Engels F. Origin of the family, private property and state. Friedrich Engels. Origin of family, private property and

Are you here: Protective suits

So she's sailing against the wind? And yet it swims so fast? However, the wind can only affect speed if you are on the surface. But it wasn’t on the surface: I looked and shouted - to no avail. Who knows, if grace had dawned on me then and I had thought to use the bracelet, it might have found its double on Lucina’s wrist. But I was not born smart, that's a fact. Maybe at least happy? I won’t think about it until I see Luciana alive and well.

But if it has already gone deep, then such a speed generally becomes unthinkable. Unless she is not swimming herself, but some creature has grabbed her and is carrying her away. However, no monsters have been spotted here yet. Of course, weak argument, but better than nothing. And the light of a dot or two is already barely noticeable, has completely dimmed, its flashes are now more likely to be guessed than clearly distinguished... Now it was still there or no longer? Probably not.

– “Triolet”, what is the distance to a point or two at the moment the signal stops?

"Definitely two miles."

– How long has it been since the point-two signal stopped being received?

However, I don’t need his answer: the time is recorded continuously by the log. How long is it there?.. Four hours? Was I unconscious for so long? Well, there you go, Slayer. And what, exactly, was our wonderful space navigator thinking about?

– “Triolet”, why didn’t you bring me to consciousness earlier? Don't you have an express method?

“Accelerating the process could lead to complications and be dangerous to health. Moreover, such actions were not provided for by the program.”

- What program, damn it...

"Performed by me."

Still, he is stupid. They are all fools, these computer navigators. They do not understand that there are situations in which own health relegates to the very last plan. In their most complex schemes and clever programs there was no place for such logic - the logic of a loving person.

These, then, are pies with cabbage.

4

Luciana took a breath. Not right away: the normal breathing rhythm had long been lost during the hectic struggle with waves, wind, and debris of bushes. Her breathing calmed down a little, but then she began to feel sick. Twisting with difficulty, she raised her head above the low side. Then, scooping up a handful of water, she washed her face. And she began to look around.

She was now in a strange boat, whose sides only rose slightly above the water, but when she got inside, it turned out to be much more spacious than she had imagined: it unexpectedly sat deep in the water. And, apparently, it had a strong engine: the speed was enough to prevent the elements from knocking the boat off course - against the wind and waves. If you allow the wind and waves to turn the boat even for a moment - or whatever you call it - sideways to the waves - the sailors seem to say "lagom" - it will capsize in an instant, and then... Luciana herself will hold out for a while longer, she has a mask (Luciana, as good hostess, remembered very well what she had and what she didn’t) - but the two people who were here, besides herself, probably wouldn’t last long. And she had a debt of gratitude: after all, they pulled her out of the water, helped her climb here, fall over the side with her chest just at the moment of the greatest confusion: when this wild wave crashed and Ra suddenly disappeared from sight. This means that now it’s her turn to help them out - to the best of her ability.

Luciana could not see what was in front of the boat: - the entire front sector of the view was blocked by the back of the woman who had thrown off her jacket, her savior - tanned, muscular, wet (everything here was wet, and water was splashing at the bottom of the boat, albeit a little). Nevertheless, Luciana was sure that they were moving away from the place where she was picked up, not at all in the direction where Ra had been thrown by a high wave, but almost in the opposite direction: not downwind, but in a full close-hauled direction; Luciana had sailed enough to understand such things without her husband's help. And it was clear to her that such a course was far from the most profitable, rather the opposite. These people probably had reasons to take this particular direction, but this did not suit her at all. And she grabbed the woman by the shoulder. She turned her head, her face expressing anger.

- We need to go there! There! – Luciana showed the direction with her free hand. - The man is dying!

She shouted this in Tellurium, immediately realized that this language could be completely unfamiliar here, and repeated it in Linkos.

- Sit quietly! – the woman shouted back in the same language.

Luciana stubbornly shook her head, but the woman had already turned away. Leaning forward, she said something into the very ear of the man sitting in front of her and steering the ship. Luciana’s thoughts were not entirely in order right now, but still it seemed to her that she recognized both of them: the same couple that she and Ra had spied on quite recently. They got her out, yes, but did she need to be taken somewhere far from where she and Ra lost each other?

