What is the era of romanticism? Romanticism in literature

World culture has never stood still. It changed dynamically, adapting to the characteristics of the era. At the end of the 18th century, large-scale changes began in European society, and culture was deformed in their wake. The Enlightenment was replaced by a completely new ideological and artistic movement that denied the cult of reason. The era of romanticism was the time of the formation of a completely new worldview, which affirmed the unity of man and nature, the natural beginning and primacy of feelings.

The term itself grew from the consonance of three words in different languages: romantisme (from French), romance (from Spanish), romantic (from English). It is defined as an ideological and artistic movement in Europe from the early 18th to the first half of the 19th century. In the history of culture, romanticism was distinguished by its incredibly complex and internally contradictory content, combining both a pessimistic mood and a zeal for an ideal world order. Slowly but surely penetrating the art and culture of European countries, the new direction brought new colors and shades to the artistic world, surprising everyone with bold ideas and the naked nature of psychologism - the innovation of romanticism.

Having replaced the Age of Enlightenment, Romanticism played a huge role not only in the development of European countries, but also in the worldview of man as a whole. During this period, such concepts as tourism, mountaineering and picnic took shape. They called for the unity of people with nature, and many readers and viewers even changed their lifestyle in pursuit of new trends. The beauty of the landscapes painted by the artists of this wave inspired even the elite to scratch their expensive corsages against the inhospitable bushes of the forests.

Fans of the new fashion, going against the idea of ​​progressive civilization, tried to show special person at a special moment and put on the highest level the image of a noble savage, unspoiled by civilization. He, of course, is alone and confronts society against the backdrop of historical scenery, exotic valleys or other interesting locations. In a word, everything had to be special; the viewer wanted variety.

History of origin

As mentioned earlier, the Romantic period began at the end of the 18th century due to strong upheavals in European society. The time of formation of the new philosophy coincided with the era of industrial revolutions and revolutions. The origins of philosophy originate in Germany, where a circle of writers and philosophers of the Jena school first formulated the basic principles of Romanticism. F. Schlegel and F. Schelling are considered to be the founders, because it was in their works that the main features of the worldview were systematized.

During its development, the movement of romanticism underwent inevitable changes. If in German philosophy the direction was distinguished by its desire for fairy-tale and mythological motifs, then in England it was revised, and social problems began to represent the main interest. The new worldview spread to other European countries: France, Italy, Poland, Russia, etc.

V.A. is considered to be the founder of Russian romanticism. Zhukovsky, in whose poetry romantic drama and denial of classical foundations were manifested. In addition, the Russian version of the global trend asserted a completely different understanding of the essence and purpose of creativity and was closely intertwined with folklore motifs national culture.
It is customary to “extract” the movements of romanticism from the national color: German, English, French, etc. Each branch is different in something of its own, so one is different from the other. For example, the early Pushkin was also a romantic, but he also ridiculed many of the canons of the genre: “Ruslan and Lyudmila”, “The Queen of Spades”, etc. But not a funny laugh can be found in the repertoire of the Frenchman de Musset (“Confession of a Son of the Century”).

Main features and principles

The main feature of romanticism is the diversity and versatility of the direction, that is, depending on the country, its expression associated with national traits also changed. The romantics had one goal (destruction of the cult of reason, emancipation of the individual in art, longing for an ideal), but the methods of achieving it were different. Each had their own ideal and a certain political position in relation to social problems. Despite the diversity of the direction, the general features and characteristics remain unchanged:

• The focus is on the person and his inner world;
• The image of a noble savage in exceptional circumstances is a must-have of the cultural season;
• The idea of ​​the unity of man and nature is the main feature of many books and paintings;
• Worship of ideal order, craving for daydreaming and isolation from reality;
• Democratization: heroes emerge from the poor;
• Balance on the verge of fantasy: mysticism becomes a fashionable spice for creativity and dilutes even serious works;
• The originality of the symbolism: allegory in the text or on the canvas is good form, but directness is vulgar;
• Active interest in national motives.

In the era of romanticism, ancient motifs began to gradually be replaced by new “tricks,” although the general features, of course, remained.

Philosophy

Revolutions, the rapid development of capitalism and coups have radically changed people's worldviews. The crowd began to perceive life as a game where there is no place for anyone except the winners and losers. In this position, the spirit of romanticism was already felt, the main idea of ​​which was precisely the struggle of man with society, the endless game of a loner with an environment that does not accept him. In romantic works such rebel heroes were often depicted, playing their game against fate and fate. This is a fight doomed to failure against everyone, but in this you can see the tragic heroism of an irreconcilable spirit, a dream and its victory over reality.

The essence of romanticism was based on the recognition of the values ​​of the spiritual and creative life of each person and the natural rights of the individual, regardless of his status and wealth. This was part of the democratic movement in Europe, which was losing kings and gaining new heroes: adventurers without family or tribe who achieved their goal at the cost of opposition.

How did romanticism manifest itself?

The period of romanticism left a rich legacy for descendants; art historians are still studying it, and collectors of rarities will more than once find a new, hitherto unknown creation from this era.

Now is the time to sort out what we mere mortals can find in order to taste the next cultural layer and bite it with the postmodern cherry on the cake.

In literature

Romanticism found very clear expression in art. For example, the era of new philosophy was marked by the flourishing of civil literature, where acute social problems can be traced. A romantic hero is an eternal fighter for his own ideals and rights. As usual, he is a loner, not accepted and rejected by the outside world.

In European literature you can find many works written in the spirit of romanticism. Among the famous representatives of the new philosophy of literature are such famous writers as Hoffmann (the collection “Night Stories”, the fairy tales “The Golden Pot”, “Little Tsakhes, nicknamed Zinnober” and the novels “The Lord of the Fleas”, “The Worldly Views of the Cat Murr”), Chateaubriand (treatise “The Genius of Christianity”), V. Hugo (novel “Notre Dame de Paris”), Dumas (“The Count of Monte Cristo” and “Queen Margot”) and many others. These are the clearest examples of romantic books.

In music

During the era of romanticism, music played a leading role in art. Musical romanticism was distinguished by the most complete and colorful reflection of the human soul, for which all possible means of expression were used.

The nineteenth century of musical romanticism is associated with such names as F. Schubert, E. Hoffmann, N. Paganini, K.M. Weber, J. Rossin. Representatives of this period immersed listeners in the unusual world of myths and legends. As in other areas of art, the main idea of ​​musical romanticism was the conflict between man and society, loneliness and misunderstanding. That is why the favorite heroes of romantic composers are creative individuals. The theme of fantasy (Mozart’s “The Magic Flute”, “Queen of the Night”) and the synthesis of arts (Berlioz’s “Harold in Italy”, F. Liszt’s “Preludes”, “The Years of Wanderings”, etc.) were not ignored. These are examples of musical works of romanticism.

In painting

The fine arts of the Romantic era are characterized by fairy-tale and folk motifs of dreams. The aesthetics of this direction consists of correct, beautiful structures and forms. There is room for hard lines, geometry and contrast. But at the same time, the paintings are not without intricate designs and numerous small elements. The focus is on the personality and its inner world, with all its experiences, feelings and pain.

For representatives, the most important thing is to show the hero's emotions in exceptional circumstances. They also loved to depict nature: the riot of the elements, bright moments, the contrast of seasons and days. The aesthetics of these landscapes have character and idea. Every detail does not mean what it seems at first glance. Representatives of romanticism sought to convey the mood through the glare of the sky and the bend of the wave. They seem to have succeeded.

Romanticism in painting is the canvases of Delacroix (“Freedom Leading the People” 1830), Turner (“The Last Voyage of the Ship “Brave”” 1838), Goya (“The Birth of the Virgin Mary” 1774), Bryullov (“The Last Day of Pompeii” 1830- e), Aivazovsky (“The Ninth Wave” 1850) and others. Paintings of romanticism are presented in abundance in the Tretyakov Gallery and the Hermitage.

