Authoritarian political regime and its main features. Political regimes
Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation
Federal State Educational Budgetary Institution
higher professional education
"Khabarovsk State Academy of Economics and Law"
Center for work with branches and distance learning
Test
Khabarovsk 2013
Introduction
1. Concept and typology of political regimes
Conclusion
Appendix
Introduction
One of the most common types of political system in history is authoritarianism. In its characteristic features, it occupies an intermediate position between totalitarianism and democracy. However, such a characterization does not indicate the essential features of the phenomenon as a whole, even if the features of totalitarianism and democracy are clearly distinguished in it. The richness and diversity of authoritarian political systems, which are essentially an intermediate type between democracy and totalitarianism, have also determined a number of universal, fundamental distinguishing features of these political orders. An authoritarian regime is a political regime in which state power is exercised by one person or a narrow circle of persons (the ruling elite) with minimal participation of the population. An authoritarian regime is a regime that restricts democracy and establishes the power of one person or group of people (dictatorship). Such a regime significantly limits the powers of representative institutions, ignores the principle of separation of powers, infringes on civil and political rights, misappropriates, usurps or seizes power. At present, authoritarian political orders have been established in many modern countries of the world. Moreover, many scientists, both in the past and in the present, very positively assessed and evaluate this type of organization of power. In Russia, the formation of a new political system is associated with the collapse of the USSR. The political system functioning in Russia in many ways does not meet the generally accepted criteria of democracy. Political scientists characterize this political system using the terms "authoritarian democracy", "regime system", linking its emergence with the weakness of the state and the immaturity of civil society.
1. The concept and typology of political regimes
The essence of power lies in its ability to impart expediency, rationality, orderliness to relations between people.
Society as a complex system of interaction between individuals, groups, organizations needs to be managed, regulated and coordinated by human interests and actions. Power regulates social relations through various means: violence, coercion, persuasion, encouragement, fear, etc. The totality of means and methods for the implementation of political power, which determines the degree of freedom and legal status of an individual, is called a political regime.
Political power is diverse in forms and means of manifestation. To reflect various aspects of its functioning, such concepts as "form of government", "political regime", "political system" are used.
In order to effectively influence society, the behavior of people, classes, power must be organized, have means of influence, coercion. The organization of the supreme state power, its bodies, their relationship with the population are designated by the concept of "form of government". Usually, monarchic and republican forms of government are distinguished. However, the nature of political power in society does not always correspond to the form of government. For example, Sweden, Norway, Belgium are more democratic than many republics, although they are constitutional monarchies in form of government. At the same time, Germany in the 1930s was a republic in form of government, but the nature of power was dictatorial. In this regard, there was a need to determine the means and methods by which state power regulates and streamlines relations between people. This aspect of the functioning of power reflects the concept of "political regime".
In European political science, this concept is basic, while in American science, preference is given to the category "political system" in terms of its fundamental nature. Despite the long use of the concept of "political regime", it has not retained a sufficiently clear content.
Supporters of the systemic approach broadly interpret this concept, identifying it with the category of "political system". This gives rise to well-known theoretical difficulties, since there is a danger of terminological duplication of two concepts of one series of political phenomena. The terms "political system" and "political regime" characterize political life from different angles: if the political system reflects the nature of the relationship between politics and the economy, social, cultural and other spheres of society, then the political regime determines the means and methods of exercising power. Consequently, the political regime is a functional "cut" of the political system, it develops as a result of political activity and political course, which are chosen by the holders of supreme power.
Some researchers limit the content of the political regime to the form of government. According to this point of view, the classification of political regimes is based on the difference between the legislative and executive functions of the state and the clarification of their relationship. According to this principle, the regime of merger of powers (absolute monarchy), the regime of separation of powers (presidential republic) and the regime of cooperation (parliamentary republic) were distinguished. Focusing on the activities of government structures, such an interpretation ignores the influence of other political institutions: the party system, pressure groups, etc. In this regard, it would be more accurate to present the form of government as one of the components of the political regime.
In political science, the definition of a political regime given by the political scientist Zh-L is generally recognized. Kermonne: "A political regime is understood as a set of elements of an ideological, institutional and sociological order that contribute to the formation of the political power of a given country for a certain period." Among these elements, he singled out: 1) the principle of legitimacy; 2) the structure of institutions; 3) the party system; 4) the form and role of the state.
The concept of "political regime" expresses the nature of the relationship between state power and the individual, and also gives an idea of the foundations of the system of power. In this regard, C. L. Montesquieu remarked: "Just as virtue is needed for a republic, and honor for a monarchy, so fear is needed for a despotic government." Depending on the ratio of democracy and dictatorship as the principles of organizing public life, which determines the degree of social freedom of the individual, there are three types of regimes: totalitarian, authoritarian and democratic. Between totalitarianism and democracy as the extreme poles of this classification, there are many intermediate ways of exercising power.
The term "totalitarianism" comes from the medieval Latin word "totalis", which means "whole", "whole", "complete". Totalitarianism is a complete control and strict regulation by the state of all spheres of the life of society, of each person through direct armed violence. The state absorbs the whole society and the individual. At the same time, power at all levels is formed behind closed doors, as a rule, by one person or a narrow group of persons from the ruling elite. Totalitarianism is a specifically new form of dictatorship that emerged in the 20th century.
Dictatorship (from Latin dictatura - "unlimited power") - the regime of government of one person or a group of people headed by a leader without any control by the ruled arose a long time ago and had many historical forms of its manifestation. Initially, in republican Rome (V-I centuries BC), a dictator was an emergency official (magistrate), who was appointed for a period of no more than six months to organize protection from an external threat or to suppress an internal rebellion. The dictator was bound by law in his powers and terms of office. Beginning with Sulla and especially Caesar, who was repeatedly endowed with dictatorial powers, the nature of the dictatorship has changed significantly. The dictator became not subject to the law, not accountable to the people and changed the laws in his own interests. However, subsequently - both in the Middle Ages and in modern times - dictatorships were internally fragile regimes, they were united only by the will of the dictator.
Totalitarianism is a fundamentally new type of dictatorship in which the state and ideology play a special role. The term "totalitarian" was introduced into the political lexicon by the leader of the Italian fascists B. Mussolini (1883 - 1945). The goals of the fascist movement, in his opinion, consisted in creating a strong state, using exclusively forceful principles of exercising power and subordinating all social forces to the hierarchical principle. The essence of totalitarianism as a new political order, B. Mussolini expressed the formula: "Everything is in the state, nothing outside the state, nothing against the state."
The emergence of totalitarianism was facilitated by objective processes that developed in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The entry of human society into the industrial stage of development led to the creation of an extensive system of mass communications. Technical possibilities arose for ideological and political control over the individual. The growing division and specialization of industrial labor destroyed traditional forms of life and made the individual defenseless against the world of market elements and competition. The complication of social relations required strengthening the role of the state as a universal regulator and organizer of the interaction of individuals with diverging interests. Experience shows that totalitarian regimes, as a rule, arise under extraordinary conditions: growing instability in society; a deep crisis covering all aspects of life; finally, if it is necessary to solve a strategic task that is extremely important for the country.
In Western political science, the following signs of totalitarianism are distinguished: a) the only mass party; b) a monopoly existing ideology recognized by all; c) monopoly on mass media; d) monopoly on the means of armed struggle; e) terrorist control by the political police; f) centralized system of control and management of the economy. Of particular note is such a sign as the absolute concentration of power in the hands of the leader, who relies on the ruling party. The principle of leaderism or Fuhrerism reflects the low level of development of democratic consciousness, arises as an expression of the need for a symbol of the unity of the nation in conditions of social instability. The Fuhrer in fascist Germany stood at the head of the state, expressed his will; the strength of the state came from the Fuhrer. He had unlimited power over his subordinates. The authority of the leader was not based on conscious trust, but rather had a mystical, personal character.
Democracy is the most complex type of political regime. According to the Russian lawyer P.I. Novgorodtsev, "democracy is always a crossroads ... a system of open doors diverging into unknown directions of roads ... Far from creating a firm balance of life, it excites the spirit of quest more than any other form."
"Democracy" (demos - "people" and kratos - power, rule) in Greek means "the power of the people." However, from the first mention of it in the translation of the Aristotelian "Politics" in 1260 to the present day, disputes about its content have not ceased. Various authors focus on certain components of democracy, for example, on the power of the majority, its limitation and control over it, the fundamental rights of citizens, legal and social statehood, separation of powers, general elections, openness, competition of different opinions and positions, pluralism, equality, complicity. etc. This led to the fact that today there are several interpretations of the meaning of democracy. In some cases, it is interpreted broadly, as a social system based on the voluntariness of all forms of an individual's life. In other cases, it is interpreted more narrowly - as a form of state in which all citizens have equal rights to power. In this it differs from a monarchy, where power belongs to one person, and from an aristocracy, where control is exercised by a group of people. This interpretation of democracy comes from the ancient tradition starting with Herodotus (5th century BC). And, finally, democracy is understood as an ideal model of social order, a certain worldview based on the values of freedom, equality, and human rights. Individuals, groups, professing these values, form a movement for their implementation. In this sense, the term "democracy" is interpreted as a social movement, as a type of political orientation, embodied in the programs of certain parties.