The course remained the same. She hesitated for a moment: should she insist on her own? Use force? But there’s no chance of winning; she can’t manage it alone in these conditions. Ra knows how to survive and (she really wanted to believe it) will hold out until the time when she can organize help. Now the boat was heading somewhere, where there was, hopefully, a more reliable shelter and people, and there they would understand her (this was also believed), as soon as the wind died down, they would go out in search; judging by the fact that she was pulled out, it was not generally accepted here that saving drowning people was the work of the drowning people themselves. And if so...

These were the thoughts running through Luciana’s head, and somehow a completely appropriate question did not arise: how would these people react to her? After all, they were wanted, so they consider them guilty of something? For some reason, it seemed to the Lucians that they were looking for them only in order to provide assistance, mistaking their landing for an emergency. Actually, what reasons could there be for treating them differently? No, apparently now they should have sat quietly, they could even have closed their eyes so as not to be frightened by every high wave that every now and then threatened to bury them.

Luciana did just that. And she opened her eyes only when she felt that the speed of the boat was noticeably decreasing. And when she opened them, she opened her mouth in surprise, although only for a second.

The surprise was caused by the fact that the ship changed in these few minutes: if previously nothing protected those in it from the wind and splashes, now both drops of water and the air flow carrying them, about half a meter above the heads of those sitting in the boat, seemed to fly into something - then, on an invisible roof, or rather a dome, which seemed to come from nowhere. “Most likely, field defense,” Luciana thought calmly, as if about something ordinary and expected. She had seen such boats with a computer skipper, whose remote control and monitor were usually located on the bow. Luciana guessed it by the familiar bluish light. It became not only drier inside, but also calmer: the rocking lessened and soon stopped completely. Luciana looked around - there was only water around, and this indicated that the ship had already sunk completely. It’s strange, and for some reason this also didn’t surprise Luciana - maybe her ability to be surprised was exhausted for today, too many new impressions fell to her lot this day.

The engine now sounded a little louder and at lower notes, the boat continued to dive with a noticeable trim on the bow: it went into the depths. Then suddenly the rumble stopped, but the movement continued, only now some external force was moving the capsule ship, Luciana remembered the word she had recently heard from these people.

All around, as before, only water was visible, it became increasingly darker - there was less and less light, as it should be at depth. It didn't seem scary. But after a few moments, fear came, albeit short-lived: the couple who were in the front seats suddenly disappeared, like the entire bow of the boat, as if the boat had run into a thick fog and began to sink into it, which the dome did not prevent at all. Fear told Luciana that now she, too, would plunge into this substance and would probably suffocate there, because it was impossible to breathe. The heart failed, but only for a second.

And then the fog disappeared at once, as if it had not been there, and people, and the entire capsule as a whole, and everything that had opened outside, for some reason not noticed until now, became visible again - strange, truly unexpected: a vast dome with many depressions and protrusions that disrupted the smooth curvature of the surface, illuminated by lights, painted in different colors. Above the dome are two or three more capsules, approximately the same size as the one in which Luciana was now sitting. There were some other oddities, but there was simply no time to look at everything: the water behind the portholes disappeared, they found themselves in some kind of pipe or chamber where it was dark, but after a few seconds the walls, which caused a feeling of darkness, disappeared, it became light, and then the dome that covered the boat disappeared with a soft click, and Luciana happily stood up to her full height, like the two whose companions she turned out to be.

She stretched with pleasure, stretching her tired and stiff muscles. I looked around and caught the eye of the guy who was driving the capsule. He looked at her - not in the face, but below, where the beach outfit barely and very tentatively covered what always causes a certain reaction in men. The look was expressive, Luciana understood this. And immediately I couldn’t help but think that this probably couldn’t be done without difficulties, because the woman had already turned to her and covered her with an appraising gaze, from head to toe, with a very unkind look. Yes, there will be complications, Lucian’s initial assumption was confirmed, and at that moment the woman gave the command: “Let’s go out.”

