms (homophones) in writing. Therefore, it is usually not even considered a principle, but is only spoken of as differentiating spellings.

Unlike other principles, the morphological principle of spelling is characterized by high meaningfulness and significant simplicity. Orthography based on the morphological principle seems to be the most advanced and promising.

1. Spelling. History of Russian spelling.

2. Phonemic basis of Russian spelling.

3. The main parts of Russian spelling.

4. Basic principles of Russian spelling: phonetic, morphological, differentiating, traditional.

5. The concept of spelling. List of Russian spellings.

6. Orthographic analysis of words and text.

7. The difference between Russian spelling and the spelling of the native language

THEORETICAL PART

Spelling(Greek orthos ‘correct’ and grapho ‘I write’) – a system of rules for writing words. There are five sections in spelling:

1) transmission of phonemic composition by letters;

2) continuous, separate and hyphenated spellings of words and their parts;

3) use of uppercase and lowercase letters;

4) ways to transfer part of a word from one line to another;

5) graphic abbreviations of words.

Spelling- this is a spelling of a word that is selected from a number of graphically possible ones and corresponds to a certain spelling principle. For example, in the word briefcase The following theoretical spellings are possible: letters O(may be written A), R(may be written pp), T(may be written d, tt, dd), f(may be written ff), l(may be written ll). Any of these substitutions will be a spelling error in which the pronunciation of the word remains the same.

Each section of spelling is characterized by certain principles (general principles for writing words and morphemes with the choice provided by graphics): morphological, phonetic, traditional, differentiating principles.

The leading principle of Russian spelling is morphological principle. The essence of the morphological principle of Russian spelling is that all significant parts of a word (roots, prefixes, suffixes, inflections), repeated in different words and forms, are always written the same way, regardless of how they are pronounced. For example, the root morpheme is water- is written the same in all words with the same root, although pronounced differently: [ water] s, [ vΛd] A, [ vad] yanoy, [ vΛd"] Ichka, under[ water] ny; root morpheme –earth-/-earth-/earth- all words are written with a vowel E regardless of pronunciation: [z"iml"]i, [z"eml"] And, [ z"im"el"]ny, [ z"iml"] true, oh[ z"м"] etc. Console from- spelled the same in words [ from] start, [ od]was, [ Λt]let's go, even though it's pronounced differently. Suffix – sk- in the words pol[sk]y and de[ts]ky are pronounced differently, but they are always written - sk-; flexion -e- in the dative case in word forms pine trees e And village e also pronounced differently, but spelled the same way. The morphological principle of spelling unites a group of rules that are the application of this principle to specific linguistic facts.

List of spellings, related to the morphological principle:

1. Spelling of unstressed vowels, checked by stress, at the root of the word: g O ra /mountains/, x O die /hod/, r O bottom /ró/.

2. Spelling of voiceless and voiced consonants: Moro h/moro PS/, gr here/gro here/, lo d ka/lo before chka/, time d ki /porya before To/.

3. Spelling of unpronounceable consonants: with lnc e/co Lne chny /, lovely stn about /prele there is/, se rdc e/ser de chko/.

4. Spelling of suffixes of adjectives: -n-, -onn-, -enn-, etc.: limo nn oh, substances enne oh, station nny y.

5. Spelling “n” and “nn” in adverbs: spark nn e/spark nn y/, unexpected nn o / nejda nn y/, puta n o/puta n y/, wind n about /wind n y/.

6. Spelling the particle NOT with different parts of speech: Not Fine, not X odil, not p figuring out the paths, Not deep river, Not Truth.

7. Spelling case endings nouns: books e/D.p./, in the village e/P.p./, from the station And/R.p./, oh happiness e/P.p./.

Phonetic principle spelling is that the spelling corresponds to the sound appearance of the word. Typically, this principle manifests itself when transmitting phonetic alternations in the same morpheme in writing.

List of spellings, related to the phonetic principle:

1. The use of the soft sign /b/ to indicate the softness of consonants in writing: bo l noah, bo ry bah, morko ve, thought t, ne chk ah, kame nsch ik.

2. Spelling of consonant prefixes: from-/is-, voz-/vos-, raz-/ras-, etc.: WHO growth, sun becoming, races tale, once run, is scoop from attracted.

3. Spelling of vowels “ы”, “и” after prefixes: without s active, before s blowing, counter And gra, over And refined.

4. Spelling complex words using a connecting vowel: earth e shaking, steam O stroke, water O WHO.

Traditional principle spelling is that the spelling fixed by tradition is legitimized. When conveying the phonemic composition of a word, the traditional principle of spelling is applied in cases where checking a weak position with a strong position is impossible, since in a given morpheme the phoneme does not occur in a strong position: with O tank, t O since, since A pog, in To hall, ugh T bol. In these words, the choice of letters is not motivated (i.e. not explained) by modern linguistic patterns.