The evolution of the meaning of the term "democracy" is due to the development of human society. Initially, democracy was seen as the direct rule of citizens, as opposed to the rule of a monarch or aristocrats. However, already in antiquity, democracy was considered the "worst form" of government. At that time, it was believed that the low level of culture of the citizens of the Greek policies-states allows the rulers to manipulate the "power of the people." As a result, democratic regimes did not last long and turned into ochlocracy (crowd power), and those, in turn, gave rise to tyranny. Based on this, Aristotle did not distinguish between democracy and ochlocracy, having a negative attitude towards democracy. His assessment of democracy influenced its further fate: democracy began to be perceived negatively and was forced out of political life.
Functionally, polyarchy as a political regime relies on seven institutions that ensure its effectiveness. These include:
a) elected officials; control over government decisions is constitutionally assigned to representatives elected by the people;
a) free and fair elections, excluding any violence and coercion;
) relatively high dependence of the government on voters and election results;
) freedom of speech, providing the opportunity freely. express their opinion, including criticism of the government, regime, society, the dominant ideology;
) the existence of alternative and often competing sources of information and beliefs, removed from government control;
) a high degree of freedom in the creation of relatively autonomous and diverse independent organizations, including opposition parties and interest groups.
The world experience of democratization is extremely relevant for the modern modernization of Russia. At the very least, it allows us to identify the features of the political development of Russian society, to correlate them with world trends.
Authoritarianism is usually seen as a type of regime that occupies an intermediate position between totalitarianism and democracy. However, such a characterization does not indicate the essential features of the phenomenon as a whole, even if we take into account which features of totalitarianism and which of democracy can be found in it.
Essentially significant in defining authoritarianism is the nature of the relationship between the state and the individual: they are built more on coercion than on persuasion. At the same time, the authoritarian regime liberalizes public life, does not seek to impose a clearly developed official ideology on society, allows limited and controlled pluralism in political thinking, opinions and actions, and tolerates the existence of the opposition. The management of various spheres of society's life is not so total, there is no strictly organized control over the social and economic infrastructure of civil society, over production, trade unions, educational institutions, mass organizations, and the media. Autocracy (from the Greek autokrateia - autocracy, autocracy, i.e. the unlimited power of one person) does not require a demonstration of loyalty from the population, as in totalitarianism, it is enough for it to have no open political confrontation. However, the regime is merciless to manifestations of real political competition for power, to the actual participation of the population in decision-making on the most important issues of society. Authoritarianism suppresses basic civil rights.
In order to keep unlimited power in its hands, the authoritarian regime circulates the elites not through the competitive struggle of candidates in the elections, but by co-opting (volitional introduction) of them into the governing structures. Due to the fact that the process of transfer of power in such regimes is carried out not through the procedures for replacing leaders established by law, but by force, these regimes are not legitimate. However, despite the lack of support from the people, autocracies can exist for a long time and quite successfully. They are able to effectively solve strategic problems, despite their illegitimacy. Authoritarian regimes in Chile, Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan, Argentina, and the countries of the Arab East can serve as an example of such effective economic and social reforms.
These features of authoritarianism testify to its well-known similarity with totalitarianism. However, the most significant difference between them lies in the nature of the relationship of power with society and the individual. If under authoritarianism these relations are differentiated and based on "limited pluralism", then totalitarianism generally rejects any pluralism and diversity of social interests. Moreover, totalitarianism seeks to eliminate not only social, but also ideological pluralism and dissent. Authoritarianism does not challenge the right to autonomous self-expression of various groups in society.
Traditional absolutist monarchies are regimes in which there is no separation of powers, political competition, power is concentrated in the hands of a narrow group of people, and the ideology of the aristocratic class dominates. An example is the regimes in the Persian Gulf countries, as well as in Nepal, Morocco, etc.
Traditional authoritarian regimes of the oligarchic type prevail in Latin America. As a rule, economic and political power under such regimes is concentrated in the hands of a few influential families. One leader replaces another with the help of a coup or falsification of the election results. The elite is closely connected with the church and the military elite (for example, the regime in Guatemala).
The hegemonic authoritarianism of the new oligarchy was created as a regime that expressed the interests of the comprador bourgeoisie, i.e. that part of the bourgeoisie of economically backward, dependent countries, which mediated between foreign capital and the national market. Such regimes existed under the presidency of Marcos in the Philippines (1972 - 1985), Tunisia, Cameroon, etc. Quite a massive variety of authoritarian regimes are "military regimes". They are of three types:
a) having a strictly dictatorial, terrorist nature and personal nature of power (for example, the regime of I. Amin in Uganda);
b) military juntas carrying out structural reforms (for example, the regime of General Pinochet in Chile);
c) one-party regimes that existed in Egypt under G. A. Nasser, in Peru under X. Peron, etc. It should be singled out as another variety of authoritarianism, theocratic regimes in which political power is concentrated in the hands of clerics. An example of this type would be Ayatollah Khomeini's regime in Iran.
The ways of exercising political power in the history of Russian society have not remained unchanged. Three periods of Russian political history, qualitatively different from each other - pre-Soviet, Soviet and post-Soviet - corresponded to the specific method and nature of state government. The similarity of these three periods consisted, first of all, in the fact that the Russian political process throughout its entire duration was more in line with dictatorship than democracy.
The traditional absolute monarchy, which existed from the reign of Ivan III until 1917, was characterized by a dictatorship, either increasing its rigidity (as was the case under Ivan IV, Peter I), or moving into a moderate authoritarian system with elements of parliamentarism in the person of the State Duma and a multi-party system (for example , at the end of the reign of Nicholas II). All power was concentrated in the hands of the monarch, who in his reign relied not only on tradition, but also on violence.
A special kind of dictatorial political regime is the dictatorship of the proletariat, established after the October Revolution of 1917. The dictatorship of the proletariat, as defined by V. I. Lenin, meant that “only a certain class, namely urban and factory workers in general, is able to lead the entire mass of working and exploited people in the struggle to maintain and strengthen victory, in the creation of a new, socialist, social building, in the whole struggle for the complete abolition of classes." In practice, the political regime of the party nomenklatura was created. There were few workers in the government for the entire Soviet period, and in the Communist Party there were significantly less than half of them. The state, headed by professional revolutionaries, concentrated in its hands the entirety of legislative, executive and judicial power, and monopolized national property. The gradually formed new class of the party-state nomenklatura gravitated toward the oligarchic nature of power, the social base of which was the mass Communist Party and the Soviets. The ruling minority exercised its power over the majority, relying not only on a strong propaganda apparatus, but also on an extensive punitive system, means of political terror and the fight against dissent. As a result, the regime eventually acquired the features of totalitarianism. At the same time, the political regime in the USSR, for which the name “dictatorship of the nomenklatura” is more suitable, sought to respond to the socio-economic needs of the population and satisfy them. Given the availability of resources, which were formed mainly through the sale of oil, gas, and weapons, it was possible to do this, but as they were reduced, the regime's capabilities were also limited. At piecework stages, the totalitarian regime acquired the features of authoritarianism, as it was under N. S. Khrushchev.
The abolition of the constitutional guarantees of the monopoly position of the Communist Party led to the fall of the regime. New institutions of power appeared: the president, parliament, local governments. In 1993, the system of Soviets was abolished, which formally was the basis of the mechanism for the functioning of power in the country.
However, the nature of state power has changed little, in essence it has remained authoritarian. This is a natural consequence of the immaturity of civil society in Russia. Authoritarian beginnings are found today in a significant concentration of power in the hands of the head of state - the president. An authoritarian regime is able to ensure the concentration of resources in the strategic directions of the development of society, to effectively respond to emerging problems. This trend is especially typical for countries transitioning from the market. However, the authoritarian regime in Russia also has significant drawbacks. First of all, the concentration of power in the hands of the president in such volumes that exceed the powers of the presidents of France and the United States combined, make society very dependent on his subjective will.
The weak degree of separation of political roles and functions indicates the underdevelopment of the political mechanism as a whole. The higher the degree of differentiation and specialization of the functions of political institutions, the higher their ability to respond to new interests and needs emerging in society. Consequently, the pyramidal structure of power, characteristic of modern Russia, has a high degree of inertia and subjectivism.
This circumstance determines the insufficiently high efficiency of the regime. First of all, this refers to its inability to reliably guarantee all the constitutional rights and freedoms of citizens, to respond to their needs. Insufficient, and in some cases, simply low efficiency of the regime constantly raises the question of its legitimacy, the need to maintain it.