We now come to another of Morgan's discoveries, which is at least as important as the reconstruction of the primitive family form on the basis of kinship systems. Morgan proved that clan unions within the tribe, designated by the names of animals, American Indians essentially identical with the genea of the Greeks and the gentes of the Romans; that the American form is the original, and the Greco-Roman form is the later, derivative; that the entire social organization of the Greeks and Romans ancient era with its clan, phratry and tribe finds an exact parallel in the American Indian organization; that the gens is an institution common to all peoples, right up to their entry into the era of civilization and even later.

We have already seen above, when considering the punaluan family, what the composition of the gens is in its original form. It consists of all persons who, through a punalual marriage and according to the ideas inevitably dominant in this marriage, form the recognized offspring of one specific ancestress, the founder of the clan. Since in this form of family the father cannot be established with certainty, it is only recognized female line. Since brothers cannot marry their sisters, but only women of a different origin, then, by virtue of maternal right, children born to them by these foreign women find themselves outside this clan. Thus, only the offspring of the daughters of each generation remain within the clan union; the offspring of sons passes into the clans of their mothers.

As a classical form of this original genus, Morgan takes the genus from the Iroquois, in particular from the Seneca tribe. In this tribe there are eight genera bearing the names of animals 1) Wolf, 2) Bear, 3) Turtle, 4) Beaver, 5) Deer, 6) Kulik, 7) Heron, 8) Falcon. The following customs prevail in each clan:

1. The clan chooses its sachem (elder for peacetime) and chief (military leader). The sachem had to be elected from among the clan itself, and his position was inherited within the clan, since upon release it had to be immediately replaced again; the military leader could be chosen not from members of the clan, and at times there might not be one at all. The son of the previous sachem was never elected sachem, since maternal right prevailed among the Iroquois, and the son, therefore, belonged to a different clan, but the brother of the previous sachem or the son of his sister was often elected. Everyone took part in the elections - men and women. But the election was subject to approval by the other seven clans, and only after that the chosen one was solemnly inducted into office, and moreover, by the general council of the entire Iroquois union.

2. . The clan, at its discretion, removes the sachem and military leader. This is again decided jointly by men and women. The displaced officials then become, like others, simple soldiers, private individuals. However, the tribal council can also remove sachems, even against the will of the clan.

3. . None of the clan members can marry within the clan. This is the basic rule of the clan, the connection that holds it together, this is the negative expression of that very definite blood relationship by virtue of which the individuals united by it only become a clan. With the discovery of a clan based on consanguinity and the consequent impossibility of marriage between its members, this nonsense dissipated by itself. Of course, at the stage of development at which we find the Iroquois, the prohibition of marriage within the clan is inviolably observed.

4. The property of the deceased passed to the remaining members of the clan; it had to remain within the clan. Due to the insignificance of the items that the Iroquois could leave behind, his inheritance was divided among his closest relatives; in the case of the death of a man - his siblings and mother's brother, in the case of the death of a woman - her children and siblings, but not brothers. For the same reason, husband and wife could not inherit from each other, nor could children inherit from their father.

5. Members of the clan were obliged to provide each other with assistance, protection, and especially assistance in taking revenge for damage caused by others. In protecting his safety, an individual relied on the protection of his family and could count on it; whoever harmed him did harm to the whole family.

6. A clan has certain names or groups of names, which only he alone can use in the entire tribe, so that the name of an individual also indicates to which clan he belongs. Family rights are inextricably linked with a family name.

7. . The clan can adopt outsiders and in this way accept them as members of the entire tribe. Prisoners of war who were not killed thus became, by virtue of adoption into one of the clans, members of the Seneca tribe and thereby acquired all the rights of the clan and tribe. Adoption took place at the proposal of individual members of the clan: at the proposal of men who accepted a stranger as a brother or sister, or at the proposal of women who accepted him as their child; To approve such an adoption, a solemn adoption into the family was necessary. Often individual clans, weakened numerically due to exceptional circumstances, were thus again strengthened quantitatively through the mass adoption of members of another clan, with the consent of the latter.

8. . It is difficult to establish the presence of special religious festivals among Indian clans; but the religious ceremonies of the Indians are more or less connected with the race

9. . The clan has a common burial place. Among the Iroquois of New York State, pressed on all sides by whites, it has now disappeared, but it formerly existed. Among other Indians it is still preserved, such as, for example, among the Tuscaroras, who are closely related to the Iroquois, who, despite the fact that they are Christians, have a special row in the cemetery for each clan, so that the mother is buried in the same row with the children, but not the father.