List of spellings related to the traditional principle:

1. Spelling of unchecked unstressed vowels in the roots of words: pr And V And Legia, wholesale And mism, m And n And atura, hum A low

2. Spelling of vowels “a”, “i”, “u” after hissing ones: live yeah, cha one hundred, I feel ka, cha chips, chu before.

3. Spelling of vowels “i”, “s” after sibilants and “ts”: tsy gan, qi rk, qi tata, qi rkul, tsy films.

4. Spelling of double consonants in borrowed words: mi ll ion, and mm unity, compromise ss, cut ss er.

5. Spelling of vowels “a”, “o” at the end of adverbs: long ago A, left O.

6. Spelling adverbs with a hyphen: in my opinion, still.

7. Spelling of numerals: dev I news O, half O races that.

8. Hyphenated spelling of particles: after all, right after all, after all.

Differentiating principle spelling distinguishes in writing word forms that coincide in phonemic composition: burn (noun, in the form of ip, singular) – burn (verb in the form of the indicative mood, past tense); Eagle (city) – eagle (bird); company (seed, subscription) – company (circle of people).

List of spellings related to the differentiating principle:

1. Use of capital letters : IN supreme WITH advice

2. Spelling of alternating vowels in the root of the word: a/o; i/e; a, I/im; a, i/in: growth for grew up Lisa nya yeah, for him ah, for bir ay, for ber u.

3. Spelling of vowels “o” and “e” after sibilants and “ts” at the root of the word, in suffixes and endings: sh e sweat, desh e vyy, key O m, wolf O nok.

4. The use of the soft sign /b/ to indicate grammatical forms: re whose/noun, f.r., 3 letters/, me h/noun, m.r., 2 lines/.

5. Spelling of the dividing hard /Ъ/ and soft /b/ signs: once ъ let's go, okay b I'm in front of ъ anniversary, wood b I, sparrow b And.

6. Spelling of prefixes PRE- and PRI: at carry, at decorate, at sit down pre huge, pre hail

7. Spelling of indefinite and relative pronouns: some, someone, someone, no one.

8. Hyphenated and continuous spelling of complex nouns, adjectives and adverbs: northeast, a long time ago, locomotive, easily soluble, pale pink, world-historical.

9. Spelling of the prefixes NE- and NI-: nowhere, nowhere.

10. Spelling of homonymous conjunctions: whatever, that.

The basic principles on which the rules of continuous, separate and hyphenated spelling of words are based are defined as lexical-syntactic and word-formation-grammatical.

Lexico-syntactic principle based on the distinction between words and phrases. Based on taking into account semantic relationships, either combined or separate spellings are constructed. On the one hand, there may be free phrases here: quickly cutting, quickly spoiling, easily wounded, difficult to pronounce; on the other hand, complex words: fast-cutting, perishable etc. In this case, a syntactic feature is taken into account: if the first component answers the question k and k?, then it is an independent member of the sentence and is written separately, for example ward of lightly wounded soldiers and a soldier slightly wounded in the arm.

The same principle is followed when distinguishing between adverbs and nouns with a preposition: to peer(what?) into the distance – look(Where?) into the distance; d act(How?) at random – hope(for what?) for good luck.

Word formation and grammatical principle determines the continuous or hyphenated (semi-continuous) spelling of complex adjectives and nouns, taking into account the formal criterion: the presence or absence of a suffix in the first part of complex adjectives and connecting vowels O And e in compound nouns. Let's compare the spelling of the following adjectives: fruit and fruit ovo-grape, carpet weaving and carpet ovo- weaving, fat and milk fat n o-milk and so on. If there is no suffix in the first part of a complex adjective, then the word is written together. If there is a suffix, then the word is written with a hyphen. Nouns with connecting vowels O or e written together: brush cutter, forest protection, iron ore, surveyor, guide; nouns without a connecting vowel are written with a hyphen: stroller bag, cash register, sofa bed, diesel pump, cafe-dining room and so on.

PRACTICAL TASKS:

1. Compile a dictionary of linguistic terms on the topic “Spelling”.

2. Get acquainted with scheme No. 7 “Orthographic analysis of text” (Ibid. P.35). Analyze a sample of orthographic analysis of the text (Ibid. pp. 35-37).

3. Explain what phonetic law and what phonetic patterns underlie spelling rules.

1) Spelling of unstressed vowels in the roots of words.

2) Spelling E and O in the roots of words after sibilants.

3) Spelling Y and I after consonant prefixes.

4) Spelling of voiceless and voiced consonants before consonants and at the end of words.

5) Spelling a combination of consonants with the loss of one of them during pronunciation.

6) Spelling of prefixes in Z.

7) Use of a soft sign in writing.

4. What is the meaning (phonetic, morphological, dividing) of b in the spellings of these words?

Nov, steppe, stump, chest, speech, lie down, mouse, rain, eat, cut, drink, blizzard.

5. What rules govern the use of the letters I - Y after C?

Ts...fra, ts...armor, armor, thick ends..., golden crown..., ts...gan, ts...films, on ts...kidneys, ts...ts.

6. Use the letters O or E (Ё) after the sibilants in the roots of the following words related to different parts speech. What rules govern the choice of the letter O or E? Which of them correspond to the morphological principle and which do not?