Abroad

Foreign romanticism gave the world many great works. For example, the main figure in the history of French literature was V. Hugo and his novel “Notre Dame de Paris.” In this work, the writer depicted society and its history.

Among the representatives of romanticism in England, it is customary to single out Walter Scott, the founder of the historical novel. A variety of images and emphasized attention to national motifs - distinctive features his famous novel Ivanhoe. It is impossible to ignore the great D.N.G. Byron, the language of whose works is incredibly picturesque and musical.

Germany is famous for Hoffmann, the brothers Grimm and Goethe, who can boast of the most intricate and irrepressible imagination.

In Russia

Russian romanticism, in its specificity, is quite original, but still it did not develop in parallel with European romanticism, but appeared later. The main representative of this direction was V.A. Zhukovsky. He was the father of Russian romanticism, who was devoted to his ideas until the end of his days.

Zhukovsky's lyrics grew directly in the depths of sentimentalism. This can be seen with the naked eye, because in his works he developed sensitivity and revealed his soul. It was thanks to the father of Russian romanticism that national literature became spiritualized and more accessible to people. He managed to reveal not only his inner world, but also the spiritual experiences of a person in general, which opened new horizons in literature for other writers.

A more modern and fashionable writer and romantic poet is M. Yu. Lermontov. In his work there is an ideal hero of his era (G. Pechorin), and a rebel (Mtsyri), and even the Devil himself (“Demon”). In the art of this man one can find all the properties of romanticism.

The problem of romanticism is one of the most complex in the science of literature. The difficulties in solving this problem are predetermined to some extent by the lack of clarity of terminology. Romanticism refers to an artistic method, a literary movement, and a special type of consciousness and behavior. However, despite the debatability of a number of theoretical, historical and literary positions, most scientists agree that romanticism was a necessary link in the artistic development of mankind, and that without it the achievements of realism would have been impossible.

Russian romanticism at its inception, it was, of course, associated with the pan-European literary movement. At the same time, it was internally determined by the objective process of development of Russian culture; in it, those trends that were laid down in Russian literature of the previous period found development. Russian romanticism was generated by the impending socio-historical turning point in the development of Russia; it reflected the transition and instability of the existing socio-political structure. The gap between ideal and reality caused a negative attitude of progressive people in Russia (and above all the Decembrists) towards the cruel, unjust and immoral life of the ruling classes. Until recently, the most daring hopes for the possibility of creating public relations based on the principles of reason and justice.

It soon became clear that these hopes were not justified. Deep disappointment in Enlightenment ideals, a decisive rejection of bourgeois reality, and at the same time a lack of understanding of the essence of the antagonistic contradictions that exist in life, led to feelings of hopelessness, pessimism, and disbelief in reason.

Romantics claimed that the highest value is the human personality, in whose soul there is a beautiful and mysterious world; only here can one find inexhaustible sources of true beauty and high feelings. Behind all this one can see (even if not always clearly) a new concept of personality, which cannot and should no longer subordinate itself to the power of class-feudal morality. In your artistic work Romantics in most cases did not strive to reflect real reality (which seemed to them low, anti-aesthetic), or to understand the objective logic of the development of life (they were not at all sure that such logic existed). The basis of their artistic system was not an object, but a subject: the personal, subjective principle acquired decisive importance among the romantics.

Romanticism is built on the affirmation of an inevitable conflict, the complete incompatibility of everything truly spiritual and human with the existing way of life (be it a feudal or bourgeois way). If life is based only on material calculation, then, naturally, everything lofty, moral, and humane is alien to it. Consequently, the ideal is somewhere beyond this life, beyond feudal or bourgeois relations. Reality seemed to fall apart into two worlds: the vulgar, ordinary here and the wonderful, romantic there. Hence the appeal to unusual, exceptional, conventional, sometimes even fantastic images and pictures, the desire for everything exotic - everything that opposes everyday, everyday reality, everyday prose.

The romantic concept of human character is built on the same principle. The hero is opposed to the environment, rises above it. Russian romanticism was not homogeneous. It is usually noted that there are two main currents in it. The terms psychological and civil romanticism, adopted in modern science, highlight the ideological and artistic specificity of each movement. In one case, romantics, feeling the growing instability of social life, which did not satisfy their ideal ideas, went into the world of dreams, into the world of feelings, experiences, and psychology. Recognition of the intrinsic value of the human personality, close interest in the inner life of a person, the desire to reveal the wealth of his spiritual experiences - these were strengths psychological romanticism, the most prominent representative of which was V.

A. Zhukovsky. He and his supporters put forward the idea of ​​internal freedom of the individual, its independence from the social environment, from the world in general, where a person cannot be happy. Having failed to achieve freedom in the socio-political sense, the romantics insisted all the more stubbornly on establishing the spiritual freedom of man.

With this current The appearance in the 30s of the 19th century is genetically related. a special stage in the history of Russian romanticism, which is most often called philosophical.

Instead of the high genres cultivated in classicism (ode), other genre forms arise. In the field of lyric poetry, the leading genre among the romantics is the elegy, conveying the mood of sadness, grief, disappointment, and melancholy. Pushkin, having made Lensky (“Eugene Onegin”) a romantic poet, in a subtle parody listed the main motives of elegiac lyrics:

• He sang separation and sadness,
• And something, and a foggy distance,
• And romantic roses;
• He sang those distant countries

Representatives of another movement in Russian romanticism called for a direct fight against modern society, glorifying the civil valor of the fighters.

Creating poems with a high social and patriotic sound, they (and these were primarily Decembrist poets) also used certain traditions of classicism, especially those genre and stylistic forms that gave their poems the character of elevated oratorical speech. They saw literature primarily as a means of propaganda and struggle. Whatever the forms in which the polemics between the two main movements of Russian romanticism took place, there were still common features of romantic art that united them: the opposition of a lofty ideal hero to the world of evil and lack of spirituality, a protest against the foundations of autocratic-serfdom that constrain man.

It is especially necessary to note the persistent desire of the romantics to create an original national culture. Directly related to this is their interest in national history, oral folk poetry, the use of many folk genres, etc.

d. Russian romantics They were also united by the idea of ​​the need for a direct connection between the author’s life and his poetry. In life itself, the poet must behave poetically, in accordance with the high ideals that are proclaimed in his poems. K. N. Batyushkov expressed this requirement this way: “Live as you write, and write as you live” (“Something about the poet and poetry”, 1815). This affirmed the direct connection of literary creativity with the life of the poet, his very personality, which gave the poems a special power of emotional and aesthetic impact.

Subsequently, Pushkin managed to combine at a higher level the best traditions and artistic achievements of both psychological and civil romanticism. That is why Pushkin’s work is the pinnacle of Russian romanticism of the 20s of the 19th century. Pushkin, and then Lermontov and Gogol could not ignore the achievements of romanticism, its experience and discoveries.