10. . The clan has a council - a democratic meeting of all adult members of the clan, men and women, who have equal voting rights. This council elected and removed sachems and military leaders, as well as the rest of the “guardians of the faith”; he passed decisions on ransom (wergeld) or blood feud for killed members of the clan; he accepted outsiders into the clan. In a word, he was the supreme power in the family

The functions of the phratry among the Iroquois are partly social, partly religious. 1) In a ball game, phratries act against each other; each nominates its own best players, the rest follow the game, arranged in phratries, and bet with each other, betting on the victory of their players. - 2) In the tribal council, the sachems and military chiefs of each phratry sit together, one group against the other, each speaker speaking, addressing the representatives of each phratry as a special corporation. - 3) If a murder occurred in a tribe, and the killer and the murdered did not belong to the same phratry, then the victim clan often appealed to its fraternal clans; They then convened a council of the phratry and addressed the other phratry as a whole, so that it, in turn, would assemble its own council to settle the matter. Here the phratry thus again appears as the original gens - and with greater chances of success than the weaker separate gens descended from it. - 4) In the event of the death of prominent persons, the opposite phratry took care of the funeral and funeral celebrations, while members of the phratry of the deceased participated in the funeral as relatives of the deceased. When a sachem died, the opposing phratry notified the allied Iroquois council of the vacancy of the position. - 5) During the election of the sachem, the council of the phratry also appeared on the stage. The approval of the choice by the fraternal clans was taken for granted, but the clans of another phratry could raise objections. In this case, the council of this phratry met; if he considered the objections correct, the election was declared invalid. - 6) Previously, the Iroquois had special religious mysteries, called white medicine-lodges. (*61) These mysteries among the Seneca tribe were organized by two religious brotherhoods that had special rules initiation of new members; for each of both phratries there was one such brotherhood. - 7) If, as is almost certain, the four lineages (tribes) that inhabited the four quarters of Tlaxcala at the time of the conquest were four phratries, then this proves that both phratries among the Greeks and similar clan alliances among the Germans also had military significance units; these four lineages went into battle, each as a special detachment in its own uniform and with its own banner, under the command of its own leader.

What characterizes a particular Indian tribe in America?

1. Own territory and given name. Each tribe owned, in addition to the place of its actual settlement, a significant area for hunting and fishing.

2. . A special dialect peculiar only to this tribe. In reality, tribe and dialect are essentially the same; the formation of tribes and dialects through division occurred in America quite recently and has hardly stopped completely even now.

3. The right to solemnly inaugurate sachems and military leaders elected by clans.

4. . The right to remove them, even against the wishes of their family. Since these sachems and military chiefs are members of the tribal council, these rights of the tribe in relation to them are self-explanatory.

5. Are common religious ideas(mythology) and cult rituals.

6. . Tribal council to discuss common affairs. It consisted of all the sachems and military leaders of the individual families, their true representatives, because they could be removed at any time; he sat in public, surrounded by other members of the tribe, who had the right to enter into discussion and express their opinions; the decision was made by the council.

7. . Among some tribes we find a supreme leader, whose powers, however, are very limited. This is one of the sachems who, in cases requiring immediate action, must take temporary measures until the council can meet and make a final decision

Thus, at the latest at the beginning of the 15th century, a formalized “eternal union” took shape - a confederation, which, realizing the strength it had acquired, immediately acquired an offensive character and, during the period of its greatest power, around 1675, conquered the significant areas surrounding it, partly driving out partially imposing tribute local residents. The Iroquois Union represents the most developed public organization, which was only created by the Indians who had not crossed the lowest stage of barbarism. The main features of the union were as follows:

1. The eternal union of five tribes related by blood on the basis of complete equality and independence in all internal affairs tribe. This blood relationship constituted the true basis of the union.

2. . The body of the union was the union council, consisting of 50 sachems, equal in position and authority, this council made final decisions on all matters of the union.

3. . Places for these 50 sachems, as holders of new positions specially established for the purposes of the union, were distributed among the tribes and clans during its creation.

4. . These allied sachems were also sachems of their tribes and had the right to participate and vote in the tribal council.

