In addition, the Russian forces were seriously weakened during the intense pursuit of Napoleon, when they suffered no less than the French troops from the cold and lack of food. In two months of travel from Tarutin to Neman, Kutuzov’s army lost up to two-thirds of its strength (stragglers, sick, killed, wounded, etc.). But Alexander I wanted to put an end to the source of aggression forever. Actually, thanks to the initiative of the Russian emperor, who took on the noble, but (as further experience showed) thankless role of the savior of Europe, European countries(and above all Germany) were liberated from French domination. The failures revealed the fragility of the Napoleonic coalition. Prussia was the first to join victorious Russia, betraying its alliance with Bonaparte. In April 1813, M.I. Kutuzov died. By that time, Napoleon had managed to concentrate 200 thousand people through new mobilizations. against the 92,000-strong Russian-Prussian army. True, in the campaign of 1812 France lost the entire flower of its armed forces. Her army now consisted largely of new recruits. However, the Russian army also lost a considerable part of its veterans in last year’s battles.

Campaign of 1813

First stage

At this stage, the struggle for Germany unfolded, on whose territory the French sought to delay the Allied advance and defeat them. In April 1813, Napoleon went on the offensive at the head of an army of 150,000 and moved towards Leipzig. The French vanguard pushed the allies away from the city. At this time, on April 20, southwest of Leipzig, the main allied army under the command of Peter Wittgenstein (92 thousand people) attacked the corps of Marshal Ney (the vanguard of the southern column) near Lutzen, trying to defeat the French forces in parts.

Battle of Lützen (1813). Ney defended himself steadfastly and held his position. Emperor Alexander I and King Frederick William of Prussia were present on the battlefield. This constrained Wittgenstein’s initiative, who lost a lot of time coordinating his actions with the monarchs. Meanwhile, Napoleon with his main forces arrived in time to help Ney. Personally leading a counterattack, the French emperor managed to split the Allied lines by threatening to outflank them. At night, the Russian and Prussian monarchs gave the order to retreat. The lack of cavalry (which died during the campaign against Russia), as well as the fatigue of the recruits exhausted by the long march, deprived Napoleon of the opportunity to effectively pursue the retreating troops. The damage to the Russians and Prussians amounted to 12 thousand people. The French lost 15 thousand people. The Battle of Lützen was Napoleon's first major victory of the 1813 campaign. She raised the morale of the French army and allowed it to retake Saxony.

Battle of Bautzen (1813). Napoleon moved east behind the retreating allied army and on May 8-9 gave it the battle of Bautzen. Napoleon's plan was to deeply flank the allied forces, surround them and destroy them. To do this, the French emperor sent a significant part of his forces, led by Marshal Ney (60 thousand people), to bypass the allied army from the north. With the rest, Napoleon crossed the Spree in several places on May 8. After a stubborn battle, the French pushed back the Allied army and captured Bautzen. However, the next day, Ney, who reached his initial positions, was unable to complete the coverage of the Allied right flank in time. This was largely due to the persistent defense of Russian units under the command of generals Barclay de Tolly and Lansky. Napoleon was in no hurry to throw his reserve into battle, waiting until Ney reached the rear of the allies. This gave Wittgenstein the opportunity to promptly withdraw his troops across the Lebau River and avoid encirclement. The French lack of cavalry did not allow Napoleon to build on his success. The Allies lost 12 thousand people in this battle, the French - 18 thousand people.

Despite the success at Bautzen, the clouds were gathering over Napoleon. Sweden entered the war against France. Her army moved from the north along with the Prussians towards Berlin. His ally, Austria, was also preparing to move against Napoleon. After Bautzen, the Prague Truce was concluded. Both sides used it to raise reserves and prepare for new battles. This completed the first stage of the 1813 campaigns.

Campaign of 1813

Second phase

During the truce, the Allied forces increased significantly. Having completed mobilization, they were joined by Austria, which sought not to miss the opportunity to divide the Napoleonic empire. This is how the 6th anti-French coalition (England, Austria, Prussia, Russia, Sweden) was finally formed. The total number of its troops by the end of summer reached 492 thousand people. (including 173 thousand Russians). They were divided into three armies: the Bohemian under the command of Field Marshal Schwarzenberg (about 237 thousand people), the Silesian under the command of Field Marshal Blücher (100 thousand people) and the Northern under the command of the former Napoleonic marshal Swedish Crown Prince Bernadotte (150 thousand people) . Napoleon by that time had managed to increase the size of his army to 440 thousand people, the main part of which was in Saxony. The new Allied tactics were to avoid meeting with Napoleon and attack first of all the individual units commanded by his marshals. The situation was unfavorable for Napoleon. He found himself sandwiched between three fires in Saxony. From the north, from Berlin, he was threatened by Bernadotte's Army of the North. From the south, from Austria, - the Bohemian Army of Schwarzenberg, from the southeast, from Silesia, - the Silesian Army of Blucher. Napoleon adopted a defensive-offensive campaign plan. He concentrated the strike group of Marshal Oudinot for the attack on Berlin (70 thousand people). Davout's detached corps (35 thousand people) stationed in Hamburg was intended to strike in the rear of the Berlin Allied group. Napoleon left barriers against the Bohemian and Silesian armies - respectively, Saint-Cyr's corps in Dresden and Ney's corps in Katzbach. The emperor himself, with his main forces, positioned himself in the center of his communications in order to come to the aid of each of the groups at the necessary moment. The French campaign against Berlin failed. Oudinot was defeated by Bernadotte's army. Davout, in view of this failure, retreated to Hamburg. Then Napoleon replaced Oudinot with Ney and ordered him to launch a new attack on Berlin. The corps holding back the Silesian army was led by Marshal MacDonald. Meanwhile, the Silesian and Bohemian armies launched an offensive towards Katzbach and Dresden.

Battle of Katzbach (1813). On August 14, on the banks of the Katzbach River, a battle took place between MacDonald’s corps (65 thousand people) and Blucher’s Silesian army (75 thousand people). The French crossed the Katzbach, but were attacked by the allies and, after a fierce oncoming battle, were thrown back across the river. The Russian corps under the command of generals Saken and Langeron distinguished themselves in the battle. They attacked the flank and rear of the French, who were driven into the river and suffered heavy losses during the crossing. The battle took place in a severe thunderstorm. This made shooting impossible, and the troops fought mainly with edged weapons or hand-to-hand. French losses amounted to 30 thousand people. (including 18 thousand prisoners). The Allies lost about 8 thousand people. The defeat of the French at Katzbach forced Napoleon to move to the aid of Macdonald, which eased the position of the Allies after their defeat at Dresden. However, Blücher did not use the success under Katzbach to go on the offensive. Having learned about the approach of Napoleon's troops, the Prussian commander did not accept a new battle and retreated.