In conditions of excessive concentration of power in the hands of the president and executive bodies, there are virtually no opportunities for constant effective control over their activities, both on the part of society and legislators. This creates opportunities for uncontrolled spending of federal funds, for corruption. The instruments of control under these conditions can be the mass media and a mature party system. However, a competitive party system capable of identifying and expressing the interests of social groups has not yet completed its formation. The mass media in the conditions of the market themselves become dependent on the authorities.
The evolution of the political regime in the direction of its democratization is associated with a more rational division of functions and powers between the various branches of government, which will protect society from the subjectivism of political leaders and elites.
Conclusion
One of the types of anti-democratic political regime is authoritarian. The term "authoritarianism" is used in political science to refer to a regime characterized by a monopoly on the power of any one party, group, person or institution. It is possible to single out real one-party, one-party "semi-competitive" type and pseudo-party authoritarianism. Based on the structure of the ruling bloc and the goals of the policy pursued, military, oligarchic, populist and bureaucratic regimes are distinguished. At present, an authoritarian political regime continues to dominate in Russia, the principles of democracy are combined with elements of personal power. Authoritarianism is a political regime in which political power is exercised by a specific person (leader, family, political party, social class) with minimal participation of the people. Authoritarianism is one of the most widespread political regimes of our time. It was developed mainly in a number of liberated countries in Asia, Africa, Latin America, as well as in the USSR, when, after the death of I.V. Stalin, the transformation of the totalitarian regime into an authoritarian one began. An authoritarian political regime, as a rule, evolves into a democracy. Modern Russia is characterized by a confrontation between two trends. The privileged position of the president in the system of power. The president and his staff are forced to reckon with the large comprador capital that has gained strength, the financial oligarchy, which retains serious positions in the media and successfully opposes the president and his immediate circle in an attempt to stay in power. Some reforms carried out by the authorities are contrary to the principles of democracy, in particular the creation of so-called federal districts with representatives of the president, the extension of the terms for electing governors, etc.
List of used literature
1. Kravchenko A.I. Political Science: Proc. Benefit. For students ped. universities. - M.: Academy, 2005.
2. Lavrovsky N.A. Political Science: Textbook / Ed. O.V. Polishchuk: Tom. state University of Control Systems and Radioelectronics (TUSUR). Dept. Moscow: TUSUR, 2003.
Mukhaev R.T. Political science: a textbook for universities. Second edition. - M.: "Prior-izdat", 2005.
Political Science: Proc. allowance for universities / Comp. And rep. Editor A.A. Radugin. - M.: Center, 2005.
Political science: Textbook for universities / V.N. Lavrinenko, A.S. Grechin, V.Yu. Doroshenko and others; Ed. prof. V.N. Lavrinenko. - M.: UNITI, 2003.
Unpelev A. G. Political science: power, democracy, personality. Tutorial. M., 2004.
Chvikalov I.M., Kamalov R.M. Political Science: Textbook for tech. universities. - Voronezh: VGLTA, 2003.
Appendix
Political Science Tests
What concept corresponds to the definition: these are non-state (private) associations of citizens seeking to realize their common specific interests and exerting influence on power for this purpose (but not striving to possess it)?
) political parties;
) political movements;
) interest groups.
Which of the following types of political cultures corresponds to the typology proposed by G. Almond and S. Verba:
) democratic;
) liberal;
) patriarchal.
Which one of the three political ideologies listed below is characterized by the following features: a) militant nationalism; b) imperialist aspirations; c) the omnipotence of the nation-state; d) exposure of the liberal parliamentary system; e) recognition of private property, but denunciation of the abuses generated by it; f) the idea of national solidarity; g) anti-Marxism.
) anarchism;
) communism;
Traditional legitimacy is based on:
) legitimacy;
) force of habit;
) rationality.
Under what form of government must a government receive a "vote of confidence" in parliament in order to become legally legit?
) absolute monarchy;
) parliamentary republic;
) presidential republic.
Which of the following features most fully characterizes the rule of law?
) the rule of law;
a) existence of the Constitution and laws;
) social equality.
What concept does the definition correspond to: this is a form of political structure in which the states that are part of it fully retain their independence, have their own bodies of state power and administration, but at the same time create special joint bodies to coordinate actions for certain purposes (military, foreign political etc.)?
) confederation;
) unitary state;
) federation.
What concept does the definition correspond to: is it a type of political regime that implies general control and regulation by the state of all spheres of society?
) democracy;
) totalitarianism.
) competitive;
) majoritarian;
) democratic.
What concept does the definition correspond to: is it the sphere of realization of the interests of individuals and groups, the totality of interpersonal, family, household, economic, political, spiritual relations that are realized without the direct intervention of the state?
) civil society;
) democratic system;
Which concept corresponds to the definition: is it a principle of organizing society based on the recognition of the diversity of ideas and organizations and their competition?
) anarchy;
) pluralism;
) socialism.
One of the three types of electoral systems is:
) fair;
) representative;
) is proportional.
) integrating;
) legal-rational;
) predictive.
One of the principles of the rule of law is:
) the rule of law;
) social justice;
) government responsibility for maintaining the minimum welfare of citizens.
Which of the following definitions best describes politics?
) is control;
) is the activity of the bureaucracy;
) is the desire of people to participate in power or to influence it.
Which one of the three political ideologies listed below is characterized by the following features: a) the implementation of political democracy; b) the introduction of economic democracy and the creation of a "welfare state" (social state); c) the establishment of social democracy - the filling of democratic content in all spheres of public and private life without exception; d) the main values of this movement - freedom, equality, justice, solidarity?
) anarchism;
) communism;
) social democracy.
) propaganda;
) political socialization;
) managerial.
What concept does the definition correspond to: is it a set of political institutions, norms and relationships between them, through which political power is exercised?
) state;
) political system;
) government.
Public opinion is:
) a set of collective assessments and attitudes;
) survey results;
) the unanimous attitude of the public to any event.
Which of the following statements is false:
) Russia has a proportional electoral system;
a) a distinctive feature of the proportional electoral system are single-mandate constituencies;
) a mixed electoral system is a combination of elections in single-member constituencies and voting for lists of candidates from political parties in multi-member constituencies.
What concept does the definition correspond to: is it a political ideology that presupposes a revolutionary transition to a society based on the principles of equality, justice, and the satisfaction of all the needs of individuals?
) anarchism;
) communism;
) liberalism.
Which of the thinkers named below considered the social class to be the main subject of politics?
) M. Weber;
) K. Marx;
) G. Mosca.
The charismatic legitimacy of power is based on:
) belief in the supernatural qualities of the leader;
) legitimacy;
) rationalism.
24. The main feature of international actors is:
) independent participation in international relations;
) the presence of state sovereignty;
) participation in the activities of international organizations.
25. Which concept corresponds to the definition: is it a certain level of knowledge of people about politics, as well as the degree of participation and forms of their political behavior?
) political culture;
) political mentality;
) political consciousness.
26. What word ends the definition: Democracy is the power of the majority, respecting the interests and rights ...
) citizens;
) minorities;
) opposition.
. A "unitary state" is:
) a state whose name contains the word "union";
) a state consisting of state territorial units that do not have their own constitution, their own laws, government; they appoint governors who form local governments;
) non-democratic state.
One of the functions of the media in a democratic society is:
) ideological;
) integrative;
) news.
) state;
) judicial system.
One of the functions of political science is:
) integrating;
) practical;
) electoral.
31. What concept corresponds to the definition: is it a form of representation of the interests of members of civil society, united by a single ideology and striving to gain political power?
) interest group;
) electoral association;
) Political Party.
The Parliament (representative and legislative body) of the Russian Federation is called:
) Council of the Federation;
) The State Duma;
) Federal Assembly.
Which one of the three ideologies below is characterized by the following statements: a) the main goal of society is the achievement of happiness and justice for all people; b) it is necessary to protect the individual from failures and abuses of the market system; c) individualism, observance of property rights and human rights in general; d) striving not for equality of property, but for equality before the law and equality of opportunity; e) morality and law should be guidelines in foreign policy?
) neo-communism;
) neoliberalism;
) neo-fascism.
34. One of the types of electoral systems is:
) democratic;
) representative;
) mixed.
35. The political system, in which state power in the country belongs to the representatives of the richest and noblest strata of society, is:
) dictatorship;
) oligarchy;
) ochlocracy.
36. Which of the French enlighteners of the 18th century named below defended in his famous work "On the Spirit of Laws" the constitutional-monarchical form of government and the principle of separation of powers?
) D. Diderot;
) C. Montesquieu;
) J.-J. Rousseau.
37. Which concept corresponds to the definition: these are values that can be used or exchanged for other values to achieve political goals?
) political resources;
) degree of trust;
) economic potential.
38. One of the functions of the policy is:
) centralization of society;
) organizational;
) defending group interests.
What concept does the definition correspond to: is it recognition of the legitimacy of existing institutions of power and the legitimacy of the decisions they make on the part of society?