5. All resolutions of the Union Council had to be adopted unanimously.

7 The Union Council could be convened by each of the councils of the five tribes, but could not assemble on its own initiative.

8. The meetings took place in the presence of the assembled people, each Iroquois could take the floor, but only the council made decisions.

9. There was no single head in the union, no person heading the executive branch.

10 But the union had two highest military leaders with equal powers and equal power

That was the one social order, under which the Iroquois lived for over four hundred years and are still living. The state presupposes a special public power, separated from the totality of its permanent members.

this organization was doomed to destruction. She did not go further than the tribe; the formation of a union of tribes already means the beginning of her destruction, as we will see later and as we have already seen in the examples of the Iroquois attempts to enslave other tribes. Everything that was outside the tribe was outside the law. In the absence of a fully concluded peace treaty, war reigned between the tribes, and this war was waged with that cruelty that distinguishes man from other animals and which was only later somewhat mitigated under the influence of material interests. The clan system, which was in full bloom, as we observed it in America, presupposed extremely undeveloped production, therefore, an extremely sparse population over a vast area, hence the almost complete subordination of man to a hostile and incomprehensible enemy. surrounding nature, which is reflected in childishly naive religious ideas. The tribe remained a boundary for a person both in relation to a foreigner and in relation to himself: the tribe, clan and their institutions were sacred and inviolable, they were that supreme power given by nature, to which the individual remained unconditionally subordinate in his feelings, thoughts and actions. No matter how impressive the people of this era look in our eyes, they are indistinguishable from each other; they have not yet broken away, as Marx put it, from the umbilical cord of the primitive community. The power of this primitive community had to be broken, and it was broken. But she was broken under influences that directly appear to us as a decline, a fall from grace in comparison with the high moral level of the old tribal society. The basest motives - vulgar greed, crude passion for pleasure, dirty stinginess, selfish desire to plunder the common property - are the successors of the new, civilized, class society; the most vile means - theft, violence, deceit, treason - undermine the old classless tribal society and lead to its destruction. And the new society itself, throughout the two and a half thousand years of its existence, always presented only a picture of the development of an insignificant minority at the expense of the exploited and oppressed vast majority, and it remains so now to an even greater extent than ever before.

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The functions of the phratry among the Iroquois are partly social, partly religious. 1) In a ball game, phratries act against each other; each nominates its best players, the rest follow the game, arranged in phratries, and wager with each other, betting on the victory of their players. - 2) In the tribal council, the sachems and military leaders of each phratry sit together, one group against another, each the speaker speaks, addressing the representatives of each phratry as a special corporation. - 3) If a murder occurred in a tribe, and the killer and the murdered did not belong to the same phratry, then the victim clan often appealed to its fraternal clans; They then convened a council of the phratry and addressed the other phratry as a whole, so that it, in turn, would assemble its own council to settle the matter. Here the phratry thus again appears as the original gens - and with greater chances of success than the weaker separate gens descended from it. - 4) In the event of the death of prominent persons, the opposite phratry took care of the funeral and funeral celebrations, while members of the phratry of the deceased participated in the funeral as relatives of the deceased. When a sachem died, the opposing phratri notified the allied Iroquois council of the vacancy of the position. - 5) During the election of the sachem, the council of the phratry also appeared on the stage. The approval of the choice by the fraternal clans was taken for granted, but the clans of another phratry could raise objections. In this case, the council of this phratry met; if he considered the objections correct, the election was declared invalid. - 6) Previously, the Iroquois had special religious mysteries, called white medicine-lodges [witchcraft meetings. Ed.]. These mysteries among the Seneca tribe were organized by two religious brotherhoods, which had special rules for the initiation of new members; for each of both phratries there was one such brotherhood. - 7) If, as is almost certain, the four lineages (tribes) inhabiting the four quarters of Tlaxcala at the time of the conquest of 159 were four phratries, then this proves that both phratries among the Greeks and similar clan alliances among the Germans also had significance military units; these four lineages went into battle, each as a special detachment in its own uniform and with its own banner, under the command of its own leader.

Just as several clans form a phratry, so several phratries, if we take the classical form, form a tribe; in some cases, significantly weakened tribes lack the middle link - the phratry. What characterizes a particular Indian tribe in America?