Battle of Dresden (1813). On the day of the Battle of Katzbach, August 14, Schwarzenberg's Bohemian Army (227 thousand people), following new tactics, decided to attack the lonely corps of Saint-Cyr in Dresden with the forces of the Russian vanguard of General Wittgenstein. Meanwhile, Napoleon's army quickly and unexpectedly came to the aid of Saint-Cyr, and the number of French troops near Dresden increased to 167 thousand people. Schwarzenberg, who even in this situation had a numerical superiority, ordered to go on the defensive. Due to poor communication between the allied units, the order for this came to the Russian army when it had already moved to attack. Unsupported by their neighbors, the Russians suffered heavy losses and retreated. On August 15, Napoleon, despite the numerical superiority of the Allies, went on the offensive and struck their left flank, where the Austrians stood. They were separated from the center occupied by the Prussians by the Planensky ravine. The Austrians could not withstand the onslaught and were thrown into a ravine. At the same time, Napoleon attacked the center and right flank of the Allies. Firing was hampered by heavy rain, so the troops fought mainly with melee weapons. The Allies hastily retreated, losing about 37 thousand people killed, wounded and captured in two days of fighting. (two thirds of them are Russian). The damage to the French army did not exceed 10 thousand people. In that battle, the famous French commander Moreau, who went over to the side of the Allies, was mortally wounded by a cannonball fragment. They said that he died from a cannon shot fired by Napoleon himself. The Battle of Dresden was the last major French success in the 1813 campaign. However, its significance was negated by the Allied victories at Kulm and Katzbach.

Battle of Kulm (1813). After Dresden, Napoleon with his main forces rushed to the aid of Macdonald, defeated at Katzbach, and sent the corps of General Vandam (37 thousand people) to the rear of the demoralized Bohemian army retreating through the Ore Mountains. The Bohemian army was saved from a new defeat by the Russian corps led by General Osterman-Tolstoy (17 thousand people), who blocked Vandam’s path at Kulm. All day on August 17, the Russians heroically repelled the attacks of superior French forces. In that battle, the Russian corps lost about a thousand people. Osterman-Tolstoy himself was seriously wounded, losing his left arm in the battle. In response to condolences, he replied: “Being wounded for the Fatherland is very pleasant, and as for my left hand, I still have my right hand, which I need for sign of the cross, a sign of faith in God, in whom I place all my hope." General Ermolov took command of the corps. On August 18, the main forces of the allied army under the command of General Barclay de Tolly (44 thousand people) came to his aid, and Vandamu came to the rear struck the Prussian corps of General Kleist (35 thousand people). The battle on August 18 ended in the complete defeat of the French. They lost 10 thousand killed and wounded. 12 thousand were captured (including Vandam himself). Losses of the allies on this day amounted to 3.5 thousand people. The Battle of Kulm did not allow Napoleon to develop the Dresden success and seize the initiative. For the Battle of Kulm, the Russian participants in the battle received a special award from the Prussian king - the Kulm Cross. A week after Kulm, the defeat of Ney’s strike group ended the second French offensive on Berlin.After all these battles there was a temporary lull.The allies again received large reinforcements - the Polish army led by General Bennigsen (60 thousand people).Bavaria, the largest kingdom of the Rhineland created by France, moved into the camp of Napoleon's opponents. This forced Napoleon to switch to defensive tactics. He began to gather his troops towards Leipzig, where he soon fought a battle that decided the fate of the campaign.

Battle of Leipzig (1813). On October 4-7, near Leipzig, the largest battle took place between the armies of the allied states: Russia, Austria, Prussia and Sweden (over 300 thousand people, including 127 thousand Russians) and the troops of Emperor Napoleon (about 200 thousand people). entered into history under the name "Battle of the Nations". Russians, French, Germans, Belgians, Austrians, Dutch, Italians, Poles, Swedes, etc. took part in it. At the beginning of October, only Schwarzenberg’s Bohemian Army (133 thousand people) was located south of Leipzig. Napoleon concentrated 122 thousand people against it, covering the northern direction with the corps of Ney and Marmont (50 thousand people). On the morning of October 4, Schwarzenberg attacked Napoleonic troops defending the southern approaches to Leipzig. The Austrian commander threw only 80 thousand people into battle. (Barclay de Tolly's vanguard) against 120 thousand from the French, and he failed to achieve decisive success. Having exhausted the attackers with active defense, Napoleon launched a powerful counter-offensive at 3 pm. Strike group under the command of Marshal Murat, she overthrew the advanced Russian-Austrian units and broke through the center of the Allied positions. The French soldiers were already 800 steps from the headquarters, where the Russian emperor was watching the battle. Alexander I was saved from possible capture by a timely counterattack by the Life Guards Cossack Regiment under the command of General Orlov-Denisov. The general breakthrough and triumph of the French was prevented only by the introduction into battle of the main reserve - the Russian guard and grenadiers, who on that day snatched the much-needed victory from Napoleon's hands. The French also failed to defeat the Bohemian army because at that moment Blucher’s Silesian army (60 thousand people) arrived from the north to Leipzig, which immediately attacked Marmont’s corps. According to the French marshals, the Prussians showed miracles of courage that day. After a fierce oncoming battle, Blucher’s warriors still managed to push the French back from the villages of Meckern and Wiederich, which had changed hands more than once in the evening. The Prussians built defensive fortifications from the corpses piled on top of each other and vowed not to retreat a single step from the captured positions. The total losses in the battle on October 4 exceeded 60 thousand people (30 thousand on each side). The day of October 5 passed in inactivity. Both sides received reinforcements and prepared for the decisive battle. But if Napoleon received only 25 thousand new soldiers, then two armies approached the Allies - Northern (58 thousand people) and Polish (54 thousand people). The superiority of the Allies became overwhelming, and they were able to cover Leipzig with a 15-kilometer in a semicircle (from the north, east and south).

The next day (October 6), the largest battle in the history of the Napoleonic wars broke out. Up to 500 thousand people took part in it on both sides. The Allies launched a concentric attack on the French positions, who desperately defended themselves and constantly launched counterattacks. In the middle of the day, on the southern flank, the French even managed to overturn the attacking Austrian chains. It seemed that they would not be able to hold back the fierce onslaught of the Old Guard, which Napoleon himself led into battle. But at this decisive moment, the allies of the French, the Saxon troops, opened the front and went over to the enemy’s side. There could no longer be any talk of any offensive. With incredible efforts, the French troops managed to close the gap and hold their positions until the end of the day. Napoleonic soldiers, who were at the limit of their capabilities, were no longer able to withstand the next such battle. On the night of October 7, Napoleon ordered the withdrawal to the west along the only surviving bridge across the Elster River. The retreat was covered by the Polish and French units of Marshals Poniatowski and MacDonald. They entered the last battle for the city at dawn on October 7. Only by the middle of the day did the Allies manage to drive the French and Poles out of there. At that moment, the sappers, seeing the Russian cavalrymen breaking through to the river, blew up the bridge over the Elster. By that time, another 28 thousand people did not have time to cross. The panic began. Some soldiers rushed to escape by swimming, others fled. Someone else tried to resist. Poniatowski, who the day before received a marshal's baton from Napoleon, gathered combat-ready units and, in a last impulse, attacked the allies, trying to cover the retreat of his comrades. He was wounded, rushed on horseback into the water and drowned in the cold waters of Elster.