French romanticism) – ideological and artistic. movement 1st floor 19th century, which captured Europe and America and was reflected in all areas of spiritual culture - in literature, music, depiction. art, philosophy, aesthetics, philology, historical. sciences, sociology, many others. branches of natural science. Having replaced the Enlightenment, R. was generated by disappointment in history. French results revolutions of the 18th century, and bourgeois. progress in general, which, according to Engels, “... turned out to be an evil, bitterly disappointing caricature of the brilliant promises of the enlighteners” (K. Marx and F. Engels, Soch., 2nd ed., vol. 19, p. 193). The heyday of R. is the period 1795–1830, the European period. revolutions and national liberation. movements. R. appears at the turn of the 18th–19th centuries. in Germany, England, France, and somewhat later, in the 1810s–20s, in Russia, Spain, Italy, Poland and other countries. Early German R., associated with the activities of the Jena circle of romantics (1798–1801, F. and A. Schlegel, Novalis, Wackenroder, Tieck, they were joined by Schleiermacher and Schelling, whose followers in the field of natural philosophy were Ritter, Steffens, Oken, Carus, Gulsen), wore preem. theoretical, philosophical-aesthetic. character; the focus of the second, “Heidelberg” group is German. Romantics (1805–08, Arnim, Brentano, Gerres, etc.) – problems of folklore and history. To representatives of philosophy. R. also include Zolger, Baader. In litera the top is dumb. R. is the work of Hölderlin, Kleist, Hoffmann, Heine, whose poetry contains at the same time ironic. criticism of R., in music - the work of Schubert, Schumann, R. Wagner. Beginning of English R. is marked by the activities of the so-called poets. lake school (" Lyrical ballads"Wordsworth and Coleridge, 1798), and its culmination - the work of Byron and Shelley. The transitional place in the development from R. to realism is occupied by W. Scott. Late English R. mid-19th century found expression in philosophical, aesthetic and journalistic works of Carlyle and Ruskin (1819–1900). In France, the early stage of R. (1800s) is associated with the work of Chateaubriand and Madame de Stael, as well as with the philosophical works of de Maistre and Bonald. The heyday of the French R. dates back to the period of the Restoration and the July Revolution of 1830. The largest representatives R. in French literature of the 1820s–30s. are V. Hugo, whose preface to the drama “Cromwell” (1827) became aesthetic. the manifesto of the romantics, Lamartine, Vigny, Musset, J. Sand, in painting - Delacroix, Géricault, in music - Berlioz, in the field of history - Guizot, Mignet, Thierry. In Russia, the beginning of poetry is usually associated with the poetry of Zhukovsky, young Pushkin, certain Decembrists, as well as the activities of the circle of Moscow “lyubomudrov” (Venevitinov, V.F. Odoevsky), among whom the ideas of later Slavophilism arose (Khomyakov, Kireevsky). R. in Poland achieved art. peaks in the works of J. Slovacki, Mickiewicz, F. Chopin. R. was a unique form of art. and philosopher criticism of contradictions bourgeois. civilization. R.'s pathos lay in exposing the disharmony of modern times. world, in an unaccountable desire for a whole person. development and harmonious society connections. However, perceiving the preem. shadow, will destroy. historical side progress, the romantic often could not and did not want to see in his contemporary reality a higher stage of society in relation to the past. development. This led many romantics to the idealization of history. past, primarily the Middle Ages. society way of life with its fixed and “strong” patriarchal ties, which appeared in limited forms of personal dependence and direct means. class opposites and free both from the general power of commodity production and from the formalism and hypocrisy of the bourgeois-democratic. orders of magnitude. Idealizing these lost in the process further development features of the Middle Ages society relationship, R. thereby takes the path of sentiment. critics of capitalism. Classic representative of R. in economics. science, French economist Sismondi, wrote: “I was presented as an enemy in political economy social progress, a partisan of barbaric and coercive institutions. No, I don't want what was already there, but I want something better than what's modern. I cannot judge the present otherwise than by comparing it with the past, and I am far from the desire to restore old ruins when I prove through them the eternal needs of society" (quoted from the book: Lenin V.I., Soch., t 2, p. 220). According to Lenin, proving “... the eternal needs of society” through “ruins”, and not through the trends of modern development,” “... the romantic turns from specific issues of actual development to dreams.. " (ibid., pp. 220–21, 240). The contradictions of R. were in historical accordance with the ideology of broad social movements of the 1st quarter of the 19th century, primarily the national liberation wars against Napoleonic France, to -rym "... is characterized by a combination of the spirit of revival with the spirit of reaction..." (Marx K., see Marx K. and Engels F., Soch., 2nd ed., vol. 10, p. 436). Common fate Marx and Engels summarize these movements as follows. image: "... It is precisely when the people seem to be on the threshold of great undertakings, when they have to discover new era, he allows himself to be carried away by the illusions of the past..." (ibid., p. 373). The romantic revolt against the degradation of the human personality under capitalism was not free from these "illusions of the past", it defended and poeticized them; the triumphant prose of the bourgeois. The Romantic system contrasted ancient customs and art, patriarchal institutions of peoples awakened by the revolution. But precisely because of the deep connection with the historical movements of modernity, Romantic art was imbued with the pathos of people's life and national liberation struggle, achieving the true greatness of the images ( Byron, Shelley, Mickiewicz, Delacroix).Knowledge of the historical past of peoples, both in scientific and artistic form, owes a lot to R. A. Vishnevsky. Moscow. One of the deepest definitions of R. was given by the late Schelling; recalling the Jena circle of romantics, he wrote: “It was a wonderful time... the human spirit was uninhibited, it considered itself the right to oppose everything that exists with its real freedom and ask not about what is, but what is possible” (quoted from the book: “ Literary theory of German romanticism". Dok-ty, [L., 1934], p. 12). Among the early romantics, almost direct contemporaries of the French. revolution, its disciples, are dominated by the impulse towards the possible, which for them is always ahead of the real. Ch. The interest of the romantics was in the unembodied, still devoid of form, in the process of becoming. F. Schlegel wrote a eulogy for Lessing, declaring that what occupies him is not the real Lessing, but Lessing as he could be - the hidden Lessing, the failed Lessing. The philosophy of the young Schelling considers the whole world, nature and man as eternal creativity. Young biologists, physicists, and geologists followed Schelling and picked up the basic idea. the ideas of his natural philosophy, which carried them into special. fields of science. Only witnesses of the great historical. revolution could have internalized this concept: there is no frozen life, no indisputable forms, no dogmas; there is created life, there is eternal renewal both in the world of things and in the world of thought. Schelling, F. Schlegel, Novalis establish a real cult of the infinite in philosophy and poetry. F. Schlegel, Solger, Jean Paul Richter developed unique concepts of romanticism. humor, romantic irony. In her arts. Incarnation we find irony in the works of L. Tieck, Brentano, Byron, Musset. Romantic humor consists in emphasizing the relativity, almost the illusory nature of all forms of life that are restrictive in their meaning - everyday inertia, class narrowness, the idiocy of self-contained crafts and professions are portrayed as something voluntary, taken on by people for the sake of jokes. Life plays without knowing for its free forces k.