1. Own territory and own name. Each tribe owned, in addition to the place of its actual settlement, a significant area for hunting and fishing. Beyond this area lay a vast no-man's land, extending all the way to the lands of the nearest tribe; among tribes with related languages this stripe was narrower: among tribes not related to each other in language, it was wider. This strip is the same as the border forest of the Germans, an uninhabited area that Caesar's Suevi created around their territory; this is the same as isarnholt (in Danish Jarnved, limes Danicus) between the Danes and the Germans, the Saxon forest and branibor (in Slavic - “protective forest”), from which Brandenburg took its name, between the Germans and the Slavs. The area separated by such indefinite boundaries constituted the common land of the tribe, was recognized as such by neighboring tribes, and the tribe itself defended it from encroachment. In practice, the uncertainty of boundaries for the most part proved inconvenient only when the population grew greatly. - The names of the tribes, apparently, for the most part arose by chance rather than being chosen deliberately; over time, it often happened that a tribe received from neighboring tribes a name different from the one by which it called itself itself, just as the Germans were given their first historical common name “Germans” by the Celts.

Next important discovery becomes the tribal system and its influence on development human society. The gens is an institution common to all peoples, right up to their entry into the era of civilization and even later (as far as can be judged on the basis of the sources now available to us). The proof of this immediately clarified the most difficult sections of ancient Greek and Roman history and at the same time gave us an unexpected interpretation of the main features of the social system primitive era before the emergence of the state.

The composition of the genus in its original form is as follows. A gens consists of all persons who, through a punalual marriage and according to the inevitably prevailing ideas during this marriage, form the recognized offspring of one specific ancestress, the founder of the gens. Since in this form of family the father cannot be established with certainty, only the female line is recognized. Since brothers cannot marry their sisters, but only women of a different origin, then, by virtue of maternal right, children born to them by these foreign women find themselves outside this clan. Thus, only the offspring of the daughters of each generation remain within the clan union; the offspring of sons passes into the clans of their mothers. What does this consanguineous group become after it is constituted as a special group in relation to other similar groups within the tribe:

As the classical form of this original gens, Morgan takes the gens from the Iroquois, in particular from the Seneca tribe. In this tribe there are eight genera, bearing the names of animals: 1) Wolf, 2) Bear, 3) Turtle, 4) Beaver, 5) Deer, 6) Sandpiper, 7) Heron, 8) Falcon. The following customs prevail in each clan:

1. The clan chooses its sachem (elder for peacetime) and chief (military leader). The sachem had to be elected from among the clan itself, and his position was inherited within the clan, since upon release it had to be immediately replaced again; the military leader could be chosen not from members of the clan, and at times there might not be one at all. The son of the previous sachem was never elected sachem, since maternal right prevailed among the Iroquois, and the son, therefore, belonged to a different clan, but the brother of the previous sachem or the son of his sister was often elected. Everyone took part in the elections - men and women. But the election was subject to approval by the other seven clans, and only after that the chosen one was solemnly inducted into office, and moreover, by the general council of the entire Iroquois union. The significance of this act will be seen from what follows. The power of the sachem within the clan was paternal, of a purely moral order; he had no means of coercion. At the same time, he was an ex officio member of the council of the Seneca tribe, as well as the general council of the Iroquois union. A military leader could only order anything during military campaigns.
2. The clan, at its discretion, removes the sachem and military leader. This is again decided jointly by men and women. The displaced officials then become, like others, simple soldiers, private individuals. However, the tribal council can also remove sachems, even against the will of the clan.
3. None of the members of the clan can marry within the clan. This is the basic rule of the clan, the connection that holds it together, this is a negative expression of that very definite blood relationship, by virtue of which the individuals united by it only become a clan. This simple fact reveals the essence of the genus. Of course, at the stage of development at which we find the Iroquois, the prohibition of marriage within the clan is inviolably observed.
4. The property of the deceased passed to the remaining members of the clan; it had to remain within the clan. Due to the insignificance of the items that the Iroquois could leave behind, his inheritance was divided among his closest relatives; in the case of the death of a man - his siblings and mother's brother, in the case of the death of a woman - her children and siblings, but not brothers. For the same reason, husband and wife could not inherit from each other, nor could children inherit from their father.
5. Members of the clan were obliged to provide each other with assistance, protection, and especially assistance in taking revenge for damage caused by strangers. In protecting his safety, an individual relied on the protection of his family and could count on it; whoever harmed him did harm to the whole family. From here, from the blood ties of the family, arose the duty of blood feud, which was certainly recognized by the Iroquois. If a member of a clan was killed by someone from someone else’s clan, the entire clan of the murdered man was obliged to respond with blood feud. At first an attempt was made at reconciliation; the council of the murderer's clan met and made a proposal to the council of the murdered clan to end the matter peacefully, most often expressing regret and offering significant gifts. If the proposal was accepted, then the matter was considered settled. Otherwise, the injured clan appointed one of several avengers who were obliged to track down and kill the killer. If this was done, the family of the murdered had no right to complain, the matter was considered over.
6. A clan has certain names or groups of names, which only he alone can use in the entire tribe, so that the name of an individual also indicates to which clan he belongs. Family rights are inextricably linked with a family name.
7. The clan can adopt outsiders and in this way accept them as members of the entire tribe. Prisoners of war who were not killed thus became, by virtue of adoption into one of the clans, members of the Seneca tribe and thereby acquired all the rights of the clan and tribe. Among the Iroquois, ceremonial adoption into the clan took place at a public meeting of the tribal council, which actually turned this celebration into a religious ceremony.
8. It is difficult to establish the presence of special religious festivals among Indian clans; but the religious ceremonies of the Indians are more or less related to the race. During the six annual religious festivals of the Iroquois, sachems and military leaders of individual clans, by virtue of their position, were ranked among the “guardians of the faith” and performed priestly functions.
9. The clan has a common burial place.
10. The clan has a council - a democratic meeting of all adult members of the clan, men and women, who have equal voting rights. This council elected and removed sachems and military leaders, as well as the rest of the “guardians of the faith”; he passed decisions on ransom (wergeld) or blood feud for killed members of the clan; he accepted outsiders into the clan. In a word, he was the supreme authority in the family.

These are the functions of a typical Indian clan.

All its members are free people, obliged to protect each other's freedom, they have equal personal rights - neither sachems nor military leaders claim any advantages, they form a brotherhood bound by blood ties. Liberty, equality, fraternity, although this was never formulated, were the basic principles of the clan, and the clan, in turn, was the unit of the whole social system, the basis of organized Indian society. This explains the inflexible sense of independence and personal dignity that everyone recognizes in the Indians.

By the time of the discovery of America, Indians throughout North America were organized into childbirth on the basis of maternal law. Only among a few tribes, such as the Dakota, childbirth fell into decline, and among some others, such as the Ojibwe and Omaha, they were organized on the basis of patrilineal right.

Among many Indian tribes, numbering more than five or six clans, we find special groups uniting three, four or more clans, called phratries (brotherhoods) from the Greek term denoting the corresponding Greek concept.

Just as several clans form a phratry, so several phratries, if we take the classical form, form a tribe. The main characteristics of an individual Indian tribe in America the following serve:

1. Own territory and own name.
2. A special dialect peculiar only to this tribe.
3. The right to solemnly inaugurate sachems and military leaders elected by the clans.
4. The right to remove them, even against the wishes of their family. Since these sachems and military chiefs are members of the tribal council, these rights of the tribe in relation to them are self-explanatory. Where a union of tribes has been formed and all the tribes included in it are represented in the union council, these rights pass to the latter.
5. General religious ideas (mythology) and religious rituals.
6. Tribal council to discuss common affairs. It consisted of all the sachems and military leaders of the individual families, their true representatives, because they could be removed at any time; he sat in public, surrounded by other members of the tribe, who had the right to enter into discussion and express their opinions; the decision was made by the council. As a rule, everyone present could, if they wished, speak, and women could also present their views through a speaker of their choice. Among the Iroquois, unanimity was required for a final decision. The tribal council was responsible, in particular, for regulating relations with other tribes; he received and sent embassies, declared war and made peace. If it came to war, it was mostly fought by volunteers. In principle, each tribe was considered to be at war with every other tribe with which it had not concluded a peace treaty in its entirety. Military actions against such enemies were mostly organized by individual outstanding warriors; they staged a war dance, and everyone who took part in it thereby declared their joining the campaign. The detachment immediately organized and marched. Defense of tribal territory from attack was also largely accomplished by calling up volunteers. The departure and return from a campaign of such detachments always served as a reason for public celebrations. The consent of the tribal council for such trips was not required, it was not asked for and was not given. Such military detachments were rarely numerous; the largest military expeditions of the Indians, even over long distances, were carried out by insignificant fighting forces. If several such detachments were united for some large enterprise, each of them was subordinate only to its own leader; the consistency of the campaign plan was, to one degree or another, ensured by the advice of these leaders.
7. Among some tribes we find a supreme leader, whose powers, however, are very small. This is one of the sachems who, in cases requiring immediate action, must take temporary measures until the council can meet and make a final decision. Here we have before us a barely outlined, but for the most part not further developed, prototype of an official with executive branch; such an official rather arose, as we shall see, in most cases, if not everywhere, as a result of the development of the power of the supreme military commander.