F... yellow, f... lud, light... g (match), burn... ha, goat... penetrated, burn... ra, burn... g (on hand), set fire... g (barn), come... l, burn... g ( paper), slum...ba, ush...l, black, black...hearty, black...pornous, sh...v (on the dress).

7. Insert the missing letters and determine which spellings they should be classified as: reference (determined by pronunciation), test or unverifiable (unchecked).

1) The sun was leaning towards the west. The sun's heat and shine were replaced by the coolness of the night (L. Tolstoy). 2) And the east is still raging, heating up (Nikitin). 3) She endures both hunger and cold, she is always patient, dear (Nekrasov). 4) The leader has... taken up with the horse (Pushkin). 5) The ... glow brightened the snowy forest (A. Tolstoy). 6) Uncle Peter lay in a hole softly lined with snow, leaning his back against a scorched log (Gorky). 7) Autumn fell in the garden, but the leaves of our birch remained green and alive (Paustovsky). 8) Z...l...thick heaps of...l...we lie on the collective farm currents (Isakovsky). 9) He just caught my eye, and it’s surprising that I didn’t notice earlier how nice the alder tree in the forest is (Soloukhin).

8. Group these words in accordance with the principles of Russian spelling, which determine the use of highlighted letters.

About With ba, pl O vec, be With noisy, With destroy, candle O th, so l ntse, desh e vyy, brocade O howl, earthen, cricket O k, ts s gan, ra With color, w And t, (in) hello e, ra With scripture, (on) battery e, n And where, boron e msya, st A rick, popl A wok, sp And pour, ches T ness, prestige d write, cloud e y, key And k, freckles A ty, (k) daughter And, ska h ka.

9. Insert the missing letters and underline them. In parentheses, indicate the principles of spelling on which these spellings are based, and the names of the spelling rules that you need to know in order to spell these words correctly.

Sample. Better pose...but than n...never. Late(morphological, spelling of unpronounceable consonants), never(differentiated, spelling of negative pronominal adverbs).

1) F...t - Serve the Motherland.

2) The thing... is good... new, but the other... is old.

3) M...lch...nye - a sign of agreement.

4) Don’t put a…pl…current on your…

5) It’s not the gods who burn the bastards.

6) There is no m...more friend...than dear mother...

7) Ugh...thief d...rozhe dene...

8) The tail g...l...ve not uka...ka.

9) Bread... - eat salt..., but tell the truth.

10) X...rouge...speeches are pleasant...to listen to.

11) Damn the cat, whose meat it ate.

12) Go beyond the edge of the river... fearfully into battle.

10. Carry out a spelling analysis of the following words:

Threshing, descend, low, enter, pasture, find, feeling, burn, bake, valley, pre-infarction, post-infarction, bend, dawn, girl, hot, gigantic, mud, house, town, predict, health, mow, awl, agency.

LITERATURE

1. Avanesov R.I., Sidorov V.N. Spelling reform in connection with the problems of the written language // Reformatsky A.A. From the history of Russian phonology. M., 1970.

2. Bukchina G.Z., Kalakutskaya L.P., Cheltsova L.K. Letters about spelling. M., 1975.

3. Dibrova E.I., Kasatkin L.L., Shcheboleva I.I. Modern Russian language: Theory. Analysis of linguistic units: In 3 parts: Part 1: Phonetics and orthoepy. Graphics and spelling. Lexicology and phraseology. Morphemics and word formation: Textbook. for philologist specialist. higher textbook head /Ed. E.I. Dibrova.- Rostov-on-Don. 1997. pp. 77-86.

4. Kolokolova L.P. Educational and methodological materials on the modern Russian language: For 1st-3rd year students in the specialties “03 29 00 – Russian language and literature”, “03 30 00 – Native language and literature." Sterlitamak, 2003.

5. Linguistic and methodological map of the modern Russian language. Part 1. Phonetics. Graphic arts. Spelling. Sterlitamak, 1990.

6. Rosenthal D.E., Golub I.B., Telenkova M.A. Modern Russian language: Textbooks for universities. M., 2000. P.159-162.

7. Russian grammar. In 2 volumes. T. 1. Phonetics. Phonology. Emphasis. Intonation. Word formation. M., 1982. pp. 96-122.

8. Modern Russian language. In 3 parts. Textbook for pedagogical students. Inst. Part 1. Introduction. Vocabulary. Phraseology. Phonetics. Graphics and spelling / N.M. Shansky, V.V. Ivanov. – M., 1981. P.179-187.

9. Modern Russian language: Textbook / Beloshapkova V.A. and etc.; Ed. V.A. Beloshapkova. – M., 1981. P. 122 132.

10. Shcherba L.V. Basic principles of Russian spelling and its social significance// Selected works on the Russian language. M., 1957.

LABORATORY WORKS

LABORATORY WORK No. 1

Two branches of the science of language are devoted to recording speech in writing: graphics and spelling. These terms also have a second meaning. The term graphics refers to a set of writing tools used to record speech. The main means of graphics are letters.