-l. insurmountable obstacles, making fun of, ridiculing everyone and everything who opposes her game. This one is optimistic. the character of humor disappears among the later romantics. Partly in Byron, and most of all in Heine, the forces of inertia and oppression begin to prevail over the free forces of life; the poet flies high, but he is detained in his free flight, called back, caustically and rudely mocking him. Romantic humor has undergone evolution: among the early romantics it is the humor of freedom, among the later romantics it is the sarcasm of necessity. In Hoffmann and Heine we encounter irony in both its forms, and the irony of necessity often turns into tragedy, breaking with the realm of the comic. The romantics declared music to be the model and norm for all other areas of art; in it they heard the very liberated element of life. In verse, narrated. prose, painting - everywhere they appealed to the principle of musicality; in poetry, behind individual, more or less distinct statements, there must be a general, logical. a mood not captured by concepts. The romantics contributed lyricism. the beginning in all areas of art, they proceeded from lyric poetry and very often resorted to its instrument - verse; prose, as a rule, imitated poetic speech, was carefully organized in terms of sound, and was replete with metaphors, speech tropes and decorations, following the example of verse (as, for example, in Chateaubriand). Romantic The era ended with such works as the novels in verse “Don Juan” by Byron, “Pan Tadeusz” by Mickiewicz, “Eugene Onegin” by Pushkin. This was the highest competition between verse and free narrative. prose, which reached its greatest heights in order to henceforth open the way for prose and art. realism: we consider the novel in verse by Pushkin to be the first high achievement in Russian. realistic. lit-re. The romantics were separated from realism by their persistent desire to preserve their ideals intact, which tragically disappointed the post-revolutionaries. development of bourgeois society. This led them to religion. The development of early R. in Germany is summarized by Schleiermacher’s “Speeches on Religion” (1799): namely, internal. R.'s experience is declared here as a kind of new religion, which gives reason to separate it from the rest of life practice, placing this experience outside of it or above it. Secular, pantheistic. Schleiermacher's religiosity turned out to be the threshold of confessional, orthodox religiosity, which came to life among the romantics, who often leaned towards the most orthodox Catholicism. The Romantics imagined that they would preserve in churchliness what they were losing in public. They understood the nature of evil deeper than the Enlightenment, but elevated it to the eternal, ahistorical. strength. By giving the negation an abs. meaning, they thereby deprived it of its effectiveness: if the evil found in the bourgeois. society, embedded in eternal nature things, then it becomes inevitable to accept this evil. The interpretation of evil as a natural material force is found among romantics. philosophers - Schelling (middle and late period), Schubart, Baader. Schelling, in his Inquiry into Human Freedom, argued that evil is inseparable from the principle of personality, where there is an individual there is evil. Tragic. the essence of the individual is embedded in the innermost. life of the cosmos - here there is a connection between Schelling and Schopenhauer, as well as Nietzsche. Late Romantic thought often had a nihilistic assessment of man; for example, Baader separated creativity from the creative personality and assigned man in the process of cognition the role of only an accomplice and recipient of the deities. mind. In arts. Literary themes of “world evil” and “world sorrow” are the heritage of such genres as the “black novel” by Anna Radcliffe, Lewis, Maturin, as well as the “drama of fate” by Tsacharias Werner, Grillparzer and Kleist. We find these themes in many. prod. Byron, they define the work of Brentano and Hoffmann and become central to Edgar Allan Poe and Hawthorne. Romantic irony in more late period I learned philosophy. skepticism and joined the philosophy of universal denial. At the same time, R. continued his search for a clue. ideal, trying to find historical. reality, the social body, which would accommodate the romantic without reservations. the beauty of endless life and individual freedom. Ironically, it was precisely these searches that led many. romantics to pitiful endings. Looking forward to the future, they became apologists for backwardness, provincialism, and the remnants of the Middle Ages in politics. and societies. European everyday life nations. Herzen in the novel “Who is to Blame” formulated a characteristically romantic. the collision of “contentment” and “development”: either “contentment”, harmony, coherence Ph.D. backward and stagnant life forms, or modern. development, but with all its dramas, breaks and shocks. The romantics depicted the horrors of “development” and entire schools plunged into “contentment”: the “Heidelberg” romantics, the “Swabian” school led by Uhland and J. Kerner in Germany, the “lake school” led by Wordsworth and Coleridge in England, the poetry of Zhukovsky , especially its later period. This can also include certain ideological sentiments of the Slavophiles - attachment to patriarchal times and morals, the ideal of “soilism” among Ap. Grigoriev as the immutability of conditions in which the life of a nation takes place, the preference for a peaceful heart over a split and painfully unsettled modern one. reason in the philosophy of I. Kireevsky. Uland, Wordsworth, Coleridge, Zhukovsky preached a closed life and closed happiness, but the sheltered corners depicted by them are illuminated by a kind of universal light, presented as phenomena of the cosmos, a “universe,” as the romantics put it: a conservative theme was rendered harmless by the non-conservative way of developing it. R. devoted a lot of energy to criticism. review and interpretation of past art. and philosopher culture (works by F. and A. Schlegel, Schelling in Germany, Madame de Stael and Constant in France, Coleridge, Hazlitt, Charles Lamb, Carlyle in England). The Romantics were almost the first to turn to systematic the study of the spiritual heritage of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, as well as the culture of the East (especially India), they gave new life Dante, Shakespeare, Cervantes, Calderon, in philosophy carried out the ideas of G. Bruno, Nicholas of Cusa, Spinoza, whom they associated with the romantic. pantheism and was considered the predecessor of Schelling. Romantics took a new look at antiquity. culture. Turning away from Rome, which was attractive to the classicists, and choosing only Hellas, they looked in Greek. culture is not stable, invariably normative (like Winckelmann, Goethe, Schiller), but the forces of vital fermentation, the chaos of creative life were dear to them. Romantic theory Hellenism was developed by the young F. Schlegel, who paid attention to Orphic Greece, Schelling in his aesthetics, the poets of this direction were Hölderlin, Andre Chénier, Shelley, in some of their works. - Keats, Byron, Pushkin. In the struggle for broad historical The romantics found the basis for their poetry in folklore, in the roots of the people in art and culture. Their predecessors in this regard were Herder and the Sturm und Drang movement. In Germany, Arnim and Brentano published a collection of books. adv. songs, Brothers Grimm - Sat. adv. fairy tales In England, W. Scott published a collection of ballads. coast. Historical W. Scott's novels marked the beginning of realism. interpretation of history, prepared the concept of class struggle in the works of Thierry, Guizot, Mignet and other historians of the Restoration period. The Romantics gave impetus to the study of people. lawsuits and people culture. At the same time, the attitude towards folklore in their own way. creativity is not always free from ambiguity. Among the “Heidelberg” and “Swabian” romantics, among the poets of the “Lake School”, framed by folklore, its forms and traditions, the poet fades away as a modern poet. emancipated personality. Passion for the naivety and spontaneity of people. The culture of the romantic poets corresponded to the apology for direct knowledge that bypasses rational analysis in the philosophy of Schelling and his followers. Adherents of the primitive people. cultures spoke out against a culture that was in any way sophisticated, internally independent, opposing the “natural”, the natural, to the deliberate, artificial. The conservative aspirations of the romantics were supported by the Restoration. A political doctrine in the spirit of conservative, will protect. R. (Bonald, de Maistre, A. Muller, late F. Schlegel). A special place was occupied by the so-called. The historical school in German legal science, led by Savigny, rejected any new initiative in legislation, considering it arbitrariness, the claim of an arrogant mind: prescription is the justification for the law for the lawyers of this school. The question remains debatable as to how legitimate it is to classify these philosophies. defenders of the church and the throne, the noble monarchy and serfdom to R., who in essence was alien to any stagnation and stood for the perception of life in its constant development. R. is often misinterpreted, meaning not the spiritual biography of the movement as a whole, but the biography of the department. its carriers. R. went to history. scenes at different times, but by mid. 19th century he was already becoming a memory, the property of historians who wrote about him with considerable bewilderment, for the dominance of positivism was coming, which was based on immediate facts, was irritated by the voice of utopias and could not master the spiritual heritage of R., which had developed into a revolution. heroic bourgeois conditions development. The ability or inability to cope with this heritage turned out to be an important indicator of the viability of other arts. and philosopher directions of the 19th century In 19th century art. that