MacDonald was luckier. He overcame the stormy river and got out to the other side. The French suffered a crushing defeat. They lost 80 thousand people, including 20 thousand prisoners. Allied damage exceeded 50 thousand people. (of which 22 thousand are Russians). The Battle of Leipzig was Bonaparte's biggest defeat. She decided the outcome of the 1813 campaign. After it, Napoleon lost his conquests in Germany and was forced to retreat to French territory. Nevertheless, the allied command was unable to cut off the path to the west of the defeated French army (about 100 thousand people). She safely passed the territory of the Confederation of the Rhine, defeating the Bavarian army that crossed her path on October 18 near Ganau (Hanau), and then began to cross the Rhine.

Campaign of 1814

By the beginning of 1814, the Allied forces, ready to attack France across the Rhine, numbered 453 thousand people. (of which 153 thousand are Russian). Napoleon could oppose them along the left bank of the Rhine with only 163 thousand people. On January 1, 1814, on the anniversary of the crossing of the Niemen, the Russian army led by Emperor Alexander I crossed the Rhine. The Allied winter campaign took Napoleon by surprise. Not having time to gather all his forces, he nevertheless hurried towards the allied armies, having only 40 thousand people at hand. Thus began the famous campaign of 1814, which, according to many researchers, became one of Napoleon’s best campaigns. With a small army, a significant part of which were recruits, Bonaparte, skillfully maneuvering, was able to hold back the onslaught of the Allies for two months and win a number of striking victories. The main fighting of this campaign took place in the basin of the Marne and Seine rivers. Napoleon's successful actions in January - February were explained not only by his military leadership talents, but also by the discord in the camp of the allies, who did not have consensus about further actions. If Russia and Prussia sought to put an end to Bonaparte, then England and Austria were inclined to compromise. Thus, Austria actually achieved the goals of the war - ousting the French from Germany and Italy. The complete defeat of Napoleon was not part of the plans of the Vienna cabinet, which needed Napoleonic France to curb the growing influence of Prussia and Russia. Dynastic ties also played a role - the daughter of the Austrian emperor, Marie-Louise, was married to Bonaparte. England also did not want France to be crushed, since it was interested in maintaining the balance of power on the continent. London saw Paris as a possible ally in the future struggle against Russia, which was gaining strength. This political alignment predetermined the course of hostilities on the part of the Allies. Thus, the Prussian military leader Blucher acted, albeit not always skillfully, but still decisively. As for the Austrian Field Marshal Schwarzenberg, he showed almost no activity and actually gave Napoleon freedom of maneuver. It is no coincidence that the main battles took place between Napoleon and Blucher. Parallel to the fighting, there was a peace congress in Chatillon, at which the allies tried to persuade French Emperor to a peaceful resolution of the conflict. But he still preferred to seek peace not at the negotiating table, but on the battlefield. In January, Napoleon attacked Blucher's army, which was in the vanguard of the allied forces, and dealt it a sensitive blow at Brienne (January 17). Blücher retreated to join Schwarzenberg. The next day, Napoleon fought at La Rotière with a vastly superior Allied army, and then retreated to Troyes. After these battles, the allies held a council of war, at which they divided their forces. Blucher's army was to advance in the Marne valley. To the south, in the Seine Valley, an offensive was planned main army Schwarzenberg. Napoleon, who had received reinforcements by that time, immediately took advantage of this.

Leaving a 40,000-strong barrier against Schwarzenberg, the French emperor moved with an army of 30,000 against Blucher. Over the course of five days (from January 29 to February 2), Bonaparte won a series of successive brilliant victories (at Champaubert, Montmirail, Chateau-Thierry and Vauchamp) over the Russian-Prussian corps, which Blücher’s strategic fantasy scattered individually in the Marne valley. Blucher lost a third of his army and was on the verge of complete defeat. This was the peak of Napoleon's success in 1814. According to contemporaries, he outdid himself in a seemingly hopeless situation. Napoleon's success embarrassed the Allies. Schwarzenberg immediately proposed a truce. But inspired by five days of victories, the French emperor rejected the very moderate proposals of the allies. He said that he "found his boots in the Italian campaign." However, his successes were also explained by the inaction of Schwarzenberg, who received secret orders from his emperor not to cross the Seine. Only the persistence of Alexander I forced the Austrian commander to move forward. This saved Blucher from inevitable defeat. Having learned about Schwarzenberg's movement towards Paris, Napoleon left Blucher and immediately set out to meet the main army. Despite his double superiority, Schwarzenberg retreated, ordering Blucher's army to join him. The Austrian field marshal suggested withdrawing beyond the Rhine, and only the persistence of the Russian emperor forced the allies to continue hostilities. On February 26, the allies signed the so-called Treaty of Chaumont, in which they pledged not to conclude either peace or truce with France without general consent. It was decided that Blucher’s army would now become the main one. She again went to the Marne to attack Paris from there. Schwarzenberg's army, which was superior in number, was assigned minor role. Having learned about Blucher's movement to the Marne, and then to Paris, Napoleon with an army of 35,000 again moved towards his main enemy. But Bonaparte's second Marne campaign turned out to be less successful than the first. In the fierce Battle of Craon (February 23), Napoleon managed to oust the detachment under the command of Borodin’s hero, General Mikhail Vorontsov. With their persistent resistance, the Russians made it possible for Blucher's main forces to retreat to Lahn. Thanks to the approaching corps from Bernadotte's army, Blucher was able to increase the number of his troops to 100 thousand people. In the two-day battle of Laon, he was able to repel the onslaught of Napoleon's army three times smaller. While the French emperor was fighting with Blücher, Schwarzenberg took offensive action on February 15, pushing back the corps of Oudinot and MacDonald in the battle of Bar-sur-Aube.

Then Napoleon, leaving Blucher alone, again moved towards Schwarzenberg’s army and gave it a two-day battle near Arcy-sur-Aube (March 8 and 9). Only the caution of the Austrian commander, who did not bring the main forces into battle, allowed Napoleon to avoid a major defeat. Unable to defeat his allies in frontal attacks, Napoleon changed his tactics. He decided to go behind the rear of Schwarzenberg's army and cut off its communication with the Rhine. This plan was based on the experience of past wars with the Austrians, who always reacted painfully to the severance of ties with supply bases. True, the entry of the main French forces behind Schwarzenberg's rear opened up an almost free path for the Allies to Paris, but Napoleon hoped that none of the allied commanders would dare to take such a bold step. Who knows how events would have developed if the Cossacks had not intercepted Napoleon’s letter to his wife, where the French emperor described this plan in detail. After discussing it at the Allied headquarters, the Austrians immediately proposed to retreat to protect their communications and cover the communication with the Rhine. However, the Russians, led by Emperor Alexander I, insisted otherwise. They proposed to set up a small barrier against Napoleon, and to march on Paris with the main forces. This bold move decided the fate of the campaign. Having defeated the corps of Marmont and Mortier in the battle of Fer-Champenoise on March 13, the Russian cavalry cleared the way to the French capital.