The second meaning of the term spelling is a set of rules that provide a uniform way of writing words and their forms.

Spelling and graphics are closely related to each other, therefore these sections in the science of language are considered interconnected.1

Spelling rules are established on the basis of orthographic principles.

So, L.V. Shcherba identified 4 principles of spelling:

• 1. phonetic; 2) etymological, or word production, otherwise morphological; 3) historical;
• 4. ideographic.2

L.L. Kasatkin identifies the following principles of spelling: phonemic (basic), morphematic (or morphological), traditional, phonetic, lexicosyntactic and differentiating spellings.3

The main traditionally distinguished principles of spelling are phonetic, morphological, traditional.

According to V.F. Ivanova, “...spelling principles are regulating ideas for choosing letters where a sound (phoneme) can be indicated variably.”4

PRINCIPLES OF RUSSIAN SPELLING

Given the diversity of “ideas” governing modern letter, it is advisable to highlight the following principles of spelling:

• 1. phonetic (phonetic spellings);
• 2. morphemic;
• 3. morphological;
• 4. syntactic;
• 5. traditional;
• 6. semantic.5

The identified principles are determined by the structural and semantic organization of the language system, the structure and meaning of its units.6

Let's consider the highlighted principles.

The phonetic principle is characteristic of both graphics and spelling.

Russian writing as a whole is phonetic, since the sounds in it usually correspond to “their” letters. So, the words [table], [house], [gift], [sail] and the like are written in accordance with the pronunciation. This type of writing is called sound-letter or letter-sound. The different names are due to different approaches: “from sound to letter” or “from letter to sound.” More scientific, of course, is the sound-to-letter approach.7

The letter-to-sound approach is central to the book.

V.F. Ivanova “Modern Russian language. Graphics and spelling" (Moscow, 1976).

The approach from letter to sound is the main one in the theoretical part of school textbooks, although there is also another approach, for example: indicating the softness of consonants in writing.8

The phonetic principle is the leading principle of Russian graphics. Considering the influence of pronunciation (sound) on some spellings, the phonetic principle is also included among the principles of Russian orthography.

The phonetic principle regulates the writing of the letters 3 and C in the prefixes: without-, voz-, vz-, from-, raz-, roz-, niz-, through-, through-. The letter 3 is written if followed by a voiced consonant, and C - if it is unvoiced: cf. mediocrity - stupidity.

In the prefixes raz- (ras-) and roz- (ros-), A is written under stress, and O in an unstressed position.

The influence of pronunciation is also reflected in spellings such as search, joke, search, artless, etc.

The frequency discrepancy between the sound and the letter determines the need for other principles, of which the main one is morphemic.

Researchers called the morphemic principle of spelling morphological and recognized it as the main, leading principle of spelling. It is advisable to differentiate morphemic and morphological principles, since each of them serves as a justification for different spellings.

The morphemic principle determines the preservation of the graphic unity of morphemes (roots, prefixes, suffixes). The graphic unity of these morphemes is usually not associated 206 with the place of stress, which determines positional changes vowels

in the roots: garden, gardens, gardener; in prefixes: record, note, write down; in suffixes: singer, hotel, chicken.

Deviations from the uniform spelling of morphemes are associated primarily with the alternation of sounds (phonemes) determined by their pronunciation (the action of the phonetic principle), position, historical reasons, etc.

A large number of spelling rules take into account the graphic (literal) unity of morphemes. Thus, the main rule determining the writing of vowels in roots without stress is the selection of words with the same root with a stressed vowel. For example, water - water, window - windows, etc.

Most prefixes maintain uniform spelling regardless of stress, part of speech, or lexical meaning of words. Such prefixes include prefixes in-, for-, on-, to-, from-, etc. However, there are prefixes that react to the subsequent sound. The prefix s- is preserved before voiced consonants: [s[begat - run away, but, for example, the prefix will not change its graphic appearance before voiceless consonants: restless - restless.

Gst and prefixes, the spelling of which is regulated by the lexical meanings of words. Such prefixes include when- and ire-: to arrive (= to arrive), but to remain (to be somewhere), etc.

Most of the suffixes retain the unity of spelling regardless of stress, for example: -liv- - talkative, helpful; -from- - work, kindness; -nick- - rider, conductor, waterman, etc.

PRINCIPLES OF RUSSIAN SPELLING

There are suffixes, the spelling of which depends on a number of conditions: on the preceding consonant (for example, bear cub, but foal); from the place of stress in the word (snowball, but ravine), etc.

The literal uniformity of the roots can be determined by the combination of Russianisms and Church Slavonicisms in one nest: head - head, coast - coast; counselor - leader, clothes - clothes; night - night, daughter - daughter, etc.

Such alternations are possible in prefixes (for example, stand up - rise up) and suffixes (for example, standing - standing).

The morphological principle9 determines the spelling of word endings when they change. This principle is based on a number of rules related to the declension and conjugation of modified words.

The ending, unlike other morphemes (word-forming ones), is an inflectional morpheme. The rules for writing endings in a significant number of cases are determined by the word’s belonging to the part of speech.