) legitimacy;
) submission.
Form of government in Russia in accordance with the Constitution of 1993:
) parliamentary republic;
) semi-presidential republic;
) presidential republic.
What concept corresponds to the definition: is it a political ideology that upholds the priority of the rights and interests of the individual in comparison with the interests of the state and society?
) communism;
) conservatism;
) liberalism.
Civil society is:
) a society independent of politics;
) a society free from militarism;
) the sphere of free life of people, which is outside the direct state control.
43. Which concept corresponds to the definition: is it a group of people that makes the most important political decisions, distinguished by special social, political, psychological qualities, prestige and a privileged position?
) scientific elite;
) Political Party;
) political elite.
The legal-rational legitimacy of power is based on:
) belief in the exceptional qualities of the leader;
) constitutional legality;
) force of habit.
The most important direction of political thought in Russia in the 19th century was:
) rationalism;
) conservatism;
46. What concept does the definition correspond to: is it a type of state striving to provide every citizen with decent living conditions, social security, and ideally, approximately the same starting opportunities for the realization of life goals, personal development?
) welfare state;
) unitary state;
) constitutional state.
47. Which of the following concepts characterizes the type of political regime?
) liberal;
) populist;
) totalitarian.
48. The main feature of the state is:
) the presence of ideology;
) the social structure of society;
) sovereignty.
In modern conditions, the role of the state as an international actor:
) increases;
) remains unchanged;
) decreases.
Which concept corresponds to the definition: is it the main institution of the political system, which has sovereignty, a monopoly on the use of legitimate violence and exercises control with the help of special bodies?
) state;
) Parliament.
The structure of political behavior includes:
) external situation;
) resources;
) installation.
What concept corresponds to the definition: is it the transfer of political culture to new generations, the totality of the processes of formation of political consciousness and behavior of the individual, the adoption and performance of political roles, the manifestation of political activity?
) higher education;
) political propaganda;
) political socialization.
Which concept corresponds to the definition: is it a layer of professional managers whose activities are based on the division of roles and functions through clear rules and procedures?
) bureaucrats;
) politicians.
Which of the following terms characterizes the form of government?
) democracy;
) monarchy;
) totalitarianism.
One of the types of electoral systems is:
) universal;
) majoritarian;
) is representative.
56. One of the functions of political conflict is:
) humanistic;
) social progress;
) value-oriented.
What concept does the definition correspond to: is it a transformation, change, reorganization of some aspect of social life that does not destroy the foundations of the existing social structure?
) coup;
) reform;
) evolution.
One of the works of T. Hobbes is called:
) "Leviathan";
) "On the spirit of laws";
) "Politics".
The fourth power is:
) government;
To which one of the three political ideologies do all these statements correspond: a) the inequality of people in relation to physical and mental development is natural; b) in the matter of achieving personal freedom and protecting the social order, the most important role belongs to private property; c) since the scope of the human mind is limited, traditions, social institutions, symbols, rituals and even prejudices play an important role in society?
) communism;
) conservatism;
) liberalism.
According to the criterion of publicity, a political conflict can be:
) closed (latent);
) interregional;
) social.
Which one of the three political ideologies correspond to all the ideological and political doctrines listed below: a) the basic values - public property and social equality; b) exercise of individual freedom and political democracy; c) the establishment of social democracy - the filling of democratic content in all spheres of public and private life without exception?
) communism;
) liberalism;
) social democracy.
What concept does the definition correspond to: it is a political institution whose function is to mediate between citizens, on the one hand, and decision-makers in parliament, government, on the other?
) parliament and deputies;
) Political Party;
) media.
One of the hallmarks of democracy is:
) legitimacy;
) existence of statehood;
) the presence of civil society.
What concept does the definition correspond to: this is a form of government in which the constituent entities (lands, states, republics, regions, etc.) have their own constitutions (or charters), legislative, executive, judicial bodies, but at the same time form uniform state authorities for all subjects, establish a single citizenship, a single monetary unit, etc.?
) confederation;
) unitary state;
) federation.
One form of government is:
) republic;
) totalitarianism.
Free market economy implies:
) the presence of various forms of ownership;
) planning in the development of the country;
) decisive state intervention in the country's economy.
One of the means of foreign policy is:
) diplomacy;
) mercantilism;
) protectionism.
The effectiveness of public opinion is measured by:
) mass character;
) the position of the media in society;
) the degree of influence on policy.
Which of the following ideologies assumes the development of society based on the values of family, religion, property, traditions, as well as competition between individuals while limiting government intervention?
) communist;
) conservative;
) liberalism.
One of the functions of the media in a democratic society is:
) integrative;
) defining political priorities;
) propaganda.
What concept does the definition correspond to: is it a sphere of realization of the interests of individuals and groups, a set of interpersonal, family, household, economic, political, spiritual relations that are realized without direct state intervention?
) civil society;
) democratic system;
) private enterprise.
The subject area of political science includes:
) political discussions;
) political culture and political behavior;
) political traditions.
One of the elements of the power structure is:
) will to power;
) legitimacy of power;
) power resources.
The structure of civil society includes:
) bureaucracy;
) public opinion;
) government.
76. Type of power, characteristic mainly for transitional, troubled, crisis periods:
) autocracy;
) ochlocracy;
) tyranny.
77. Which of the following types of government Plato considered ideal and characterized as the rule of the best and noblest?
) aristocracy;
) democracy;
) oligarchy.
Which concept corresponds to the definition: is it a political ideology, the basic value of which is the freedom of the individual?
) anarchism;
) communism;
) liberalism.
Political forecasting according to the goal criterion can be:
) normative;
) managerial;
) target.
One of the styles of political leadership is:
) democratic;
) integrative;
) conflict.
Which concept corresponds to the definition: is it an ideology, a movement, a regime that denies democracy, preaches aggressive nationalism, practices violence and wars of conquest?
) communism;
) liberalism;
One of the features of political power is:
) integrativity;
) representativeness;
) polycentricity.
The theory of political elites was developed by:
) M. Weber;
) V. I. Lenin;
) V. Pareto.
One of the leadership styles is:
) integrative;
) consensus.
One of the functions of the media in a democratic society is:
) ideological;
) manipulative;
) commentary.
The original meaning of the Greek word "politics" was:
) People power;
) the art of managing people;
) concentrated expression of the economy.
Which of the following political regimes is characterized by the unlimited political power of one person or a group of persons, relying in their actions on a developed system of violence against the individual and society, but allowing relative freedom outside the political sphere?
) democracy;
) totalitarianism.
Depending on the object of power influence, political processes are divided into:
) domestic political and foreign policy;
) basic and peripheral.
The most typical option for ending a political conflict is:
compromise;
) consensus;
) physical destruction of the enemy.
One of the requirements for a political forecast is:
) engagement;
) scientific objectivity;
) prolongation.
Tolerance is:
) competition of ideas and programs;
) conformism;
) tolerance for others.
What concept does the definition correspond to: is it a private association of individuals who share common attitudes, interests and goals that they seek to realize?
) interest group;
) electoral association;
) Political Party.
The theory of political systems was developed by:
) D. Easton;
) G. Mosca;
) T. Parsons.
One of the functions of political science is:
) propaganda;
) political socialization;
) value-oriented.
The principle of separation of powers was developed by:
) T. Hobbes;
) C. Montesquieu;
) V. Pareto.
One of the methods of making political decisions is:
) intuitive;
) paternalistic;
) radical.
What concept does the definition correspond to: is it a procedure for electing officials, carried out by secret or open voting in favor of one or another candidate?
) the electoral system;
) recruiting the elite.
One of the principles of the social democratic political ideology is:
a) anti-communism;
b) socialism;
c) elitism.
The rule of law is:
) a state in which such vices as corruption, violence, and criminality are impossible;
) a society in which a regime operates with a real separation of powers and the rule of law;
a state where all power is in the hands of the people.
The leading ideology of modern Western society:
) liberal;
) nationalistic;
) socialist.
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The political regime of the state is a method of organizing the system, reflecting the relationship between authorities and representatives of society, social freedom and the peculiarities of legal life in the country.
Basically, these properties are due to certain traditional features, culture, conditions of the historical formation of the state. So, we can say that in any country its own special and characteristic political regime has been formed. Nevertheless, most of them in different states can be found similar features.
Scientific literary sources describe 2 types of social and legal devices:
- democratic regimes.
Signs of a democratic society
The main features that are characteristic of democracy are:
- dominance of legislative acts;
- power, divided into types;
- the existence of real political and social rights of citizens of the state;
- elected authorities;
- presence of oppositional and pluralistic opinion.
Signs of anti-democracy
The anti-democratic form of government is divided into totalitarian and authoritarian regimes. Its main properties:
- dominance of a single party organization;
- the dominant position of a single form of ownership;
- infringement of rights and freedoms in political life;
- repressive and coercive methods of influence;
- infringement of the influence of elected bodies;
- strengthening the executive power;
- prohibition of the existence of opposition party organizations;
- the prohibition of polypartyism and dissent;
- the desire of the state to coordinate all areas of public life and relations between individuals.