Capture of Paris (1814). On March 18, Schwarzenberg's 100,000-strong army approached the walls of Paris. The capital of France was defended by the corps of Marshals Marmont and Mortier, as well as units National Guard(total about 40 thousand people). The Battle of Paris lasted several hours. The most fierce battles took place at the Belleville Gate and at the heights of Montmartre. Here the Russian units distinguished themselves and basically stormed the French capital. Russian Emperor Alexander I also took part in the battle for Paris. He was engaged in the placement of an artillery battery in the area of ​​the Belleville Gate. At 5 pm, after King Joseph (Napoleon's brother) fled the city, Marshal Marmont capitulated.

Peace of Paris (1814). The act of surrender of Paris was drawn up and signed on the part of the Allies by the aide-de-camp of Emperor Alexander I, Colonel M.F. Orlov, who received the rank of general for this. The Allies lost in this very bloody battle campaign of 1814 9 thousand people. (two thirds of them are Russian). The defenders of the French capital lost 4 thousand people. The capture of Paris was a decisive victory for the Allies. In honor of this event, a special medal “For the Capture of Paris” was issued. It was awarded to participants in the Foreign Campaign of the Russian Army. After the fall of the French capital, Napoleon abdicated the throne on March 25 and, by decision of the allies, was exiled to the island of Elba. His empire ceased to exist. On May 18, 1814, the Peace of Paris was concluded between France and members of the anti-French coalition. The combat losses of the Russian army in the Foreign Campaign (1813-1814) exceeded 120 thousand people. The struggle for the liberation of Europe became the bloodiest Russian campaign during the Napoleonic wars.

“Victory, accompanying our banners, hoisted them on the walls of Paris. Our thunder struck at the very gates. The defeated enemy stretches out his hand to reconciliation! No revenge! No enmity! Brave warriors, to you, the first culprits of success, belongs the glory of the world!.. You have earned the right to the gratitude of the Fatherland - I declare it in the name of the Fatherland." These words of Alexander I, spoken after the surrender of France, drew a line under a difficult decade of wars and cruel trials, from which Russia emerged triumphant. “The universe fell silent...” - this is how the poet M.Yu. Lermontov briefly and figuratively described this victory. 1814 was the peak of success for the army created by Peter's reforms.

Congress of Vienna (1815). In 1815, a pan-European congress was held in Vienna to discuss issues of the post-war structure of Europe. On it, Alexander I achieved the annexation of the Duchy of Warsaw, which served as the main springboard for Napoleonic aggression against Russia, to his possessions. Most of this duchy, receiving the name of the Kingdom of Poland, became part of Russian Empire. In general, Russia’s territorial acquisitions in Europe in the first quarter of the XIX V. ensured the external security of the East Slavic world. The entry into the Finnish Empire moved Swedish possessions away from Russian ones towards the Arctic Circle and the Gulf of Bothnia, which made the north-west of the country practically invulnerable against attack from land. The Polish salient prevented a direct invasion of Russia in the central direction. In the southwest, large water barriers - the Prut and the Dniester - covered the steppe spaces. In fact, under Alexander I, a new “security belt” was created in the west of the empire, which then existed for a whole century.

"From Ancient Rus' to the Russian Empire." Shishkin Sergey Petrovich, Ufa.

Here recently, in the comments, they quipped that Russia has always been afraid of Europe....

The grandiose Russian campaign of 1812 ended in complete defeat for Napoleon Bonaparte. Of the approximately 600 thousand army, only about 60 thousand people returned, and more than half were Austrian, Prussian and Saxon troops that did not invade deep into Russia. The great commander himself was forced on the evening of November 23, 1812 to abandon the remnants of the army, transferring them under the command of Murat and after 12 days of non-stop “gallop” across Western Europe, by midnight of December 6 (18) he was already in the French capital. The news that the Grand Army no longer existed shocked all of Europe. Many politicians already guessed that things in Russia were not going as smoothly as they wanted and said, but they did not think that the defeat would be so crushing. Behind-the-scenes negotiations began in Europe on the creation of a new, already sixth anti-French coalition.

Beginning of the 1813 campaign

The Russian army under the command of Mikhail Kutuzov wintered near Vilna, where the Russian emperor visited it. The corps of General Peter Wittgenstein - up to 30 thousand soldiers and Admiral Pavel Chichagov - up to 14 thousand people, together with Cossack regiments - up to 7 thousand people, drove out the remnants of Napoleonic troops from Lithuania. Wittgenstein's corps was given the task of blocking the escape routes of the Prussian-French corps of Marshal MacDonald through the mouth of the Neman.

MacDonald's troops retreating from the Riga area split up, and the Prussian units under Lieutenant General York were separated from MacDonald's French division by the actions of a detachment under the command of General Ivan Diebitsch. On December 18 (30), 1812, Russian envoys persuaded York to a separate truce - the Taurogen Convention. General York, at his own peril and risk, he did not have the authority to do so from the king, concluded an agreement on mutual neutrality. York went with an army to a neutral region in East Prussia (between Tilsit and Memel), essentially opening the way for the Russian army to Prussia. York pledged not to fight the Russians until March 1, 1813, if the Prussian king decided to remain loyal to the alliance with France.

There was a French garrison in Berlin at that time, and the Prussian king officially announced that York would be brought before a military court. He even sent General Hatzfeld to Paris with an official apology. At the same time, the Prussian king, faithful to the principle of a dual policy (he also gave instructions to York that could be widely interpreted), began secret negotiations with Russia and Austria. He was forced to do this by the wide patriotic movement in the country, the public demanded a rejection of the shameful alliance with France, which led to the occupation of part of Prussia by French troops. Unrest began in the army, thousands of volunteers enrolled in it, troops began to leave their obedience to the king. Thus, the Taurogen Agreement, concluded against the will of the Prussian king, led to Prussia falling away from the alliance with France and entering into a coalition with Russia against Napoleon.

Wittgenstein, after an agreement with York, had the opportunity to pursue the remnants of MacDonald's corps across East Prussia. On December 23, 1812 (January 4, 1813), Russian troops approached Konigsberg, which was occupied the next day without a battle. In the city, up to 10 thousand people, sick, wounded and French stragglers were captured.

In the southern direction, the Austrians, like the Prussians, also tried to maintain neutrality. Russian commanders had instructions to solve problems with the Austrians through negotiations. On December 13 (25), 1812, the Austrian corps of Schwarzenberg retreated to Poland to Pułtusk. The Russian vanguard of General Illarion Vasilchikov moved behind the Austrians. On January 1 (13), 1813, the Main Russian Army under the command of Field Marshal Mikhail Kutuzov crossed the Neman, the border of the Russian Empire, in three columns and entered the territory of the Duchy of Warsaw. Thus began the Foreign Campaign of the Russian Army, which ended in 1814 with the occupation of Paris and the abdication of Napoleon. But before that there were still many bloody battles, including lost ones, thousands of Russian soldiers would lay down their lives far from their homeland.