There are a large number of rules determining the spelling of the endings of inflected words, regulated by the morphological principle of spelling.

The syntactic principle of spelling regulates the continuous, hyphenated and separate spellings of words highlighted “in the speech stream” in their syntactic connections.

Let us note some cases of spelling regulated by syntactic conditions:

• 1. spelling of words included in the transition zone formed by interacting parts of speech10;
• 2. some continuous, hyphenated and separate spellings.

The spelling of words included in the transition zone and characterized by syncretism of properties is the Achilles heel of Russian graphics and spelling.

It is with this group of words that the problems of continuous, hyphenated and separate spelling are primarily associated, which “have already lagged behind the crows, but have not yet reached the peahens.” Determining the place of such words on the transitivity scale is not always easy.

SPELLING AND PUNCTUATION ISSUES

The oppositional links are link A (the source is the separate spelling of words that retain full syntactic and semantic independence) and link B, which presents fused and hyphenated spellings.

The largest number of “difficult” words to write is associated with the adverbialization of prepositional-case combinations. Such words occupy syncretic links on the transitivity scale: Ab, AB and aB.

Separate spellings are typical for words of the Ab link when adverbialization is just beginning, that is, when the prepositional-case combination still retains substantive components in semantics, performing the functions of adverbials. The presence of substantive semes can be evidenced by agreed and inconsistent definitions: at the (very) top of the roof.

In the AB unit, the spelling of syncretic combinations is the most debatable: under the arm and under the arms, under the arm and under the arms. The possibility of continuous writing is due to the weakening or even loss of the lexical meaning of the word mouse.11

In link aB there are words in which the substantive component of the semantics of the noun is weakened, but... its presence, although weak, allows in some cases definitions, at least in the form of the word most, which strengthens the substantive seme in the “former” noun: on (most )fly; In fact...

The absence of distinct markers for words in the links of the syncretic zone, the active process of adverbialization, preservation of the original source (the basis for the formation of adverbs), etc. - all this (and not only this!) creates difficulties for differentiating separate and combined spellings of prepositional combinations as a function of circumstances.

There is no uniformity in the writing of semi-nominal prepositions. Wed: within an hour, for a week, but due to illness, etc. 12 Compare:

(to have) in mind - in view of sorts - like to meet - towards at the expense - about in spite of - in spite of the fly - to death from evil - out of spite at the expense of - about into the distance - into the distance firstly - around

PRINCIPLES OF RUSSIAN SPELLING

Separate and combined spellings of the above words are determined by their syntactic functions, compatibility with other words (cf.: to meet a friend - to meet a friend).

The uncertainty of the combined and separate spellings noted above is due to their position in the zone of transition formed by the opposition: A - a noun with prepositions - B - an adverb.

No less difficult to spell are the passive participles of the present and past tenses, which have undergone adjectivation. The transition zone, represented by a scale where A is a participle, B - (or aB) is an adjective, is characterized by a large number of cases where it is difficult to resolve the issue of continuous and separate spelling of NOT even in the presence of bright marker words dependent on the “participle” (? ) or "adjective".

We will give only examples of phrases with postpositive and prepositive dependent words to show different degrees of adjectivation of the agreed forms.

I. (not) visible to the world tears (not) thoughts expressed in words (not) a reflection perceptible to the eye by anyone (not) offended pigeons (not) a comparable feeling

II. no one (not) seen strange (not) feather grass outraged by the wind (not) student admitted to the exam (not) defeated by doctors people (not) crime proven by the investigator by no one (not) spoken word

Morphemic composition of agreed word forms (word-forming suffixes of passive participles of the present and past tense) and the presence of dependent words

keeps them in the participle system, but in their categorical meaning the verbal semes are clearly weakened. Finding the place of such words on the transitivity scale is not easy, and therefore it is difficult to determine whether to write NOT together or separately.

SPELLING AND PUNCTUATION ISSUES

Differentiation of continuous and hyphenated spellings large quantity complex adjectives is associated with the distinction between coordinating and subordinating phrases.

Complex adjectives formed from subordinating phrases are written together: agriculture - agricultural (institute); Railway- train); white marble - white marble (palace); able to pay - solvent (factory); frost-resistant - frost-resistant (variety), etc.

Compound adjectives formed from coordinating phrases, written with a hyphen: chess 210 and checkers - chess-checkers (tournament); commercial and industrial - commercial and industrial (complex); search and rescue - search and rescue (work); question and answer - question and answer (replicas), etc.

In some cases, adjectives in a coordinating phrase can be connected by the conjunction not only..., but also... For example: not only electronic, but also computing - electronic computing (machines).

Phrases are written through a hyphen, including a defined word (more general in meaning) and an application (more specific in meaning): philologist, civil engineer, correspondence student, vulture eagle, white hare, etc. Such formations are characterized by different degree of unity: dining car, house museum, estate museum, sofa bed, rocking chair, etc.

Some complex words are formed as a result of the merger of subordinate phrases: crazy, insane, forward-looking (but looking ahead), fast-flowing, evergreen, long-lasting, five-day, thousand-year, etc.