realism was high - Balzac, Stendhal, Dickens, Russian. classics - who coped with the legacy of the romantics, including R. as an overcome moment of his own. life understanding. This also determined the place occupied by Hegel’s philosophy, which adopted the achievements of the romantics. thoughts, largely overcoming the inadequacy of their methods of cognition. N. Berkovsky. Leningrad. R. and philosophies. Activities of the Jena German circle. romantics (especially F. Schlegel, Schelling and Novalis) was of greatest importance for philosophy. self-determination of R. - both in Germany and in other countries [in England - through Coleridge and Carlyle; in France - thanks to Ms. Stahl’s book “On Germany” (t. 1–3, R., 1810), which popularized the ideas of Jena R.; In Russia, under the influence of Schelling's philosophy and aesthetics, the activities of the circle of Moscow "lyubomudrov" took place]. The philosophy of Fichte with his doctrine of creativity. activity abs. the subject, the “I”, generating its object, as a universal principle of philosophy, with the help of which Fichte overcomes the dualism of Kantian philosophy, is the starting point of the worldview of the Jena romantics. But, unlike Fichte, they are guided not by Kant’s ethics, but by his aesthetics, by the idea of ​​aesthetics contained in it. ability to judge how to connect. the link between thinking and will, in which Kant saw the possibility of unifying natures. necessity and morals. freedom. This idea was further developed by Schiller in “Letters on Aesthetic Education,” where art is called upon to restore the inner. the integrity of man, and formed the basis of the philosophy of early Schelling, considering the arts. creativity as the “eternal and genuine organon” of philosophy, directly resolving everything theoretical. antinomy: conscious and unconscious, contemplation and action, sensory and intelligible, nature and freedom. A look at reality as aesthetic. phenomenon and interpretation of art as metaphysical. the fundamental principles of the world determine the uniqueness of philosophy. positions of Jena R. and its place in the overall development of German. idealistic philosophy of the late 18th - early. 19th centuries The world is viewed by the romantics not as a set of unchanging things and ready-made forms, but as a process of endless formation, which is a creative spiritual activity and, moreover, a symbolic activity. embodiment and revelation of the internal in the external, i.e. arts activities. Art reflects this innermost essence of the world and at the same time is its most perfect embodiment, acting as the highest reality in relation to the empirical. reality. “Poetry in fact is absolutely real. This is the focus of my philosophy” (Novalis, Fragments, see “Literary theory of German romanticism,” p. 121). Art is not a reflection of life, but its transformation (in this it comes close to religion): the laws of art. creativity are thought of as constructive principles for transforming reality. An artist who realizes all human abilities in the act of creativity. soul, in contrast to the one-sided virtuoso K.-L. limited profession is a person par excellence, and vice versa: each person is adequately revealed only as an artist, then “... what people are among other creatures of the earth, that is what artists are in relation to people” (Schlegel F., ibid., p. 170). Nature is the unconscious. arts work of the spirit. The consideration of natural formations by analogy with works of art, which Kant had in the “Critique of Judgment”, is only methodical. technique, appears in Jena R. as a revelation of the original essence of nature. From here follows the idea of ​​universal symbolism ("secret writing") of nature ("The world is a universal trope of the spirit, its symbolic image" - Novalis, Briefe und Werke, Bd 3, V., 1943, S. 236; Wackenroder speaks of "two wonderful languages" - nature and art - see "Literary theory of German romanticism", pp. 157–160). Thus, aesthetics turns out to be the key to understanding romanticism. natural philosophy, anthropology (the artist’s work dates back, in particular, to Novalis’s idea of ​​“the inverted use of the senses,” of vision and hearing as externalized internal active contemplation - see ibid., p. 128) and epistemology (“the poet comprehends nature better than the mind of a scientist,” – ibid., p. 121). If classicism oriented beauty towards truth as a certain universally valid measure of all existence, then in R. truth is beauty (Novalis: “the more poetic, the truer,” later Musset paraphrases Boileau: “There is nothing true except beauty” - cit. from the book: Hauser?., Sozialgeschichte der Kunst und Literatur, Bd 2, M?nch., 1953, S. 187–88). The Jena romantics blur the lines between philosophy and art: an intuitive symbol, and not a rational concept, is an adequate form of philosophy, which is conceived primarily as a spontaneous expression of a holistic experience of reality - in this the romantics contrast themselves with the entire rationalist tradition. philosophy of the 17th–18th centuries. and act as predecessors of Nietzsche and later philosophy of life (the term itself belongs to F. Schlegel - “Philosophie des Lebens”, 1827); Schleiermacher's condemnation of Fichte's division of life and philosophy is characteristic: “Whoever divides philosophy and life so strictly as Fichte, what great can be in that? A great one-sided virtuoso, but too little a man” (Briefe Schleiermachers, V., 1923, S. 190) . Novalis distinguishes between thought and idea; the latter is not thought, but experienced, and gives not knowledge, but conviction. The leading role in knowledge does not belong to the intellect, but to “intuition”, “inner revelation” (Novalis). Intuitive contemplation, which directly comprehends the whole, is infinitely higher than deductive proof (“The universe can neither be explained nor understood, but only contemplated and discovered” - Sch1egel Fr., Seine prosaischen Jugendschriften, Bd 2, W., 1882, S. 306). Unsystematic, fragmentary nature of philosophy? Schlegel and Novalis corresponds to their idea of ​​the world as an unfinished creative. the process of formation and the relativity of any philosophy. and poetic. statements (Novalis: philosophy - “unsystematicity in a system”, see Briefe und Werke, Bd 3, S. 151). The fragment turns out to be an adequate form of comprehension of this incomplete whole and reveals the relativity of any analytical. dismemberment (the idea of ​​​​"cyclical philosophy" by F. Schlegel, anticipating the Hegelian concept of "mediation": philosophy is not a straightforward presentation, but a circle, an "ellipse", everything in it is first and last, it must begin, like an epic work, directly from the “middle” – see “Seine prosaischen Jugendschriften”, Bd 2, S. 210, 216). The idea of ​​historical dynamics, put forward by R., opposes the Enlightenment understanding of history as a simple sequence in time, as a rectilinear ascent of an eternal and fundamentally unchangeable mind. Romantics are characterized by an awareness of the discontinuity and irreversibility of history. process, qualities. differences of his department. steps, one-time historical. formation; in the philosophy of culture - recognition of the equality of past cultures and their individual uniqueness (Wackenroder). Int. the problematic nature of modern culture is fixed by the romantics in a clear contrast between ancient and “Christian” cultures: the latter is characterized by reflection, discord between the ideal and reality, “aspiration to the infinite,” as opposed to the “natural harmony” and calm “possession” of antiquity (see A. W. Schlegel, Ueber dramatische Kunst und Literatur, Tl 1, Heidelberg, 1817, S. 25, 24). Will distinguish. romantic trait historicism is the personification and mythologization of history. strength: historical eras are considered as manifestation and embodiment of themselves. principles, ideas, as closed self-developing individual organisms, going through a certain development cycle, during which they realize a certain. spiritual structure. The philosophy of culture of R. takes shape in the process of criticizing utilitarianism and authoritarian norms of the bourgeoisie. culture (Schleiermacher speaks of the “immorality” of all morality, Novalis speaks of the fact that for true religion there is nothing sinful). R. emphasizes the autonomy of culture, its independence from external goals. Free disclosure of personality (which is adequately carried out only as artistic creativity) is the highest romantic ideal. ethics: implementation of internal “callings” are more important than fulfilling external responsibilities. Arts freedom is understood as the right of every artist to follow his inner. feeling, regardless of k.