- slaveholding;
- feudal;
- bourgeois;
- socialist democracy.
Anti-democratic regimes are divided by this politician into:
- totalitarian;
- fascist;
- autocratic.
The latter, in turn, is divided into individual (despotism, tyranny, regime of sole power) and collective (oligarchy and aristocracy).
Political regimes at the present stage
At the present stage, it is believed that democracy is the most perfect regime, unlike any anti-democratic one. This is not entirely correct. Historical facts testify that totalitarian countries (a certain part) exist quite effectively and perform their functions, for example, in the Democratic People's Republic of Korea. In addition to this, totalitarianism is largely able to mobilize the entire population of the state in order to solve a certain (no less important and difficult) state problem.
For example, the Soviet Union managed to win military operations against Nazi Germany, although totalitarian Germany at the very beginning of hostilities significantly exceeded its forces in terms of internal military power. In the post-war years, such a social and legal structure created a record rise in the economy of the USSR. Even if this was achieved at a considerable cost. Thus, totalitarian and are characterized by both positive and negative aspects.
totalitarian regime- this is “full”, “universal” (from lat. totales) control over society and the individual. All spheres of society are controlled and regulated, including the private life of citizens.
Signs:
power is controlled by one person or group of persons, it is not controlled by society
an official ideology that all citizens are required to support; at the same time, all aspects of the life of society are subordinated to ideology;
relations in society are based on the principle “only what is recognized by the authorities is allowed, everything else is prohibited”;
power is exercised based on violence, organized mass terror and repression
no political opposition
one-party system (autocracy of one party)
one official ideology (all others are prohibited)
monopoly of power on information (under a totalitarian regime, all mass media are subordinate to the party and the state and unquestioningly serve them, being deprived of the right to freedom of speech and dissent)
state control over the economy
regulation and control of all spheres of society, including the private life of citizens
restriction of economic, political and social rights and freedoms of citizens
Varieties:
leftist totalitarian regime
right-wing totalitarian regime
They differ in three ways:
1) ideology:
left - communism;
right - fascism.
2) according to the direction of terror:
the left against certain social strata of society (the intelligentsia, the nobility, etc.);
right - on a national basis (nations and peoples).
3) according to economic models:
The left is based on a state-planned economy /private property is prohibited;
Right - on a market economy, but with state control (state capitalism) / private property is allowed.
10. Authoritarian regime and its characteristics.
Authoritarianism- one of the types of political regime in which political power is exercised by a specific person (class, party, elite group) with minimal participation of the people and which is characterized by bureaucratic-command methods of managing society.
Power is unlimited, beyond the control of citizens, and is concentrated in the hands of one person or group of people. It can be a tyrant, a military junta, a monarch, etc.;
Reliance (potential or real) on force. An authoritarian regime may not resort to mass repression and may even be popular among the general population. However, in principle, he can afford any actions in relation to citizens in order to force them into obedience;
Monopolization of power and politics, prevention of political opposition, independent legal political activity. This circumstance does not exclude the existence of a limited number of parties, trade unions and some other organizations, but their activities are strictly regulated and controlled by the authorities;
Replenishment of leading cadres is carried out by co-optation, and not by pre-election competition; there are no constitutional mechanisms for succession and transfer of power. Changes of power often occur through military coups and violence;
Rejection of total control over society, non-intervention or limited intervention in non-political spheres, and, above all, in the economy. The authorities are primarily concerned with issues of ensuring their own security, public order, defense and foreign policy, although it can also influence the strategy of economic development, pursue an active social policy without destroying the mechanisms of market self-regulation.
Authoritarian regimes can be divided into rigidly authoritarian, moderate and liberal. There are also types such as "populist authoritarianism", based on equalization oriented masses, and also "national patriotic", in which the national idea is used by the authorities to create either a totalitarian or a democratic society, etc.
absolute and dualistic monarchies;
military dictatorships, or regimes with military rule;
theocracy;
personal tyranny.
Authoritarianism is usually characterized as a type of regime that occupies an intermediate position between totalitarianism and democracy. However, such a characterization does not indicate the essential features of the phenomenon as a whole, even if the features of totalitarianism and democracy are clearly distinguished in it.
Essentially significant in the definition of authoritarianism is the nature of the relationship between power and society. These relationships are built more on coercion than persuasion, although the regime is liberalizing public life and there is no longer a well-defined guiding ideology. An authoritarian regime allows limited and controlled pluralism in political thinking, opinions and actions, and tolerates opposition.
Authoritarian regime - the state-political structure of society, in which political power is exercised by a specific person (class, party, elite group, etc.) with minimal participation of the people. Authoritarianism is inherent in power and politics, but its foundations and degree are different. Natural, innate qualities of a political leader ("authoritarian", imperious personality) can act as determining factors; reasonable, rational, justified by the situation (necessity of a special kind, for example, a state of war, social crisis, etc.); social (the emergence of social or national conflicts), etc., up to the irrational, when authoritarianism goes into its extreme form - totalitarianism, despotism, the creation of a particularly cruel, repressive regime. Authoritarian is any imposition of the will of power on society, and not accepted voluntarily and conscious obedience. Objective grounds Authoritarianism can be associated with the active transformational activities of the authorities. The fewer such grounds and the more inactive the authorities, the more obvious are the subjective, personal grounds for authoritarianism.
At present, authoritarian political orders have been established in many modern countries of the world. Moreover, many scientists, both in the past and in the present, very positively assessed and evaluate this type of organization of power.
Historically, authoritarianism existed in various forms in various eras and in various countries (for example, ancient Greek and Eastern despotisms and tyrannies - Persia, Sparta, many other feudal absolutist regimes, etc.). His theory was first developed by ultra-conservative and reactionary theorists of the early XIX in. as a response to the French Revolution and socialist movements by J. de Maistre and L. de Bonald. With the development of industrial society, the idea of authoritarianism began to take on shades of a constructive political ideology. The counter-revolutionary (according to J. de Maistre) idea of order has lost its monarchical orientation, the concept of absolutist authoritarianism has disappeared: the king's absolute and independent power is the cause of politics; his ministers (apparatus of power) are means; a society of subjects who obey is a consequence (L. de Bonald).
Authoritarianism has become XIX century with a constant and important course of German political thought and replenished with the ideas of national and state unity, which it is intended to realize. By the end of the century, authoritarianism began to be seen as a means of powerful national and social mobilization and control from above the process of state building (G.Traychke). The Spaniard D. Cortes saw in the authoritarian political order, which ensures the sanctity of obedience, a condition for the cohesion of the nation, state and society. O. Spengler also believed that, unlike liberalism, which generates anarchy, authoritarianism instills discipline and establishes the necessary hierarchy in society. Many scientists and politicians consider this type of rule (as, for example, I. Ilyin, in the form of an “authoritarian-educational dictatorship”) as the most optimal form of political support for the transition of backward countries to modern democracy.
In the first half of the 20th century, the authoritarian doctrine of the far-right French ideologist and politician Ch. Maurras is indicative, for whom industrialization, the penetration of the state into society, and the high mobilization of the people as a means of implementing politics are objective and inevitable conditions for authoritarianism. Authoritarianism XX century in such interpretations began to increasingly take on a nationalist anti-democratic character, associated with the struggle against internal and external enemies. Fascism brought the theory and practice of authoritarianism to extreme totalitarian forms.
In the post-war period, new ideas about elitist and technocratic authoritarianism appeared, in which the role of authoritarian rule is assigned to the highest administration of the state, which has a high professional competence that surpasses other levels of the political system. Ultimately, authoritarianism became a form of solving political problems (reforms, transformations, restructurings) from above, by the forces of power, and in this sense turned out to be very vulnerable and dependent on the attitude of society to the actions of authoritarian power, before the choice: to democratize the regime and get the support of the people, or toughen the policy and move to coercion and dictatorship. A more common version of authoritarianism is a regime of slow development, established hierarchical relations, repressive control, and economic stagnation.
The richness and diversity of authoritarian political systems, which are essentially an intermediate type between democracy and totalitarianism, have also determined a number of universal, fundamental distinguishing features of these political orders.
In its most general form, authoritarianism has taken on the appearance of a system of rigid political rule, constantly using coercive and forceful methods to regulate basic social processes. Because of this, the most important political institutions in society are the disciplinary structures of the state: its law enforcement agencies (army, police, special services), as well as their corresponding means of ensuring political stability (prisons, concentration camps, preventive detentions, group and mass repressions, mechanisms of strict control over the behavior of citizens). With this style of ruling, the opposition is excluded not only from the sphere of decision-making, but also from political life in general. Elections or other procedures aimed at identifying public opinion, aspirations and requests of citizens are either absent or used purely formally.