The examples given are not exhaustive big list orthographic spellings, which are based on syntactic units, most often various kinds of phrases. This is explained by the functional and systemic proximity of the phrase and the word.

The traditional (historical, etymological) principle regulates “writings that... no longer have support in modern word-formation and formative relations or in the phonetic system, but are preserved only by tradition.”13

PRINCIPLES OF RUSSIAN SPELLING

The traditional spellings are:

• a) zhi, shi: life - [zhyztg], cone - [pgypgk];
• b) a soft sign after sibilants (a soft sign, which once denoted the softness of the preceding consonant, is currently a means of differentiating masculine and masculine nouns female): ball - rye, raincoat - help, etc.
• c) qi: circus - [tsirk] (words in which qi is written (cycle, cylinder, zinga, quote, figure) are borrowed), but gypsy, chicken, tsyts, on tiptoe;
• d) “g” at the endings of adjectives and other adjectival words: white - [bolvъ], mine - [myievo], etc.;
• e) spelling of so-called “dictionary” words with an unstressed unverified vowel at the root: boot, ram, dog, iron, etc.

The semantic principle differentiates the lexical and grammatical meanings of words:

• A) lexical meanings: develop - flutter, company (friends) - (election) campaign;
• b) lexical and grammatical meanings: burn (hands) - burn (hand), (act) at random - (hope) for luck, cry (child) - (not) cry.

Works on orthography do not always illustrate the principles of orthography in the same way. One of the reasons for this discrepancy is that many spellings are governed by more than one principle. So, often the phonetic principle complements the main one - the actual orthographic one.

Sometimes the writings of the same group are governed by different principles. Thus, the transfer of part of words to another line is determined by phonetic (transfer across syllables) and morphemic (preservation of the integrity of morphemes) principles.

The spelling of the particles NOT and NI is regulated by all of the above principles (and not only them!).14 Thus, the phonetic principle determines the spelling of NOT and NI (with an accent it is written NOT, without an accent - NI): someone - no one,

something - nothing, nowhere - nowhere, once - never, etc. These spellings also differentiate the lexical meanings of the corresponding pronouns.

SPELLING AND PUNCTUATION ISSUES

The morphemic principle regulates the combined and separate spellings of pronouns such as: no one - no one, no one - carried by whom, etc.

The influence of the morphological principle is especially significant. The rule: “Not with verbs, gerunds, with short participles, with numerals, and also (most often) with state names is written separately” is one of the basic system rules.

The syntactic principle regulates the spelling of NOT and NI both as part of sentences and as part of stable combinations of words. Let us note some cases.

a) The particle is NOT written in rhetorical questions: Who 212 of us is not mistaken? We learn from mistakes. (M. Bubenkov.)

Which writer has not used metaphor! (V. Kataev.)

b) The particle NI is characteristic of subordinate clauses with conjunctive words who neither, that nor, how nor, where nor, wherever, etc.: Whatever you think about me, I don’t care. (N. Pomyalovsky.)

The rule about separate writing with implied opposition can be interpreted subjectively. Wed: The road is not long, but short. The road is not long if you wait with a friend.

A sentence without opposition markers can be interpreted subjectively.

c) The particle is NOT written in interrogative sentences with a rhematic frame NE... LI (L)?15:

Guys! Isn't Moscow behind us? (M. Lermontov.)

I asked: is it a demon of discord?

Did he move your hand mockingly? (N. Nekrasov.)

Aren't you ashamed to suffer for so long

Me with empty cruel expectation? (A. Pushkin.)

Isn’t it true? I met you... (A. Pushkin.)

• - We are all human. Is not it? (Ch. Aitmatov.)
• d) The repeating particle NI performs the functions of a coordinating conjunction:

Neither power nor life amuse me. (A. Pushkin.)

I can't see the light of the sun,

There is no room for my roots. (I. Krylov.)

The conjunction particle NI is often included in stable combinations formed on the basis of coordinating phrases: neither fish nor meat; neither give nor take; for nothing, about nothing; neither more nor less, etc.

PRINCIPLES OF RUSSIAN SPELLING

Syntactic conditions transform the particle NI into a conjunction. And vice versa - the union turns into a particle in stable combinations. These transformations are the result of the interaction of syntax and morphology.

The semantic principle governs the spelling of particles NOT and NI. Semantics differentiate the spelling of NOT and NI as part of one sentence: NOT expresses the negation of the predicative attribute (part of the predicate), and NI strengthens the main negation (amplifying NI can be part of negative pronouns): Not a single human foot has yet stepped on its extraordinary domain . (A. Gaidar.)

• a) NOT and NOR are written together with words that are not used without them: ignorant, perplexed, undergrown, impossible, bride, etc.; worthless, worthless, sent down, etc.
• b) NOT and NOR are used as meaning distinguishers: no one else, but nothing more than...; someone - no one, once - never... Often different spellings are corrected by stress (phonetic principle).