40 thousand The Austro-Saxon-Polish group under Schwarzenberg did not defend Warsaw. On January 27 (February 8), 1813, Russian troops occupied the Polish capital without a fight. The Austrians retreated south to Krakow, effectively stopping fighting on Napoleon's side. With Schwarzenberg, Poniatowski's 15,000-strong Polish corps also retreated; the Poles would then unite with the French and continue the war on Napoleon's side. The remnants of Rainier's Saxon corps will retreat westward, to Kalisz. Duchy of Warsaw, as public education and an ally of Napoleon, will cease to exist. Thus, the Russian army quite easily and without special effort will break the first line of defense of Napoleon's empire along the Vistula. The main prerequisites for the successful start of the Russian army's overseas campaign will be the benevolent neutrality of the Prussian troops, the actual refusal of the Austrian Empire from a military alliance with France and Napoleon's lack of significant French contingents on the Vistula line. Murat will not be able to stop the advance of the Russian army.

Beginning of the liberation of Germany

At the beginning of 1813, Berlin officially maintained allied relations with Paris. The entry of Russian troops into East Prussia radically changed the political situation in the country. The Prussian king, in order to retain the throne, was forced to break with France.

At this time, York's troops settled in Königsberg, where the former Prussian minister Stein, now in Russian service, arrived from the Russian Empire as a representative of Emperor Alexander I. The Diet of East Prussia was convened, which issued a decree calling up reservists and militias. As a result of this recruitment, 60 thousand were formed. an army led by York, which immediately began military operations against the French occupiers. The throne under the Prussian king began to shake, because he supported the invaders. Frederick William III fled from French-occupied Berlin to Silesia. He secretly sent Field Marshal Knesebeck to Alexander I's headquarters in Kalisz to negotiate a military alliance against Napoleon. On February 9, universal conscription was introduced in Prussia.

The actions of the Prussian troops in alliance with the Russians led to the failure of the French attempt to organize a second line of defense along the Oder. Russian troops, after occupying Warsaw, moved west to Kalisz. February 13 Russian 16-thousand The vanguard under Ferdinand Wintzingerode defeated the retreating 10 thousand troops near Kalisz. Rainier's Saxon corps, the Saxons lost 3 thousand people in the battle. Kalisz became a support base for the Russian army, from which Russian troops, with the support of the Prussians, carried out raids across Germany. The main Russian army stopped on the western borders of the Duchy of Warsaw for almost a month. Kutuzov believed that the campaign should be stopped here, since the liberation of Germany and the battles with the French in Western Europe were not in the interests of Russia, but in the interests of the German states themselves and England.

On February 28, 1813, Field Marshal Kutuzov and the Prussian military leader Scharngorst signed a military agreement in Kalisz directed against France. Under the Treaty of Kalisz, Russia and Prussia pledged not to enter into separate agreements with France. After the end of the war, Prussia was to be restored to its 1806 borders. All German states were to gain independence. By March 4, thanks to mobilization, the Prussian army already numbered 120 thousand soldiers.

On March 27, 1813, the Prussian government declared war on France. By this time, the entire Prussian territory, with the exception of several blocked fortresses on the Vistula and Oder (so Danzig at the mouth of the Vistula capitulated only on December 24, 1813), up to the Elbe, was liberated from the French. In particular, Berlin was occupied by Alexander Chernyshev’s detachment on March 4 (the French garrison left the Prussian capital without a fight). On March 11, Wittgenstein's troops entered Berlin in triumph, and on March 17, York's Prussian corps. Beyond the Elbe River and to the south of it were the territories of the German states of the Rhine Confederation, which continued to remain loyal to Napoleon. On March 27, the united Russian-Prussian army occupied Dresden, and on April 3, advanced units entered Leipzig.

Creation of a new army. The question of continuing the war

Napoleon himself was safe, healthy and showed great energy to create a new army and continue the fight. As always in hours of mortal danger, he felt a rush mental strength, energy, high spirits. In Paris, he became aware of the details of the case of General Malet, who on October 23, 1812 carried out a successful coup d'etat, arresting the Minister of Police and the Prefect of the Parisian Police. Male announced the death of the emperor, the creation of a provisional government and proclaimed a republic led by President J. Moreau. True, the Parisian authorities soon woke up and arrested a few conspirators. Claude-François Malet and 14 of his comrades were shot. This event showed how fragile Napoleon's empire was. In fact, it existed only due to the powerful will of one person. Believing Malet's fiction about Napoleon's death, none of the emperor's highest dignitaries raised the question of the rightful heir to the throne - the Roman king.

Napoleon developed vigorous activity to create a new army. He resembled himself in his younger years. While still in Russia, the French emperor very prudently ordered the 1813 conscription to be called up ahead of schedule, and now there were about 140 thousand recruits under his command in France. Then, by decree on January 11, another 80 thousand people from the National Guard joined the army. Thus, there were already more than 200 thousand people in the army. In addition, he had thousands of officers who were saved in the Russian campaign, they became the backbone of the new army. It is also necessary to take into account the fact that French garrisons were stationed in Germany and Italy, and the French ruler was counting on both the 1814 conscription and the troops of the German allies. This could give a total of another 200-250 thousand soldiers. The entire French army fought on the Iberian Peninsula - up to 300 thousand people, several regiments were also recalled from it. Day and night, the French emperor worked with amazing energy to restore artillery and cavalry, replenish troops with weapons and create food reserves. He also used non-standard solutions to find human resources for manning the army: he canceled a number of deferments, called up older citizens, drafted young men into auxiliary troops, transferred sailors to the infantry - 12 thousand gunners and 24 battalions of sailors were transferred from the French fleet to the infantry. In just a few weeks, new regiments and divisions were formed, and by the beginning of 1813 Napoleon had new army 500 thousand people. But the price of this success was great, France was literally depopulated, they were going to throw young people into battle, the recruits of future years.

In lengthy letters sent to the allied German monarchs - the rulers of Westphalia, Bavaria, Württemberg and others, Napoleon explained that the rumors of defeat were false, everything was going well, of course the French army and allies suffered losses, but the “grand army” was still a powerful force, numbering 200 thousand fighters. Although from a message from his chief of staff, Marshal Berthier, he knew that the “grand army” no longer existed. He further reported that 260 thousand people were already ready to march and another 300 thousand remained in Spain. But Napoleon asked the allies to take all measures to increase their armies. Thus, in his letters he combined the truth with lies, desired with the present.

On April 15, 1813, Napoleon left Paris for the location of his troops in Mainz on the French border. “I will conduct this campaign,” said Napoleon, “as General Bonaparte, and not as Emperor.” At the end of April, he set out for Saxony towards Leipzig, where he intended to unite with Beauharnais. He planned to push back the Russian troops and re-subdue Prussia. It should be noted that at this time there was still the possibility of establishing peace in Europe (for how long? - that was another question). The Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Austrian Empire, Clemens von Metternich, persistently offered his mediation in achieving peace. Both the Russian Emperor Alexander I, the Prussian king and the Austrian government were afraid of the unstable situation in Europe and the growth of national liberation tendencies. Therefore, a temporary compromise with Napoleon was possible. In general, such a respite was beneficial for Napoleon.