By blocking ties with the masses, authoritarianism (with the exception of its charismatic forms of government) loses the ability to use the support of the population to strengthen the ruling regime. However, a government that is not based on an understanding of the needs of broad social circles, as a rule, is unable to create political orders that would express public needs. Focusing in the conduct of state policy only on the narrow interests of the ruling stratum, authoritarianism uses methods of patronage and control over its initiatives in relations with the population. Therefore, authoritarian power can only provide coercive legitimacy. But public support, so limited in its capabilities, narrows the regime's opportunities for political maneuver, flexible and operational management in conditions of complex political crises and conflicts.
Steady disregard for public opinion, the formation of state policy without involving the public in most cases make the authoritarian government unable to create any serious incentives for the social initiative of the population. True, due to forced mobilization, individual regimes (for example, Pinochet in Chile in the 70s) can in short historical periods bring to life a high civic activity of the population. However, in most cases, authoritarianism destroys public initiative as a source of economic growth and inevitably leads to a decline in the effectiveness of government.
low economic efficiency of the authorities.
The narrowness of the social support of power, which relies on coercion and isolation of public opinion from the centers of power, is also manifested in the practical inaction of ideological instruments. Instead of the systematic use of ideological doctrines capable of stimulating public opinion and ensuring the interested participation of citizens in political and social life, authoritarian ruling elites mainly use mechanisms aimed at concentrating their powers and coordinating interests within the elite when making decisions. Because of this, behind-the-scenes deals, bribery, secret collusion and other technologies of shadow government are becoming the main ways of coordinating interests in the development of state policy.
An additional source of preservation of this type of government is the use by the authorities of certain features of mass consciousness, the mentality of citizens, religious and cultural-regional traditions, which in general indicate a fairly stable civil passivity of the population. It is mass civic passivity that serves as a source and prerequisite for the tolerance of the majority of the population towards the ruling group, a condition for maintaining its political stability.
However, the systematic use of harsh methods of political management, the reliance of the authorities on mass passivity does not exclude a certain activity of citizens and the preservation of their associations of some freedom of social action. The family, the church, certain social and ethnic groups, as well as some social movements (trade unions) have their own (albeit modest) prerogatives and opportunities to influence power and manifestations of activity. But even these social sources of the political system, acting under the strict control of the authorities, are not capable of generating any powerful party movements, causing mass political protest. In such systems of government, there is more potential than real opposition to the state system. The activities of opposition groups and associations are more restricting the power in establishing its complete and absolute control over society, rather than trying to really adjust the goals and objectives of the government's political course.
Authoritarian regimes are formed, as a rule, as a result of coups d'état or "creeping" concentration of power in the hands of leaders or individual intra-elite groups. The type of formation and administration of power that is emerging in this way shows that the really ruling forces in society are small elite groups that exercise power either in the form of collective domination (for example, in the form of the power of a separate party, a military junta), or in the form of a regime autocracy of one or another, including charismatic leader. Moreover, the personalization of the ruling regime in the guise of a particular rule is the most common form of organization of authoritarian orders.
But in any case, the main social pillar of an authoritarian regime, as a rule, are military groups (“siloviki”) and the state bureaucracy. However, while effectively acting in order to strengthen and monopolize power, they are poorly adapted to ensure the functions of integrating the state and society, ensuring communication between the population and the authorities. The resulting distance between the regime and ordinary citizens tends to increase.
Currently, the most essential prerequisites for the emergence of authoritarian regimes are preserved by transitional societies. As A. Przevorsky notes, "authoritarian temptations" in societies of this type are practically ineradicable. Awareness of the day-to-day difficulties tempts many political forces to "make it straight, in one go, stop bickering, replace politics with administration, anarchy with discipline, do everything rationally." For example, in modern Russian societythe propensity for authoritarian methods of government is constantly fueled by the loss of control over social transformations, the fragmentation of reforms, the presence of a sharp polarization of forces in the political market, the spread of radical forms of protest that are a threat to the integrity of society, as well as the undeveloped national unity, widespread conservative ideas, mass desire to quickly achieve social efficiency.
The leadership of various spheres of society under authoritarianism is not so total, there is no strictly organized control over the social and economic infrastructure of civil society, over production, trade unions, educational institutions, mass organizations, and the media. Autocracy does not require a demonstration of loyalty on the part of the population, as under totalitarianism, it is enough for it to have no open political confrontation. However, the regime is merciless to manifestations of real political competition for power, to the actual participation of the population in decision-making on the most important issues of society, therefore authoritarianism suppresses basic civil rights.
In order to keep unlimited power in its hands, the authoritarian regime circulates elites not by competitive struggle in elections, but by co-opting (volitional introduction) of them into the governing structures. Due to the fact that the process of transferring power in such regimes occurs not through the procedures for replacing leaders established by law, but by force, these regimes are not legitimate. However, even though they do not rely onsupport of the people, this does not prevent them from existing for a long time and successfully solving strategic tasks. Authoritarian regimes in Chile, Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan, Argentina, and the countries of the Arab East can be named as an example of effective economic and social reforms.
Authoritarianism does not challenge the right to autonomous, diverse self-expression of society and its groups. This gave rise to x. Linz interpret authoritarianism as a mode of government "with limited pluralism". He defined authoritarianism as a conservative type of government, which, being unable today to deprive the broad masses of the population of the right to vote, resorts for this purpose to a global or selective prohibition of parties and mass organizations. Moreover, those organizations that violate the social balance between the state, business, church, etc. are prohibited. The activities of those forces that support the existing status quo are allowed.
In a generalized form, the most characteristic features of authoritarian regimes are the following:
concentration of power in the hands of one person or group. The bearer of power can be a charismatic leader, a monarch, or a military junta. As in totalitarianism, society is alienated from power, there is no mechanism for its succession. The elite is formed by appointment from above;
- the rights and freedoms of citizens are limited mainly in the political sphere. Laws are predominantly on the side of the state, not the individual;
- the official ideology dominates in society, but tolerance towards other ideological currents loyal to the ruling regime is manifested;
- politics is monopolized by power. The activities of political parties and opposition are prohibited or restricted. Trade unions are controlled by the authorities;
- state control does not extend to non-political spheres - the economy, culture, religion, private life;
- the vast public sector is strictly regulated by the state. As a rule, it functions within the framework of a market economy and gets along well with private entrepreneurship. The economy can be both highly efficient and inefficient;
- censorship is carried out over the media, which are allowed to criticize certain shortcomings of state policy while maintaining loyalty to the system;
- power relies on force sufficient to, if necessary, force the population into obedience. Mass repressions, as under totalitarianism, are not carried out;
- with positive results of activity, the regime can be supported by the majority of society. A minority is fighting for the transition to democracy. Civil society may exist, but depends on the state;
- the regime is characterized by unitary forms of the state with a rigid centralization of power. The rights of national minorities are limited.
1.3. Populism as an ideological strategy of authoritarianism.
Populism is an attribute of the democratic development of society, but often it leads to the creation of an authoritarian regime in society.Populism is characterized by the belief in the possibility of the simplest solution to social problems, expressed in addictions to economic and political panaceas, the belief that one or a few simple measures can radically improve the entire social situation. The populist politician does not think about the consequences, nor about his possible actions if he comes to power. For him, the main thing is to get as many votes as possible at the moment, without worrying about the future. Since the mood of the crowd is changeable, populist politics from the outside looks like aimless tossing from side to side. In fact, there is an accurate and subtle calculation here, consisting in always being in the wake of the majority. Various minorities - political, religious, national - are not interested in populists, because they do not determine the results of elections. That is why populism, having won, often leads to authoritarianism with obvious tendencies to establish a totalitarian dictatorship, because the easiest way to deal with dissatisfied people is to eliminate them physically.
The main populist principles are the following: the development of democracy, the struggle against the domination of monopoly capital, association on an interracial basis, the working masses as the main social value, the creation of a strong state acting in the interests and under the control of the working people, the main task of the state is the happiness of an ordinary person, his material welfare and spiritual harmony, concern for environmental problems, personal self-realization of an ordinary citizen in social activities, denial of violent methods of solving social problems.
Populism is a characteristic feature of political radicalism with its categorical demands, unwillingness to wait, lack of feasible programs for solving social problems. The more radical a politician is, the more he uses populist tactics.
Depending on the development of democratic political institutions in the state, the scenario for the development of populism can also be different.
In a society with a high level of development of democracy: a politician who came to power using populist technology actually implements economic and social programs, makes efforts to improve the living standards of the population, which is the main criterion for the activity of a political leader in a democratic society. If his words are at odds with his deeds, then such a politician will hardly be able to repeat his success at the next election, since his opponents will use all the mechanisms of democratic influence on voters.