One sentence can have several spellings, the spelling of which is governed by different spelling principles. So, in the sentence What goes around comes around, the spelling of the pronoun that (what, to what...), prefixes po- (cf. call, understand, etc.) obey the morphemic principle.

Vowel at the end of a 2nd person verb singular what you sow is governed by the morphological principle.

The soft sign after the hissing ones (what goes around comes around) is explained by historical reasons.

In other cases, the phonetic principle of graphics applies: each sound is designated by its “own” letter.

The spelling of some words may define several principles. Thus, in the word windless, the spelling of the root -wind- is determined by the phonetic principle; the spelling of the prefix is ​​not regulated by morphemic (letter e) and phonetic (letter b from) principles; The spelling of the suffix -enn- is explained by the peculiarities of word production: the word bezvetrenny is formed from the archaic verb vetrit.

SPELLING AND PUNCTUATION ISSUES

Even monosyllabic words can illustrate the action of more than one principle: rye, mouse, hail, cart, etc.

Based on the principles of spelling, spelling rules are formulated, grouped into groups corresponding basic principles. Knowledge of spelling rules and even spelling principles is not a guarantee of competent writing.16

Not all cases can be brought under these principles. In Russian writing there are many words with individual spellings (among such words there are many borrowings). Such cases are reflected in spelling dictionaries.

(on a note)

Spelling (from Greek orthos - correct, straight, grapho - writing)-- a branch of the science of language that studies the rules of writing words.

Spelling is also called a system of rules that establish spelling norms that are mandatory for a particular language.

Spelling includes a system of rules:

• 1) writing individual words and morphemes;
• 2) about separate, merged and hyphenated spellings;
• 3) the use of lowercase and capital letters;
• 4) graphic abbreviations of words;
• 5) word wrapping;

The main, leading principle of Russian orthography is the morphological (morphematic, phonemic) principle. It consists in maintaining the unity of writing morphemes regardless of their sound in different phonetic conditions. The spellings of phonemes in a strong position (phonemic spellings) are preserved: x [o] dit, x [? ] dit, x [b] doki, pokh [o] dka - in the root it is written about, lo [d] ochka, lo [t] ka - in the root it is written d.

The morphological principle operates in the writing of all morphemes: endings, roots, suffixes, prefixes: [from] start, [?t] let, [?d] fight, [?t] cut - the prefix from is written; on the chair [b], on the table [e] - ending e. All these are verifiable phonemic spellings.

The writing rules are based on the morphological principle:

• 1) unstressed vowels, verified by stress;
• 2) voiced consonants before voiceless ones and at the end of a word;
• 3) voiceless consonants before voiced ones;
• 4) words with unpronounceable consonants at the root;

Spellings that match the pronunciation are called phonetic. The spelling rules for prefixes in z are based on the phonetic principle. (to break - to saw, joyless - carefree), writing ы after ц, initial root ы instead of and after consonant prefixes (play, background), o and e in the endings of nouns and adjectives (candle, cloud, porch, mirror, fresh, large).

Traditional spellings (traditional principle)-- unchecked spellings that are not determined by the current spelling rules (dog, potatoes, glass). This includes the spellings of most loanwords (trolleybus, exam, football), endings -ого, -и in adjectives, numerals and pronouns, roots with alternating vowels, ь after hissing nouns at the end, adverbs, in verbs of the 2nd person singular present tense, writing the letter and after zh, sh and c, double consonants.

Differentiating spellings serve for distinction (differentiation) in the writing of identically sounding words and morphemes: ball - score, company - campaign, Orel (city) - eagle (bird), arson (verb) - arson (noun), with Pushkin ( instrumental case from Pushkin) - Pushkin ( instrumental case from Pushkino also (conjunction) - also (pronoun adverb + particle), into the distance (adverb) - into the distance (noun with a preposition), night (feminine noun) - - ball (masculine noun), prefixes pre- and pre-.

Orthographic principles- these are the guiding ideas for choosing a letter where the phoneme is indicated alternatively.

Each principle includes a system of separate rules.

Spelling rules and orthograms are units of spelling.

Spelling (from Greek orthos - correct, straight, gramma - letter)-- a spelling that meets the rule, which must be chosen from a number of possible ones. An orthogram is not only a letter, but also the unity/separateness of the spelling of words, upper and lowercase letters, the place of hyphenation in a word, the nature of the abbreviation of the word.

Unverified ask Khalidov

The traditional spelling of the combinations ZHI, SHI, with the letter “i”, CHA, SHCHA, with the letter “a”, CHU, SHU with the letter “u” contradicts general rule Russian orthography, according to which after hard consonants you should write not “i”, but “y”, after soft consonants - not “u”, “a”, but “yu”, “ya”.

In the elementary grades, the spelling of these combinations is learned by heart without any explanation, and, of course, cannot but cause damage to the formation of the concept of a spelling system in the minds of students.

The morphological principle is contradicted by the traditional spelling of individual words: “kalach” (according to the morphological principle, one should write “kolach”).