-l. external rules and traditions. boundaries of the claim: each individual production. creates its own laws and evaluation criteria. Jena romantics put forward utopian ideas. ideal of a new culture, basic. The features of the cut are: 1) universality: it absorbs all past cultures, which are, as it were, a precursor. experience of its creation; 2) dynamic character: creativity as an endless process is higher than any of its results; Any unambiguous and will end. form is less valuable than open and unrealized possibility; 3) integrity: it merges art, science, philosophy and religion; Romantics see the prototype of this culture in ancient mythology and strive to create a new universally significant mythology as a product of consciousness. poetic creativity (unlike antiquity, where mythology was the source of poetry, here poetry becomes the source of mythology); 4) self-image: constant reflection of culture about itself and its products (F. Schlegel speaks of “transcendental philosophy” as “philosophy of philosophy” and “transcendental poetry” as “poetry of poetry” - see ibid., S. 242, 249 ); There is a romantic connection with this. irony as an immanent consciousness of inadequacy between an object and its any art. and philosopher reflection, between the plan and the implementation, as a feeling of “linguistic inexpressibility”, the conventions of any statement in general. The awareness of the irreducibility of the languages ​​of various disciplines to each other is accompanied by the romantics’ desire to combine them, the joint influence of various disciplines, which leads them to the idea of ​​a universal. arts works (Gesamtkunstwerk), later realized in Wagner's work. Arts the image, in contrast to the previous aesthetics of classicism and the Enlightenment, is not thought of as the embodiment of an ideal content that exists independently of it, but for the first time creates this content itself: it turns out to be not the result of ideas, but their source (the Romantics’ belief in the spontaneous creative power of language is associated with this). Natural philosophy of R., starting from mechanistic. natural sciences of the 17th–18th centuries, revives the natural philosophy of antiquity and the Renaissance and continues the traditions of German. mysticism (Böhme) and theosophy of the 18th century. (Baader, in his polemics with Descartes and Newton, focuses on Saint-Martin). Basic ideas of natural philosophy of R.: 1) by analogy with works of art, nature is considered as organic. a whole that cannot be reduced to the sum of its parts and cannot be derived from them; 2) genetic. approach to nature; Oken: natural philosophy is the “history of the creation of the world”, cosmogony; Novalis: “To comprehend nature, you need to make it appear again... in its entire sequence” (“German romantic story”, introductory article and commentary by N. Ya. Berkovsky, vol. 1, M.–L ., 1935, p. 135); 3) mystical. the doctrine of the universal correspondence of nature and spirit, internal and external. Novalis rethinks Fichte's philosophy in an objective way, understanding his antithesis "I" and "not-I" as a parallelism of two mutually symbolizing principles (in the spirit of the mystical concept of man as a microcosm and the world as a macroanthropos, as in J. Boehme). Man is seen as the center and ultimate goal of nature. process and at the same time as the starting point of supernaturals. revelations (Steffens). The driving forces are human. souls are not thinking and intellect (in which the philosophy of the Enlightenment saw the main difference between humans and animals), but fantasy and feeling. Novalis: feeling is to thinking as being is to image. Unconscious. drives and instincts, uncontrollable mental. fortunes are the focus of romantic attention. anthropology; illness, which is considered by her as an “equivalent possibility” of existence, occupies the same place in it as a paradox in philosophy: as a criticism of everyday consciousness and the denial of everyday, “normal” existence. At the same time, rationalization of the unconscious occurs and criticism penetrates into the most intimate reactions, the ambivalence of which gives rise to the idea of ​​“many personalities” coexisting in the same person (a pluralistic understanding of personality in Novalis; the figure of the double in many romantic works). Yu. Popov. Moscow. Definition of the term "R." and his and his story. Schultz T., "Romantik" und "romantisch" als literarhistotische Terminologien und Begriffsbildungen, "Deutsche Vierreljahrsschrift f?r Literaturwissenschaft und Geistesgeschichte", 1924, H. 3; Ullmann R. Und Gotthard H., Geschichte des Begriffes "romantisch" in Deutschland, V., 1927; Lovejoy?. ?., The meaning of romanticism for the historian of ideas, "J. of the History of Ideas", 1941, v. 2, N 3; by him, Essays in the history of ideas, Baltimore, 1948, ch. 12; Peckham M., Toward a theory of romanticism, "Publications of the Modern Language association of America", 1951, v. 66, No. 2; G?rard?., On the logic of romanticism, "Essays in Criticism", 1957, v. 7, No. 3; Remak H. H., West European romanticism: definition and scope, in: Comparative literature: method and perspective, ed. by N. P. Stallknecht and H. Frenz, Carbondale, ; We11ek R., Romanticism re-examined, in: Romanticism reconsidered, selected papers..., ed. by N. Frye, N. Y.–L., 1964. Lit.: Gaim R., Romantich. school, lane from German, M., 1891; Kozmin N., Essays on Russian history. R., P., 1903; de La Barthe?., Chateaubriand and the poetics of world sorrow in France, K., 1905; Stepun F., The Tragedy of Creativity (F. Schlegel), "Logos", 1910, book. 1; Sakulin P.N., From the history of Russian. idealism. Prince V.F. Odoevsky, vol. 1, M., 1913; Zherlitsyn M., Coleridge and English. R., O., 1914; Rus. R. Sat. Art., ed. A. I. Beletsky, L., 1927; Asmus V.F., Muz. aesthetics philosophy R., "Soviet music", 1934, No. 1; Berkovsky N. Ya., Aesthetic. German positions R., in the book: Lit. theory germ. R., L., 1934, p. 5–118; Oblomievsky D., Franz. R., M., 1947; Reizov B. G., Between classicism and R., Leningrad, 1962; Sokolov A.N., On the debate about R., "Issues of Literature", 1963, No. 7; Vanslov V.V., Aesthetics R., M., 1966 (there is a library); Joachimi M., Die Weltanschauung der deutschen Romantik, Jena–Lpz., 1905; Poetzsch?., Studien zur fr?hromantischen Politik und Geschichtsauffassung, Lpz., 1907 (Diss.); Zurlinden L., Gedanken Platons in der deutschen Romantik, Lpz., 1910; Deutschbein M., Das Wesen des Romantischen, G?then, 1921; Unger R., Herder, Novalis und Kleist. Studien ?ber die Entwicklung des Todesproblems in Denken und Dichten vom Sturm und Drang zur Romantik, Fr./M., 1922; Walzel O., Deutsche Romantik, 5 Aufl., Bd 1–2, Lpz.–V., 1923–26; Baxa J., Einf?hrung in die romantische Staatswissenschaft, 2 Aufl., Jena, 1931; Kluckhohn P., Pers?nlichkeit und Gemeinschaft. Studien zur Staatsauffassung der deutschen Romantik, Halle (Salle), 1925; Schmitt S., Politische Romantik, 2 Aufl., M?nch.–Lpz., 1925; Вrinton S., The political ideas of the English romanticists, L.–, 1926; Brinkmann H., Die Idee des Lebens in der deutschen Romantik, Augsburg, 1926; Baumgardt D., Franz von Baader und die philosophische Romantik, Halle (Saale), 1927; Strich F., Deutsche Klassik und Romantik oder Vollendung und Unendlichkeit, 3 Aufl., M?nch., 1928; Knittermeyer H., Schelling und die romantische Schule, M?nch., 1929; Gundolf F., Romantiker, , W.–Wilmersdorf, 1930–31; In?guin?., L´?me romanticique et le r?ve. Essai sur le romanticisme allemand et la po?sie fran?aise, t. 1–2, Marseille, 1937; Kainz F., Die Sprach?sthetik der j?ngeren Romantik, "Deutsche Vierteljahrsschrift f?r Literaturwissenschaft und Geistesgeschichte", 1938, Jg. 16, H. 2; Benz R., Die deutsche Romantik, 2 Aufl., Lpz., 1940; Gode-von Aesch ?., Natural science in German romanticism, ?. ?., 1941; Hedderiсh H. F., Die Gedanken der Romantik, ?ber Kirche und Staat, G?tersloh, 1941; Reiff P. , Die ?sthetik er deutschen Fr?hromantik, Urbana, 1946; Grimme ?., Vom Wesen der Romantik, V.–, ; Ruprecht E., Der Aufbruch der romantischen Bewegung, M?nch., 1948; Van Tieghem P., Le romantisme dans la litt?rature europ?enne, P., 1948; Clark M. U., The cult of enthusiasm in French romanticism, Wash., 1950; Huch R., Die Romantik. Bl?tezeit. Ausbreitung und Verfall, Tübingen, 1951; Giraud J., L´?cole romantique fran?aise. Les doctrines et les hommes, 6?d., P., 1953; Benjamin W., Der Begriff der Kunstkritik in der deutschen Romantik, Schriften, Bd 2, , 1955; P?ggeler O., Hegels Kritik der Romantik, Bonn, 1956; Bowra S. M., The romantic imagination, , L.; ?i?evski D., On romanticism in Slavic literature, ´s-Gravenhage, 1957; Korff?. ?., Geist der Goethezeit, , Tl3-4, Lpz., 1959-62; Markwardt V., Geschichte der deutschen Poetik, Bd 3- Klassik und Romantik, V., 1958; Jensen Chr. ?. ?., L´?volution du romanticisme. L'ann?e 1826, Gen.-P., 1959; Mason?. S., Deutsche und englische Romantik, G?tt., ; Schultz F., Klassik und Romantik der Deutschen, 3 Aufl, Tl 1-2, Stuttg., 1959; Abrams M. H., The mirror and the lamp: romantic theory and the critical tradition, L., 1960; Strohschneider-Kohrs I., Die romantische Ironie in Theorie und Gestaltung, T?bingen, 1960; Ayrau1t R., La g?n?se du romantisme allemand, , P., 1961; Jones W. T., The romantic syndrome, The Hague, 1961; Kluckhohn P., Das Ideengut der deutschen Romantik, 4 Aufl., T?bingen, 1961; Shroder M. Z., Icarus, the image of the artist in French romanticism, Camb., 1961; Boas G. (ed.), Romanticism in America, N.Y., 1961; S?rensen?. ?., Symbol und Symbolismus in den ?sthetischen Theorien des 18. Jahrhunderts und der deutschen Romantik, Kph., ; Boas G., French philosophies of the romantic period, N. Y., 1964. Al. V. Mikhailov. Moscow.