In a society with poorly developed democratic traditions: in view of the lack of real programs, a populist politician begins to look for those responsible for the deterioration of life, the collapse of the declared transformations, and then turns to the people who elected him for support, pointing out the true, in his opinion, culprits of the current situation. In such circumstances, he goes further and suggests that society increase pressure on the "culprits", seeking their departure from the political arena. At the same time, the repressive apparatus is used, among other things. All these acts are covered with a sign "for the good of the people." In reality, the country is slipping into authoritarianism, followed by a possible transition to a totalitarian regime. Moreover, as long as the people will focus not on the real state of affairs in the economic and social sphere, but on the eloquent statements of politicians, not supported by deeds, the danger of authoritarianism will exist.
Popularity has no negative content. Moreover, gaining popularity in certain areas of activity, for example, in the field of public policy, is a necessary condition for maintaining a high reputation.
However, popularity is achieved by various methods.Populist methods are understood as techniques, methods, mode of action used by political actors in order to enlist the support of the masses. The essence of populism lies in such methods of achieving popularity, which are of a negative nature from the point of view of the norms of society. And since populism is understood as an activity based on the manipulation of people's values and expectations, then in its essence populism is a method of social and managerial influence on society, based on deviant norms and using the support of the people to win success.
The main populist methods are: attempts to adapt to the demands of the people; exploiting the susceptibility of large human masses to primitive loud slogans; the use of features of the ordinary consciousness of the masses: simplistic ideas about social life, immediacy of perception, maximalism, craving for a strong personality; playing on the “expectations” of the people; appeal to the simplicity and clarity of the proposed measures, the priority of simple solutions to complex problems; direct contact between leaders and the masses without the mediation of political institutions; speculation on people's belief in quick and easy ways out of the crisis; speaking on behalf of a common man; reorientation of people's anger and resentment towards the existing institutions of power and the elite; using the unresolved issues of the most pressing at the moment in order to obtain the status of a fighter for the people's interests; manipulation of public opinion.
Populist activity, as a rule, has negative results, which can lead to dire consequences for society. Populism undermines the trust of the people in the institutions of power, serves as a tool for settling political scores, causes a decrease in civic activity, alienation of people from power, economic and political upheavals, and social disorder.
In a number of countries, a paradoxical political situation has developed: in the presence of all the formal signs of democracy, power in the country belongs to the bureaucratic system, which itself sets the rules of the political game, the behavior of its citizens, including in the field of political participation. Despite the measures taken, the alienation of citizens from state power and state power from citizens is increasing, which leads to increasing passivity of citizens during elections.
Under these conditions, populism is used by politicians as a form of cover for this alienation, as well as a set of peculiar rules for the activity of the political elite itself. The populism of political actors is one of the causes of political crises: politicians do not solve real problems, because citizens do not have the opportunity to force them to do so. to do, and populism allows politicians to stay in power and win the next election. This path, without actually overcoming the alienation of power and citizens, leads to a social explosion.
The low standard of living of the population is the social basis for the spread of populist aspirations of politicians. The poorer people are, the more susceptible they are to primitive populism. Therefore, a necessary condition for countering populism is a well-thought-out state socio-economic policy aimed at solving, first of all, the problems of the majority of the population, creating a middle class, as well as a class of owners whose civic responsibility increases simultaneously with taking care of this property.
The populist style of activity is a mechanism for winning the support of voters, based on non-standard methods, ways and behavior of a political leader.
The populist style is characterized by the following features:“flirting” with the masses, saying only what they want to hear; “going to the people” (an appeal to the broad masses in the country); “people's diplomacy” (an appeal to the broad masses abroad); creating the image of a decisive, self-confident politician; the ability to briefly and intelligibly state their programs; creating the appearance of a person from the people: “I am the same as you”; use of national and patriotic feelings of the people; demonstration of support from famous personalities, pop stars, actors, etc.; creating an attractive image with the help of the media; public signing of state documents, distribution of money; about deviant behavior: non-standard clothing, defiant behavior, demonstrative gestures, public scandals, profanity.
To minimize the consequences of populism, it is necessary to establish full-fledged mechanisms of democracy, stable democratic norms and traditions, and the establishment of a high political and legal culture, both for officials and citizens.
An authoritarian regime can be seen as a kind of compromise between totalitarian and democratic political regimes. It is softer, more liberal than totalitarianism, but tougher, more anti-people than democratic.
Consideration of totalitarian and authoritarian political regimes reveals the main differences between them. The most significant difference between them lies in the nature of the relationship of power with society and the individual. If under authoritarianism these attitudes are differentiated and based on "limited pluralism", then totalitarianism generally rejects pluralism and diversity of social interests. Moreover, totalitarianism seeks to eliminate not only social, but also ideological pluralism and dissent.
Totalitarianism is the dictatorship of the state, while authoritarianism is the dictatorship of an individual or a group. Under authoritarianism the role of the leader is high, but unlike totalitarianism, the leader, as a rule, is not charismatic.
According to its historical purpose, totalitarianism is associated with a utopian idea and claims to eternal existence, while authoritarianism sets the task of leading the country out of the impasse.
Under totalitarianism, universal control over society is established, and authoritarianism implies the presence of areas not controlled by the state, significant autonomy of the political system in relation to the economic one, the possibility of combining it with both centralized and market systems.
Under authoritarianism, there is no all-pervading nature of state influence on society, total regulation of social processes, the independence and initiative of citizens is encouraged, the state refuses to interfere in private life.
Authoritarianism allows for demarcation and even polarization of forces and interests in society. Under totalitarianism, terror is massive in relation to opponents, and in an authoritarian society, selective terror is carried out in order to prevent the emergence of opposition. Under authoritarianism, the main argument for political power is authority, not power.
Summarizing and systematizing the historical experience of the functioning of authoritarian systems and regimes, one can single out the most stable structural features of the organization of this type of power. So, in the institutional sphere, authoritarianism is distinguished primarily by the organizational consolidation of the power of a narrow elite group (or leader). The rivalry of competing elite groups for power, as a rule, is carried out in the form of conspiracies, coups, and coups. The desire of those in power to assert their position is reinforced by the complete dominance of the structures of executive power over the legislative and judicial. The underestimation and ignoring of representative bodies, which means the state breaks with the interests of broad social strata, leads to a low level of civic initiative and the weakness of horizontal ties within society. Such a constant truncation of the mechanisms for representing the interests of the population reduces the social sources of power and the ways of its legitimization, ultimately predetermining the weakness of the power vertical.
Political pluralism in political systems of the authoritarian type is strictly dosed. The plurality of political forces is initiated by the authorities and is not capable of causing a threat to the established order. At the same time, the concentration in the hands of one's own rights and powers practically means the complete elimination of the opposition from the political arena. The rigid style of ruling does not make it possible to institutionalize a compromise in political life, to establish a search for consensus in making government decisions.
With regulatory point of view, authoritarianism is distinguished by the constant and predominant use of forceful methods of regulating social and political conflicts. As indicated X . Linz, this type of power is characterized by a clearly defined competence of the authorities and their functions within quite predictable boundaries. The rules of the game strictly support the dominance of one group. The concentration of power implies the systematic use of methods of decision-making that are mostly closed to the public, the desire to put under control the main forms of public initiative, including in the economic sphere. In view of the fact that in such societies, as a rule, there are political relations between the super-rich and super-poor strata of the population, the power is characterized by a high level of instability.
In information and communicationThe sphere of authoritarianism is characterized by the low status of ideological ways of retaining and strengthening power, the dominance of unilateral channels, mainly of official information to society. The information market is completely dominated by pro-government media, there is no freedom of speech, no guarantees of equal competition. In public opinion, due to the awareness of widespread corruption and the venality of the authorities, there are powerful moods of passivity and disillusionment in the authorities.
The peculiarity of party regimes lies in the exercise of monopoly power by any party or political grouping, not necessarily formally representing the institution of the party. Most often, these are one-party regimes, but they can also include forms of government of aristocratic (Morocco, Nepal) or family (Guatemala) groups, as well as the rule of the first persons of the state with their cohesive political "teams" (Belarus). Usually such regimes are either established as a result of revolutions or imposed from outside (as, for example, in post-war conditions in the countries of Eastern Europe, where communist regimes were established with the help of the USSR). But in some cases, regimes of this type may also be the result of the evolution of a legitimate regime.
Enough mass variety of authoritarian regimes are military regimes. They began to emerge after the Second World War in developing countries. It was a period of their liberation from colonial dependence and the formation of national states. The military turned out to be the most cohesive and enlightened social group in traditional societies, capable of uniting society on the basis of the idea of national self-determination. The behavior of the military after the seizure of power was different. In some countries, they removed the corrupt civilian political elite from power and pursued policies in the interests of the nation state (as, for example, in Indonesia, Taiwan). In other cases, the military themselves turned out to be the executors of the will of more powerful financial groups and states (for example, most military regimes in Latin America were funded by the United States).