If morphological spellings are checked and learned on the basis of phonetic, word-formation and grammatical analysis of words and their combinations, then traditional spellings are mainly based on memorization, in the order of the so-called dictionary-spelling work. Memorization in the elementary grades plays an important role; it cannot be neglected; on the contrary, it is necessary to develop a deep system of motivations and game techniques that make it easier for children to memorize words with difficult spellings.

With the development of phonology, with the introduction of the concept of phoneme into scientific use, a new phonemic principle was proposed, which some linguists define as the basic principle of Russian orthography. But, as mentioned above, the leading role in checking spellings belongs to the morphological approach: you need to know whether the spelling is in the root, suffix, prefix or ending. And without a morphological approach, the phonemic method of verification is blind and is applicable only in the simplest, obvious cases such as “water” - “water” or “meadow” - “meadows”.

It is impossible to check the spelling of words [p shot], [long], [shyt] and many other spellings without resorting to morphological analysis. The morphological principle explains all these cases; in other words, the morphological principle is wider than the phonemic one; it covers a significantly larger number of spellings than the phonetic one. The authors of most textbooks for universities consider the morphological and phonemic principles in close connection, but however not equal, since the phonetic principle is part of the morphological one.

1.3. Differentiating spellings.

Integrated, semi-merged and separate spellings of words.

In Russian orthography, there are known writing techniques that are not characteristic of the entire writing system as a whole, but are particular rules that complement the entire writing system. Such private rules also provide for differentiating spellings.

Differentiating spellings are those in which words are pronounced the same way, but are designated differently in writing. In this case, spelling serves to distinguish:

1) different meanings words: company - campaign, ball - point, coccyx - coccyx;

2) different grammatical classes and grammatical forms (therefore differentiating spellings are sometimes called grammatical): noun m.r. and f.r. mascara - female form, carcass - m.r., erysipelas - plural gender; rye - f.r. 3skol.

3) different parts of speech: burn - noun, burn - verb, cry - noun, cry - imperative mood of the verb;

4) proper and common nouns: Eagle (city) – eagle (bird).

Differentiating spellings are rare, they make up 4% of all spellings.

Continuous, semi-continuous and separate spellings, as well as differentiating ones, are private rules. The main pattern of Russian spelling is the separate spelling of words when constructing sentences, but this was not always the case. In the ancient monuments of writing, the text was not divided into sentences, and sentences did not break up into words, forming a continuous series of letters in one line. But when reading the documents this caused certain difficulties. Separate writing developed only in the 17th and 18th centuries.

In a language, the process of word formation is constantly underway; during this formation, lexical units can lose their independence and turn into one word, but this process occurs slowly, gradually.

Semi-fused (hyphenated) spellings reflect the incompleteness of the transformation of two lexical units into one whole (word), and merged spellings reflect the completeness of this process. In orthography, the semantic unity of words receives structural expression: the presence of connecting vowels, one-stress, one-formed inflection (shipbuilding, land surveyor).

However, modern rules about continuous and semi-continuous spellings are quite complex and in some respects contradictory, but it is still possible to identify a number of rules relating to different parts of speech.

Written with a hyphen:

1. Difficult words, formed by repeating the same word with or without different prefixes: a little, live-live, barely, big-very big.

2. Words with foreign language prefixes: ex-, ober-, un-, ter-, leib-, shtabs-, vice-: ex-champion.

3. Special terms, which include individual letters of the alphabet and numbers: ZIL-150, TU-134.

4. Some complex adjectives: economic and food.

They always write together:

1. Compound abbreviated words, the first part of which is the numeral: five-year plan.

2. With prefixes do-, extra-, sub-, super-, counter-, anti-, archi-, a- and others and the initial parts pseudo-, pan-, qua-, zi-: antistatic.

3. All compound words: forensic expert.

4. Many adverbs formed from nouns: away, on the side.

1.4. Capital letters, word hyphenation, graphic abbreviations

Capital letters

In modern Russian, capital letters perform the following functions:

1) highlight proper names (personal, astronomical, names of magazines, newspapers, enterprises, nicknames)6 Zhuchok - bug, Sharik - ball;

2) indicates the beginning of a text or a new sentence (after a period);

3) are used when writing proper and common noun abbreviations: AO, MKhAT, KVN.

Isolation of individual words using capital letters, independent of the structure of the text, is based on three basic principles - grammatical, semantic and word-formative.

1. Grammatical The principle is that proper names are written with a capital letter, common nouns with a lowercase letter: Sharik - Sharik (dog's name).

2. Semantic principle - common nouns can be written with a capital letter if they are endowed with special pathos or symbolism: Motherland, Fatherland; names of holidays, significant dates: Victory Day, Teacher's Day; the pronoun you when addressing one person; writing a form plural proper names that have become common nouns and are used not as individual names, but as designations of persons who have certain qualities(if these qualities are given a positive meaning): ...the earth can give birth to its own Platos.

3. The word formation principle is that capital letters are used in abbreviations denoting proper names: RF, UN.

Hyphenation

The hyphenation of words does not always have special rules, so in ancient times there were no special hyphenation rules, but any part of the word was transferred if it was necessary, then they began to take into account the morphological structure.