However, Napoleon himself did not want to make concessions. He still believed that the god of war was on his side and believed in a military solution to the problem of power over Europe. The French emperor believed in brilliant revenge. Napoleon made mistake after mistake, not noticing that the enemies had changed - the Russian army was the winner, and the Austrian army carried out a set of reforms that strengthened its combat effectiveness. I didn’t notice that the forces of the enemies were uniting, and it would no longer be possible to beat the enemies piece by piece. And the French battalions were no longer what they were before. There was also an increase in the liberation struggle in Germany, Italy, Holland and Spain, which diverted additional forces and resources from Napoleon’s empire.

True, it should be noted that Napoleon more than once expressed his readiness to make peace only with the Russian Empire. Already in the spring of 1813, in Erfurt, when he was already at the head of a strong army, the French emperor said: “Sending to the Russian headquarters would divide the whole world in half.” But the Russian ruler Alexander, passionate about cosmopolitan ideals and the “pan-European mission” of Russia, rejected all his attempts to compromise.

Should Russia have continued the war with Napoleon?

After the destruction of the French army in Russia, the question arose about continuing the offensive beyond the borders of Russia, about the need for a war with the goal of completely overthrowing Napoleon and liberating him from his power European peoples. This was a question between expediency, national interests and “internationalism”, cosmopolitanism. From the point of view of expediency and national interests, it was not worth fighting against Napoleon after the capture of the Duchy of Warsaw. The final defeat of Napoleon was in the interests of the German states, Prussia, Austria and England. Russia could be satisfied with the absorption of the Duchy of Warsaw and a peace treaty with Napoleon (it could also include the inclusion of the Bosporus and Dardanelles straits in the sphere of Russia’s interests). Russia benefited from the existence of a weakened French Empire led by Napoleon to contain Austria, Prussia and, most importantly, England.

There was no longer a serious military threat from Napoleon. Napoleon now had to strain all his strength in order to retain what he had already conquered in Western Europe; he had no time for Russia. The war with him did not bring territorial benefits. The war brought only losses - loss of people, money, resources and time. The Duchy of Warsaw, which Russia received after the defeat of Napoleon, could have been taken this way.

The Russian emperor, who actually predetermined the course for the continuation of the war, stood for the fact that weapons should not be laid down until Napoleon was overthrown from the throne. “I or he,” said Alexander Pavlovich, “he or I, but together we cannot reign.” Thus, the foreign campaign of the Russian army was not the implementation of the military-strategic tasks of Russia, but the product of the personal initiative of the emperor. Naturally, in London and Vienna, he was mentally applauded.

It must be said that no one in all of Russia was as annoyed that Napoleon was able to escape from the trap near Berezino as Alexander. At the beginning of December 1812, when all of Russia rejoiced at the victory, the emperor demanded that Kutuzov continue the offensive. The field marshal, however, saw the deplorable state of the army, 120 thousand army left the Tarutino camp (plus regular reinforcements), and only a third of it reached the Neman; in the artillery park of the army, out of 622 guns, only 200 remained. Kutuzov was against continuing the offensive, well understanding the strength Napoleon's art and the future price of victory over him. Napoleon's power at this moment was still enormous. He commanded not only France, which had significantly expanded its lands, but also Italy, Holland, and the German states of the Rhineland. He was able to win over Denmark, which was hostile to Sweden, with a promise to return Norway. Thanks to indemnities from previous wars, the financial position of his empire was stable. Prussia and Austria were still just thinking about breaking with France.

Only England was on Russia’s side, but one could not count on its army. The British fought on the Iberian Peninsula and were ready to support Russia with money, because in the interests of London it was the complete destruction of Napoleon, who challenged British Empire. The British acted on the principle of “divide and conquer”, the clash of great continental powers served to benefit their geopolitical interests. Prussia will take the side of Russia, but it needed the war to restore independence, expel the French from its territory and establish Berlin's control over the German states. The Austrians wanted to regain lost positions in Italy and Germany by defeating France.

The expulsion of the French army from Russia did not remove the threat of a new invasion from the peoples of Europe. The fight had to be continued until the enemy was completely defeated. The Russian army acted selflessly. “It was first about our own salvation, and then about the salvation of the whole of Europe, and therefore the whole world,” wrote V. G. Belinsky, emphasizing the just nature of the struggle of peoples in 1812-1814.

On January 1 (13), 1813, the Russian army crossed the river. Neman and joined the Duchy of Warsaw. The campaign of 1813 began. On February 15 (27), 1813, in the city of Kalisz, an agreement on peace, friendship, offensive and defensive alliance was signed between Russia and Prussia, according to which both parties pledged to mutually assist each other in the fight against Napoleon.

Led by M.I. Kutuzov, the Russian army advanced in a western direction, liberating Polish and Prussian cities. Eleven days after the signing of the Treaty of Kalisz, Russian troops entered Berlin. The Russian command saw the unity of efforts of the Russian and German peoples as an important means of achieving the main goal of the war - to put an end to Napoleon.
The change in the situation in Prussia, as well as the successes of the Russian army, were viewed with caution by the Prussian government. King Frederick William III tried to restrain the active actions of the Prussian troops and prevent them from uniting with the Russian army, which contradicted the terms of the Kalisz Treaty and the tactics of M. I. Kutuzov, aimed at uniting forces and strengthening armies with reserves. But the Russian Commander-in-Chief failed to complete the job he started. In April 1813, having caught a bad cold, he
died in a small town in Silesia Bunzlau. Later an obelisk was erected here in his memory.

Led the Russian-Prussian army General P. X. Wittgenstein, and after his unsuccessful actions Barclay de Tolly was appointed Commander-in-Chief.

So far only Prussia has acted alongside Russia. Austria continued to play a double game and waited to see which side the scales would lean towards. She feared both Napoleon's domination and the strengthening of Russia, although Prussia's accession to the anti-Napoleonic coalition had a sobering effect on her.

Napoleon, meanwhile, managed to form a new army. After a series of mobilizations, he assembled almost the same army as Russia and Prussia had together - 200 thousand soldiers. On April 20 (May 4), 1813, he defeated the allies at Lutzen and Bautzen, where they lost 20 thousand soldiers and retreated, leaving the left bank of the Elbe. French troops occupied Dresden and Breslau. These successes of Napoleon forced the allies to offer the Emperor of France a truce, which was necessary for both sides. It was signed in Plesvitsa on May 23 (June 4), 1813, through the mediation of Austria.

The truce allowed Russia and Prussia to resume negotiations with England on subsidies, and with Austria on joint actions against Napoleon, and helped strengthen the Prussian army with reserves. During the truce, Napoleon hoped to bring up fresh forces and prepare for a new offensive.

Napoleon's determination to continue the war, the advance of the allied armies to the Elbe, which created the threat of invasion of Austria if it acted on the side of France, put an end to the Habsburgs' hesitation. On August 28 (September 9), 1813, Austria became part of the anti-Napoleonic coalition, signing the Teplitz Treaty of Friendship and Defensive Alliance with Russia. Both states pledged to act in concert in Europe; in the event of a threat to one of them, provide assistance with a corps of 60 thousand people; they were not to make peace or truce without mutual agreement.