Romanticism is an ideological movement in art and literature that appeared in the 90s of the 18th century in Europe and became widespread in other countries of the world (Russia is one of them), as well as in America. The main ideas of this direction are the recognition of the value of the spiritual and creative life of every person and his right to independence and freedom. Very often, the works of this literary movement depicted heroes with a strong, rebellious character, the plots were characterized by a bright intensity of passions, nature was depicted in a spiritualized and healing way.

Having appeared in the era of the Great French Revolution and the world industrial revolution, romanticism was replaced by such a direction as classicism and the Age of Enlightenment in general. In contrast to the adherents of classicism, who support the ideas of the cult significance of the human mind and the emergence of civilization on its foundations, the romantics put Mother Nature on a pedestal of worship, emphasizing the importance of natural feelings and the freedom of aspirations of each individual.

(Alan Maley "Delicate Age")

The revolutionary events of the late 18th century completely changed the course of everyday life, both in France and in other European countries. People, feeling acute loneliness, distracted themselves from their problems by playing various games of chance and having fun in a variety of ways. It was then that the idea arose to imagine that human life it is an endless game where there are winners and losers. Romantic works often depicted heroes opposing the world around them, rebelling against fate and fate, obsessed with their own thoughts and reflections on their own idealized vision of the world, which sharply did not coincide with reality. Realizing their defenselessness in a world ruled by capital, many romantics were in confusion and confusion, feeling endlessly alone in the life around them, which was the main tragedy of their personality.

Romanticism in Russian literature of the 19th century

The main events that had a huge impact on the development of romanticism in Russia were the War of 1812 and the Decembrist uprising of 1825. However, distinguished by originality and originality, Russian romanticism of the early 19th century is an inseparable part of the pan-European literary movement and has its general features and basic principles.

(Ivan Kramskoy "Unknown")

The emergence of Russian romanticism coincides in time with the maturation of a socio-historical turning point in the life of society at that time, when the socio-political structure of the Russian state was in an unstable, transitional state. People of progressive views, disillusioned with the ideas of the Enlightenment, promoting the creation of a new society based on the principles of reason and the triumph of justice, decisively rejecting the principles of bourgeois life, not understanding the essence of antagonistic contradictions in life, felt feelings of hopelessness, loss, pessimism and disbelief in rational decision conflict.

Representatives of romanticism considered the main value of the human personality, and the mysterious and beautiful world of harmony, beauty and high feelings contained in it. In their works, representatives of this trend did not depict the real world, which was too base and vulgar for them; they reflected the universe of the protagonist’s feelings, his inner world, filled with thoughts and experiences. Through their prism the outlines appear real world, with which he cannot come to terms and therefore tries to rise above him, not submitting to his social-feudal laws and morals.

(V. A Zhukovsky)

One of the founders of Russian romanticism is considered famous poet V.A. Zhukovsky, who created a number of ballads and poems that had fabulous fantastic content (“Ondine”, “The Sleeping Princess”, “The Tale of Tsar Berendey”). His works are characterized by a deep philosophical meaning, a desire for moral ideal, his poems and ballads are filled with his personal experiences and reflections inherent romantic direction.

(N.V. Gogol)

Zhukovsky’s thoughtful and lyrical elegies are replaced by the romantic works of Gogol (“The Night Before Christmas”) and Lermontov, whose work bears a peculiar imprint of an ideological crisis in the minds of the public, impressed by the defeat of the Decembrist movement. Therefore, romanticism of the 30s of the 19th century is characterized by disappointment in real life and leaving for an imaginary world where everything is harmonious and ideal. Romantic protagonists were portrayed as people who were divorced from reality and had lost interest in earthly life, who came into conflict with society, and denounced powerful of the world this in their sins. The personal tragedy of these people, endowed with high feelings and experiences, was the death of their moral and aesthetic ideals.

The mindset of progressively thinking people of that era was most clearly reflected in the creative heritage of the great Russian poet Mikhail Lermontov. In his works “The Last Son of Liberty”, “To Novgorod”, in which the example of the republican love of freedom of the ancient Slavs is clearly visible, the author expresses warm sympathy for the fighters for freedom and equality, for those who oppose slavery and violence against the personality of people.

Romanticism is characterized by an appeal to historical and national sources, to folklore. This was most clearly manifested in Lermontov’s subsequent works (“Song about Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich, the young guardsman and the daring merchant Kalashnikov”), as well as in a cycle of poems and poems about the Caucasus, which the poet perceived as a country of freedom-loving and proud people opposing the country of slaves and masters under the rule of Tsar-autocrat Nicholas I. The main images in the works of “Ishmael Bey” “Mtsyri” are depicted by Lermontov with great passion and lyrical pathos, they carry the aura of chosen ones and fighters for their Fatherland.

The romantic movement also includes the early poetry and prose of Pushkin (“Eugene Onegin”, “The Queen of Spades”), the poetic works of K. N. Batyushkov, E. A. Baratynsky, N. M. Yazykov, the work of the Decembrist poets K. F. Ryleev, A. A. Bestuzhev-Marlinsky, V. K. Kuchelbecker.

Romanticism in foreign literature of the 19th century

The main feature of European romanticism in foreign literature The 19th century is the fantastic and fabulous nature of the works of this direction. For the most part, these are legends, fairy tales, stories and short stories with a fantastic, unreal plot. Romanticism manifested itself most expressively in the culture of France, England and Germany; each country made its own special contribution to the development and spread of this cultural phenomenon.

(Francisco Goya" Harvest " )

France. Here literary works in the style of romanticism had a bright political coloring, largely opposed to the newly-minted bourgeoisie. According to French writers, a new society that emerged as a result of social changes after the Great French Revolution, did not understand the value of each person’s personality, ruined its beauty and suppressed freedom of spirit. The most famous works: the treatise “The Genius of Christianity”, the stories “Attala” and “René” by Chateaubriand, the novels “Delphine”, “Corina” by Germaine de Stael, the novels by George Sand, Hugo’s “The Cathedral” Notre Dame of Paris", a series of novels about the Musketeers by Dumas, the collected works of Honore Balzac.