In modern times, the military regimes, as a rule, arise as a result of coups, conspiracies and putschs. The largest number of examples of the establishment of military regimes was given by the countries of Latin America, Africa, as well as Greece, Pakistan, and Turkey. Such political orders are characterized by the suppression of a significant part of political and civil liberties, widespread corruption and internal instability. State resources are mainly used to suppress resistance, reduce the social activity of citizens. The given rules of the game are supported by threats and coercion, which does not exclude the use of physical violence.
Models of national authoritarianism arise as a result of the dominance of a national or ethnic group in an elite group. At present, such systems are typical for a number of countries in the post-Soviet space (Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan,Kazakhstan). They have not yet acquired completeness, but they are already clearly demonstrating the desire to create social and political advantages for representatives of one group of the population, to ethnicize state authorities, to present the activity of other national groups of the population as political opposition. In these countries, an unspoken policy of ousting foreign groups is being pursued. At the same time, in a number of countries, certain circles of the opposition (mainly competitors in the ethnically dominant environment) are slipping into the use of methods of political terror. The absence of many mechanisms that contribute either to tightening the power of the ruling regime, or, on the contrary, to maintaining the balance of political forces, causes particular instability, fraught with the possibility of a landslide development of events.
Corporate regimes embody the power of bureaucratic, oligarchic or shadow (informal, criminal) groups that combine power and property and, on this basis, control the decision-making process. The state becomes a refuge for forces that use the prerogatives of official bodies to protect their narrow group interests. The economic basis of such a system of power is the extensive system of quotas in state administration, the permissive procedure for registering enterprises, and the lack of control over the activities of civil servants.
The most common economic prerequisite for corporate authoritarianism is state-owned entrepreneurship, which results in huge personal incomes for officials. State institutions with formal rights cannot resist these groups, which control decision-making and devalue the legitimate channels of participation of the population in power. Corporate reallocation of resources tends to exclude political parties and other specialized interest groups from the decision-making process.
In the 1990s in Russian society, an oligarchic-corporate type of political system has developed, in which representatives of the wealthiest circles of society, big capital, had influence on the levers of power. According to the official recognition of the authorities, shadow, criminal structures controlled more than half of the state economy and the private sector. The corporate principles of relations between elite groups have qualitatively reduced the influence of ideologically oriented associations (parties) on power, representing the interests of various broad sections of the population.
Personal power regimes (India under I. Gandhi, Spain under Franco, Romania under Ceausescu) personalize all politicalrelationship in the eyes of public opinion. This can lead to a civil dictatorship, which is characterized by the sole power of a civilian. Usually such a person becomes a national leader or the leader of an "interest group" who came to power through a coup d'état. He can either pursue a relatively independent political course, relying on his own charisma, or serve the interests of his supporters. The rigid nature of government, combined with certain traditions of uncritical perception of power, often produces an economic effect, leads to the activation of the population and an increase in the legitimacy of the regime. However, such a system of power often provokes political terror on the part of the opposition.
Authoritarian regimes should not be seen as an instrument for expressing the interests of a minority. Modern authoritarian regimes use a fairly wide range of resources, and not just means of coercion and political repression. Their feature is a noticeable reduction in the share of methods of ideological processing and political coercion. Authoritarianism more often uses economic incentives: creating opportunities for the growth of welfare for the general public, pursuing an effective social policy. The practical effectiveness of a number of authoritarian regimes (for example, in South Korea, Singapore, Taiwan) allowed them not only to solve the problems of technological modernization, significantly improve the standard of living of the population, but also to win over the broad sections of society.
In this regard, it can be noted that authoritarian regimes have significant mobilization and orientation opportunities due to the ability to concentrate resources on strategic areas of development. Achieving economic and social efficiency, authoritarian regimes form a democratic system of values, the interest of citizens in political and civil rights and freedoms, the need for freedom of information, independence of thought, intolerance for arbitrariness and violence.
In the late 1980s - early 1990s. scientific and political interest in authoritarianism has increased significantly due to the collapse of predominantly totalitarian political systems in the Soviet Union and a number of countries in Eastern Europe. The attempts of many of them, including Russia, quickly, in the spirit of the Bolshevik "cavalry attacks" to introduce democracy without the social prerequisites necessary for it, were unsuccessful and entailed numerous devastating consequences.
It became obvious that in order to carry out radical social reforms, a government is needed that has a high ability to ensure political stability and public order, mobilize public resources, and overcome the resistance of political opponents.
In the modern conditions of post-socialist countries, "pure" authoritarianism, not based on active mass support and a number of democratic institutions, can hardly be an instrument of progressive reform of society. It is capable of turning into a criminal dictatorial regime of personal power, no less destructive for the country than totalitarianism.
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One of the most common types of political system in history is authoritarianism. According to its characteristic features, it occupies, as it were, an intermediate position between totalitarianism and democracy. It has in common with totalitarianism the usually autocratic, not limited by laws, nature of power, with democracy - the presence of autonomous public spheres not regulated by the state, especially the economy and private life, and the preservation of elements of civil society.
- - Autocracy (autocracy) or a small number of power holders. They can be one person (monarch, tyrant) or a group of people (military junta, oligarchic group, etc.).
- - The unlimitedness of power, its not being controlled by citizens, while the government can rule with the help of laws, but it accepts them at its own discretion.
- - reliance (real or potential) on force. An authoritarian regime may not resort to mass repression and be popular among the general population. However, he has sufficient power to, if necessary, at his own discretion, use force and force citizens into obedience.
- - Monopolization of power and politics, prevention of political opposition and competition. Under authoritarianism, the existence of a limited number of parties, trade unions and other organizations is possible, but only if they are controlled by the authorities.
- - Renunciation of total control over society, non-interference in non-political spheres and, above all, in the economy. The government deals mainly with issues of ensuring its own security, public order, defense, foreign policy, although it can influence neither the strategy of economic development, pursue a fairly active social policy, without destroying the mechanisms of market self-government.
- - Recruitment of the political elite by introducing new members into the elective body without holding by-elections, by appointment from above, and not by competitive electoral struggle.
The richness and diversity of authoritarian political systems, which are essentially an intermediate type between democracy and totalitarianism, have also determined a number of universal, fundamental distinguishing features of these political orders.
In its most general form, authoritarianism has taken on the appearance of a system of rigid political rule, constantly using coercive and forceful methods to regulate basic social processes. Because of this, the most important political institutions in society are the disciplinary structures of the state: its law enforcement agencies (army, police, special services), as well as the means of ensuring political stability corresponding to them (prisons, concentration camps, preventive detentions, group and mass repressions, mechanisms of strict control on the behavior of citizens). With this style of ruling, the opposition is excluded not only from the sphere of decision-making, but also from political life in general. Elections or other procedures aimed at identifying public opinion, aspirations and requests of citizens are either absent or used purely formally.
Steady disregard for public opinion, the formation of state policy without involving the public in most cases make the authoritarian government unable to create any serious incentives for the social initiative of the population.
The narrowness of the social support of power, which relies on coercion and isolation of public opinion from the centers of power, is also manifested in the practical inaction of ideological instruments. Instead of the systematic use of ideological doctrines capable of stimulating public opinion and ensuring the interested participation of citizens in political and social life, authoritarian ruling elites mainly use mechanisms aimed at concentrating their powers and coordinating interests within the elite when making decisions. Because of this, behind-the-scenes deals, bribery, secret collusion and other technologies of shadow government are becoming the main ways of coordinating interests in the development of state policy.
An additional source of preservation of this type of government is the use by the authorities of certain features of mass consciousness, the mentality of citizens, religious and cultural-regional traditions, which in general indicate a fairly stable civic passivity of the population. It is mass civic passivity that serves as a source and prerequisite for the tolerance of the majority of the population towards the ruling group, a condition for maintaining its political stability.
However, the systematic use of harsh methods of political management, the reliance of the authorities on mass passivity does not exclude a certain activity of citizens and the preservation of their associations of some freedom of social action.
Authoritarian regimes are formed, as a rule, as a result of coup d'état or "creeping" concentration of power in the hands of leaders or individual intra-elite groups. The type of formation and administration of power that develops in this way shows that the real ruling forces in society are small elite groups that exercise power either in the form of collective domination (for example, in the form of the power of a separate party, a military junta), or in the form of an autocracy regime of one or another , including a charismatic leader. Moreover, the personalization of the ruling regime in the guise of a particular rule is the most common form of organization of authoritarian orders.
But in any case, the main social pillar of an authoritarian regime, as a rule, are military groups (“siloviki”) and the state bureaucracy. However, while effectively acting to strengthen and monopolize power, they are poorly adapted to ensure the functions of integrating the state and society, ensuring the connection of the population with the authorities. The resulting distance between the regime and ordinary citizens tends to widen.
Based on the foregoing, it can be concluded that authoritarianism is a political regime in which unlimited power is concentrated in the hands of one person or group of persons who do not allow political opposition, but retain the autonomy of the individual and society in non-political spheres. Authoritarianism is quite compatible with respect for all other, apart from political, rights of the individual.
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