From the end of the summer of 1813, the situation changed in favor of the Allies. The states of the Rhineland and Sweden went over to the side of the coalition. The Allied army now numbered about 500 thousand people (against 400 thousand enemy).

The international and domestic situation of France became increasingly tense. Dissatisfaction with Napoleon's policies grew in the country, and his prestige in the army fell. The emperor was abandoned by some of his close associates: General Jomini went into Russian service; a little later Napoleon was left by his brother-in-law Murat.

In such a situation, on October 4-6 (16-18), 1813, a battle took place near Leipzig, which went down in history as the “battle of the nations.” Fought on the side of the Allies Russian, Prussian, Austrian and Swedish troops;

acted on the side of Napoleon French, Poles, Belgians, Dutch, Saxons, Bavarians, Württembergers, Italians. In total, more than 500 thousand people took part in the battle on both sides. This battle lasted for three days, which began successfully for the French, but ended in a heavy defeat for the Napoleonic army.

During the battles, the Saxon army betrayed Napoleon, going over to the side of the coalition. Russian and Prussian troops played the main role in the Battle of Leipzig. They were the first to enter Leipzig, putting the enemy to flight.

The Battle of Leipzig was the culmination of the campaign of 1813. In this battle, Napoleon lost more than a third of his army (at least 65 thousand, allies - about 55 thousand people); France's reserves were depleted: all conscription ages were mobilized. The French army fought back to the Rhine. In November 1813, Napoleon was in Paris and again prepared forces for new battles. The Leipzig defeat did not force the Emperor of France to stop fighting and turn to the European powers with a peace proposal. It took new war already on the territory of France, where the Allies entered in January 1814.

The liberation of Germany and the further retreat of Napoleonic troops increased the contradiction in the Allied camp. The Austrian government, wanting to maintain France as a counterweight to Russia, insisted on negotiations with Napoleon, threatening otherwise to leave the coalition.

On February 17 (March 1), 1814, the so-called Quadruple Treaty in Chaumont was signed between Russia, Austria, Prussia and England, which contained preliminary conditions for peace. The most controversial issues (Polish, Saxon) were not discussed in Chaumont, so as not to strengthen the already deep ones differences in the Allied camp. The powers agreed to give France territory within the borders of 1792 and thereby restore European balance. The terms of this treaty largely prepared the decisions of the Congress of Vienna. The continuous wars that Napoleon waged caused discontent not only in the conquered states, but also in his own country. This, in particular, manifested itself with the appearance of allied troops on French territory. The residents of Paris and even Napoleonic guards defended the city without much tenacity. The Emperor himself
there was none in the capital. Having learned about the surrender of Paris, Napoleon tried to gather troops and recapture the city from the enemy, but upon arriving in Fontainebleau, he was forced under pressure from the marshals to sign an act of abdication.

March 18 (30), 1814 Paris capitulated. The allied armies led by Alexander I entered the capital of France on March 31 and were greeted by a demonstration of supporters of the old order. The Emperor of Russia tried not to hurt the national pride of the French. He gave the order to establish control over the behavior of soldiers and officers of the allied armies, abolished the offensive ceremony of presenting the keys to the city, as if contrasting his behavior (worthy of a winner) with the actions of the French emperor in the Russian capital. Bonaparte at the end of April 1814 was sent to the island. Elba. A provisional government was formed in Paris, headed by Tale Iran. The Senate he convened announced the deposition of Napoleon and the restoration of the Bourbon dynasty. At the beginning of May 1814, the new king Louis XVIII, the brother of the executed Louis XVI, arrived in the capital.

Russian history [ Tutorial] Team of authors

6.4. Patriotic War of 1812 and foreign campaigns of the Russian army

Preparing for war

By 1810, the Peace of Tilsit was being violated by both France and Russia.

So, in December 1810, Napoleon occupied the North German lands and captured the Duchy of Oldenburg.

Russia, in turn, also evaded compliance with the continental blockade of England: through Russian ports in Western Europe ships sailed under the flags of neutral states carrying British goods. The prevailing view was that waging war would cause less damage to the Russian economy than the decline in agriculture and finance caused by the cessation of foreign trade with England. In the summer of 1810, a “customs war” began between Russia and France - a mutual increase in tariffs on imported goods.

At the same time, both France and Russia launched military preparations. Napoleon carried out additional mobilization in the vassal states of France, as a result of which his “Grand Army” began to number more than 1 million people.

The Russian Ministry of War paid main attention to the rearmament of the Russian army and the protection of the western borders. Defensive fortifications were built along the Western Dvina, Berezina, and Dnieper rivers.

The Russian army was significantly inferior in numbers to Napoleonic's, but its higher morale was undeniable - it was an army of defenders of the Fatherland. It had a large number of talented commanders and military leaders, such as M. I. Kutuzov, P. I. Bagration, M. B. Barclay de Tolly, N. N. Raevsky, D. S. Dokhturov, N. A. Tuchkov, M. I. Platov, M. A. Miloradovich and others.

Napoleon's invasion of Russia

The Duchy of Warsaw became the springboard for the attack on Russia: military warehouses were built there, supplies of fodder and food were created. By June 1812, a huge army of more than 400 thousand people stood at the borders of Russia. The front stretched for 300 km from Warsaw to Konigsberg.

The strategic deployment of Russian troops was unsuccessful. They consisted of three armies, distant from each other over long distances and forced to act independently: the 1st Western Army covered St. Petersburg (commander M.B. Barclay de Tolly), the 2nd Army (commander P.I. Bagration) acted on Moscow direction, 3rd Western Army - in the Kiev direction (commander A.P. Tormasov). Overall command was concentrated in the hands of Infantry General Barclay de Tolly.

On the night of June 12, 1812, the French army invaded Russia and, encountering virtually no resistance, began rapidly advancing into the interior of the country. In order to prevent Napoleon from cutting off each other and defeating the Russian armies one by one, the 1st and 2nd Western armies moved towards the connection. The connection took place on July 22, 1812 near Smolensk and was the first success of the Russian troops, but the strategic retreat continued. On the night of August 6, Smolensk was abandoned. Upon entering the city, Napoleon for the first time sent Alexander I a peace proposal, which was left unanswered.

It was clear that the hostilities were becoming protracted. From the Russian side, the war became a national liberation war - a domestic one. The further retreat of the Russian troops caused discontent both in the army and in society. Under these conditions, Alexander I agreed to the appointment of M. I. Kutuzov as commander-in-chief.

On August 17, Kutuzov arrived in the town of Tsarevo-Zaimishche, where the headquarters of the Russian army was located, and began to prepare the army for a general battle.

battle of Borodino

The location for the decisive battle was determined to be near the village of Borodino near Mozhaisk, 120 km from Moscow. On a huge field in the center of Russian positions, three fortifications were built: a redoubt near the village of Shevardino, General Raevsky’s battery on Kurgan Heights and the so-called Bagration flushes - earthen fortifications near the village of Semenovskaya. They took the main blow of the French troops.