(Karl Brullov "Horsewoman")

England. Romanticism has been present in English legends and traditions for quite a long time, but did not emerge as a separate movement until the mid-18th century. English literary works are distinguished by the presence of a slightly gloomy Gothic and religious content; there are many elements of national folklore, the culture of the working and peasant class. Distinctive feature the content of English prose and lyrics - a description of travel and wanderings to distant lands, their research. A striking example: “Eastern Poems”, “Manfred”, “Childe Harold’s Travels” by Byron, “Ivanhoe” by Walter Scott.

Germany. The idealistic idealism had a huge influence on the foundations of German romanticism. philosophical worldview, which promoted the individualism of the individual and his freedom from the laws of feudal society, the universe was viewed as a single living system. German works, written in the spirit of romanticism, are filled with reflections on the meaning of human existence, the life of his soul, and they are also distinguished by fairy-tale and mythological motifs. The most striking German works in the style of romanticism: tales of Wilhelm and Jacob Grimm, short stories, fairy tales, novels by Hoffmann, works by Heine.

(Caspar David Friedrich "Stages of Life")

America. Romanticism in American literature and art developed a little later than in European countries (30s of the 19th century), its heyday occurred in the 40s-60s of the 19th century. Its emergence and development were greatly influenced by such large-scale historical events as the American War of Independence at the end of the 18th century and Civil War between North and South (1861-1865). American literary works can be divided into two types: abolitionist (supporting the rights of slaves and their emancipation) and oriental (supporting plantation). American romanticism is based on the same ideals and traditions as European, in its rethinking and understanding in its own way in the conditions of the unique way of life and pace of life of the inhabitants of a new, little-explored continent. American works of that period are rich in national trends; in them there is a keen sense of independence, the struggle for freedom and equality. Prominent representatives of American romanticism: Washington Irving (“The Legend of Sleepy Hollow”, “The Phantom Bridegroom”, Edgar Allan Poe (“Ligeia”, “The Fall of the House of Usher”), Herman Melville (“Moby Dick”, “Typee”), Nathaniel Hawthorne (The Scarlet Letter, The House of the Seven Gables), Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (The Legend of Hiawatha), Walt Whitman (poetry collection Leaves of Grass), Harriet Beecher Stowe (Uncle Tom's Cabin), Fenimore Cooper (The Last of the Mohicans).

And even though romanticism reigned in art and literature for only a short time, and heroism and chivalry were replaced by pragmatic realism, this in no way diminishes his contribution to the development of world culture. Works written in in this direction, is loved and read with great pleasure by a large number of fans of romanticism around the world.

Romanticism in Russia differed from Western European for the sake of a different historical situation and a different cultural tradition. The French Revolution cannot be counted among the causes of its occurrence; a very narrow circle of people pinned any hopes on transformations in its course. And the results of the revolution were completely disappointing. The question of capitalism in Russia at the beginning of the 19th century. didn't stand. Therefore, there was no reason for this either. The real reason was the Patriotic War of 1812, in which the full force of popular initiative was demonstrated. But after the war, the people did not receive freedom. The best of the nobility, not satisfied with reality, came to Senate Square in December 1825. This act also did not pass without a trace for the creative intelligentsia. The turbulent post-war years became the setting in which Russian romanticism was formed.

Features of Russian romanticism:

 Romanticism was not opposed to the Enlightenment. Enlightenment ideology weakened, but did not collapse, as in Europe. The ideal of an enlightened monarch has not exhausted itself.

 Romanticism developed in parallel with classicism, often intertwined with it.

 Romanticism in Russia manifested itself in different ways in different types of art. It was not readable in architecture at all. In painting it dried up by the middle of the 19th century. It manifested itself only partially in music. Perhaps only in literature did romanticism manifest itself consistently.

Romanticism, and moreover ours, Russian, developed and molded into our original forms, romanticism was not a simple literary, but a life phenomenon, an entire era of moral development, an era that had its own special color, carrying out a special view in life... Let the romantic trend come from the outside, from Western life and Western literature, it found in Russian nature soil ready for its perception, and therefore was reflected in completely original phenomena, as the poet and critic Apollo Grigoriev assessed - this is a unique cultural phenomenon, and its characteristics show the essential complexity of romanticism , from the depths of which young Gogol emerged and with which he was connected not only at the beginning of his writing career, but throughout his entire life.

Apollo Grigoriev precisely defined the nature of the influence of the romantic school on literature and life, including on the prose of that time: not a simple influence or borrowing, but a characteristic and powerful life and literary trend that gave completely original phenomena in young Russian literature.

a) Literature

Russian romanticism is usually divided into several periods: initial (1801-1815), mature (1815-1825) and the period of post-Decembrist development. However, in relation to the initial period, the conventionality of this scheme is striking. For the dawn of Russian romanticism is associated with the names of Zhukovsky and Batyushkov, poets whose work and attitude are difficult to put side by side and compare within the same period, their goals, aspirations, and temperaments are so different. In the poems of both poets one can still feel the powerful influence of the past - the era of sentimentalism, but if Zhukovsky is still deeply rooted in it, then Batyushkov is much closer to new trends.

Russian romanticism was developed by poets of the first half of the nineteenth century, and each poet contributed something new. Russian romanticism developed widely, acquired characteristic features, and became an independent movement in literature. In "Ruslan and Lyudmila" A.S. Pushkin has the lines: “There is a Russian spirit, there is a smell of Russia.” The same can be said about Russian romanticism. The heroes of romantic works are poetic souls striving for the “high” and the beautiful. But there is a hostile world that does not allow one to feel freedom, that leaves these souls misunderstood. This world is rough, so the poetic soul runs to another, where there is an ideal, it strives for the “eternal.” Romanticism is based on this conflict. But poets had different attitudes to this situation. Zhukovsky, Pushkin, Lermontov, based on one thing, build the relationship between their heroes and the world around them differently, therefore their heroes had different paths to the ideal.

The search for an ideal is the main characteristic feature of romanticism. It manifested itself in the works of Zhukovsky, Pushkin, and Lermontov. They introduced new concepts, new characters, new ideals, and gave a complete understanding of what freedom is, what real life is. Each of them represents their own path to the ideal; this is the right of choice for each individual.

The very emergence of romanticism was very disturbing. The human individual now stood at the center of the whole world. The human “I” began to be interpreted as the basis and meaning of all existence. Human life began to be viewed as a work of art, art. In the 19th century, romanticism was very widespread. But not all poets who called themselves romantics conveyed the essence of this movement.

Now, at the end of the 20th century, we can already classify the romantics of the last century on this basis into two groups. One and probably the most extensive group is the one that united “formal” romantics. It is difficult to suspect them of insincerity; on the contrary, they convey their feelings very accurately. Among them are Dmitry Venevitinov (1805-1827) and Alexander Polezhaev (1804-1838). These poets used the romantic form, considering it the most suitable for achieving their artistic goal.

Representatives of another group of romantics of the 19th century, of course, were A.S. Pushkin and M. Lermontov. These poets, on the contrary, filled the romantic form with their own content.

The romantic theme in Pushkin’s works received two different versions: there is a heroic romantic hero (“prisoner”, “robber”, “fugitive”), distinguished by a strong will, who has gone through a cruel test of violent passions, and there is a suffering hero in whom subtle emotional experiences are incompatible with cruelty outside world(“exile”, “prisoner”).

We can say that Pushkin and Lermontov failed to become romantics (however, Lermontov once managed to comply with romantic laws - in the drama Masquerade). With their experiments, the poets showed that in England the position of an individualist could be fruitful, but in Russia it was not. Although Pushkin and Lermontov failed to become romantics, they opened the way for the development of realism. In 1825, the first realistic work was published: “Boris Godunov”, then “The Captain’s Daughter”, “Eugene Onegin”, “Hero of Our Time” and many others.