On August 24, the French launched an attack on the Shevardinsky redoubt, which changed hands several times and was abandoned by the Russians by nightfall on the orders of Kutuzov.

The main battle took place on August 26. It started early in the morning and lasted 12 hours. Main blow Napoleon attacked on the left flank - against Bagration's 2nd Army. To weaken the force of the blow, Kutuzov ordered the Cossacks under the command of Ataman M.I. Platov and the cavalry corps of General F.P. Uvarov to carry out a raid behind enemy lines. This maneuver somewhat delayed the attack on Raevsky’s battery. But by 4 o’clock in the afternoon the French had captured this fortification, although in general they failed to break through the defenses of the Russian troops. As darkness fell, Napoleon withdrew his troops from the battlefield.

The losses on both sides were enormous: the French - more than 35 thousand people, the Russians - 45 thousand. But the Battle of Borodino was greeted by contemporaries as a political and moral victory Russia. Napoleon in his memoirs gave a textbook assessment of Borodin: “The French showed themselves worthy of victory, and the Russians acquired the right to be invincible.” Despite heavy losses, the Russian army retained its main composition and, unlike the French, had the opportunity to replenish it.

Leaving Moscow

The retreat of the Russian army after the Battle of Borodino continued. On September 1, at a military council in the village of Fili near Moscow, it was decided to leave the capital. Kutuzov considered it his main duty to preserve the army, believing that “Russia is not lost with the loss of Moscow.” He had no doubt that by leaving Moscow he would prepare for the inevitable death of the enemy.

On September 2, 1812, Napoleon approached Moscow. Stopping at Poklonnaya Hill, he waited to no avail for the “delegation of boyars” with symbolic keys to the city. By this time, the capital was practically empty - everyone who could left the city along with the army. During the 36 days spent in the Russian capital, Napoleon three times suggested that Alexander I begin peace negotiations. But the tsar left Napoleon's letters unanswered.

On October 7, 1812, the French left Moscow. Before retreating, Napoleon ordered the Kremlin to be blown up. The explosion was prevented by Russian patriots who cut the already lit wicks, but some of the buildings were still damaged, including the Faceted Chamber, Nikolskaya and Borovitskaya towers, etc.

Tarutino maneuver and retreat of the French army

Leaving Moscow and preparing for a counter-offensive, Kutuzov carried out the so-called Tarutin maneuver - transferring the army along the Kaluga road to the village of Tarutino (80 km from Moscow), thereby closing the French road to the south, to areas not devastated by the war and to the Tula arms factories. In the Tarutino fortified camp, the army was intensively recruited, now it was twice the size of the French one.

Napoleon, hoping to break through to the food supplies of the south, walked towards Kaluga. On October 12, a major battle took place in the area of ​​​​the city of Maloyaroslavets, which changed hands eight times and was abandoned by the Russians only after they occupied more advantageous position. Napoleon had to give the order to move to the West along the devastated Old Smolensk Road. The strategic initiative completely passed to the Russian army. The outcome of the war was a foregone conclusion. Kutuzov's army moved parallel to the flanks of Napoleon's army, depriving it of maneuverability. From the rear of the enemy, the Cossack corps of Ataman Platov was pursuing and the partisans were attacking. The French army as a whole was demoralized, but retained its combat capability, and Russian troops had to fight stubborn battles. In mid-November, a battle took place near the village of Krasny, where the rearguard corps of Marshal Ney was cut off from the main enemy army and most of it was destroyed.

On November 8, Napoleon set out from Orsha and headed to the city of Borisov, where he hoped to cross the river. Berezina. He managed to avoid encirclement, but during the crossing more than 20 thousand French were killed or captured. After the Berezina, Napoleon's retreat turned into a disorderly flight. The "Great Army" ceased to exist. Napoleon himself, having left the army, arrived in Paris in early December.

The Patriotic War of 1812 is an outstanding event in the history of Russia. During it, all layers of society were united by one idea, one goal - the salvation of the Fatherland, the struggle for national independence and state sovereignty.

The patriotic feeling naturally grew into a feeling of national pride, and the civic consciousness of both the noble society and the common people awakened. Victory in the war gave impetus to the development of Russian culture, literature, architecture, engineering art etc. The War of 1812 was of enormous international significance; the defeat of Napoleonic army in Russia marked the beginning of the liberation of the countries of Central and Western Europe.

Russian army in Western Europe

After his expulsion from Russia, Napoleon intended to resume the war and assembled a new army. Therefore, it became necessary to continue the fight until the enemy was completely defeated. On January 1, 1813, the Russian army crossed the river. Neman and entered the territory of the Duchy of Warsaw, marking the beginning of her campaign abroad. In February 1813, Russia and Prussia signed a treaty of peace, friendship and alliance. On February 20, Russian troops entered Berlin. At the end of the summer of 1813, Austria and Sweden joined the anti-French coalition. The total number of coalition armies reached half a million. On October 4–6, 1813, a battle took place near Leipzig, called the “Battle of the Nations” (the allied Russian, Austrian, Prussian and Swedish armies took part in it). Napoleon's army was defeated by the Allied forces. The Russian army near Leipzig was commanded by General P. H. Wittgenstein. (M. I. Kutuzov died in April 1813 in the Silesian town of Bunzlau.)

The Battle of Leipzig ended the campaign of 1813. Since 1814, military operations were carried out on French territory. On March 18, 1814, the allied armies led by Russian Emperor Alexander I entered Paris.

Congress of Vienna and the creation of a new political system

Napoleon Bonaparte abdicated the throne and was exiled to Fr. Elba, the Bourbon dynasty was restored in France.

In May 1814, the allies (Russia, England, Austria, Spain, Prussia, Portugal, Sweden) signed the Treaty of Paris with France. Under its terms, France returned to the borders of 1792 (before the start of the revolutionary wars). The victorious countries annexed parts of the Napoleonic territory. Great Empire" Two months later, the Peace Congress of European States opened in Vienna, the purpose of which was to consolidate territorial and political changes in Europe.

In total, the Congress of Vienna lasted almost a year (September 1814 – June 1815). The main disputes were caused by the Polish and Saxon questions (i.e., the transfer of the Duchy of Warsaw to Russia, and to Prussia to Saxony). The severity of the contradictions even led to the creation of an anti-Russian coalition consisting of England, Austria and France.

But the famous “100 days” of Napoleon Bonaparte - the escape from the island of Elba, the victorious march across the country and the restoration of his power in France - once again rallied the congress participants. On May 28, 1815, the final act of the Congress of Vienna was signed. According to the terms of the treaty, most of the Duchy of Warsaw passed to Russia. The task of the victors was to stabilize the situation in Europe. They succeeded. For almost 40 years, Europe did not experience major wars.

On September 14, 1815, on the initiative of Alexander I, the Holy Alliance of Russia, Austria, and Prussia was concluded, which declared the inviolability of the decisions of the Congress of Vienna in the name of maintaining stability in Europe and the joint suppression of any revolutionary movements.

The system of international relations after 1815, territorial changes in Europe and the political union of monarchs were called the Vienna System.