The vast majority of American Indians did not go further than uniting into a tribe. Their few tribes, separated from each other by vast border strips, weakened by eternal wars, occupied a huge space with a small number of people. Alliances between related tribes were concluded here and there in case of temporary necessity and disintegrated with its disappearance. However, in certain localities, initially related, but subsequently disunited tribes again rallied into permanent alliances, thus taking the first step towards the formation of nations. In the United States we find the most developed form of such an alliance among the Iroquois. Coming from their settlement west of the Mississippi, where they probably formed a branch of the large Da Kota kin group, they settled after long wanderings in the present state of New York, dividing into the five tribes of the Seneca, Cayuga, Onondaga, Oneida and Mohawk. They subsisted on fishing, hunting and primitive gardening, and lived in villages, mostly protected by palisades.

Their number never exceeded 20,000 people, all five tribes had several common clans, they spoke very related dialects of the same language and inhabited a continuous territory, which was divided between the five tribes. Since this territory had recently been conquered by them, the joint actions of these tribes against the tribes displaced by them became a natural phenomenon that became a custom. And thus, at the latest at the beginning of the 15th century, a formalized “eternal union” took shape - a confederation, which, realizing the strength it had acquired, immediately acquired an offensive character and, during the period of its greatest power, around 1675, conquered the significant areas surrounding it, partly driving out , partly imposing tribute on local residents. The Iroquois Union represents the most developed social organization that the Indians have ever created who have not crossed the lowest stage of barbarism (hence, excluding the Mexicans, New Mexicans and Peruvians).

The main features of the union were:

1. The eternal union of five tribes related by blood on the basis of complete equality and independence in all internal affairs of the tribe. This blood relationship constituted the true basis of the union. Of the five tribes, three were called paternal and were brothers among themselves; the other two were called filial and were also fraternal tribes among themselves. Three clans - the oldest - were still represented by living members in all five tribes, three other clans - in three tribes, members of each of these clans were all considered brothers in all five tribes. Mutual language, which had differences only in dialects, was an expression and proof of a common origin.
2. The body of the union was the union council, consisting of 50 sachems, equal in position and authority, this council made final decisions on all matters of the union.
3. Places for these 50 sachems, as holders of new positions specially established for the purposes of the union, were, at its creation, distributed among the tribes and clans. When a position was vacated, the corresponding clan again filled it through elections; he could also remove his sachem at any time, but the right of installation belonged to the union council.
4. These allied sachems were also sachems in their tribes and had the right to participate and vote in the tribal council.
5. All resolutions of the Union Council had to be adopted unanimously.
6. Voting was carried out by tribe, so that in each tribe, and within each tribe, all members of the council had to vote unanimously for the decision to be valid.
7. The Union Council could be convened by each of the councils of the five tribes, but could not assemble on its own initiative.
8. The meetings took place in the presence of the assembled people, each Iroquois could take the floor, but only the council made decisions.
9. There was no single head in the union, no person in charge of the executive branch.
10. But the union had two highest military leaders with equal powers and equal power (two “kings” of the Spartans, two consuls in Rome).

Such was the social system under which the Iroquois lived for over four hundred years.

So, since the main social unit is the clan, from it with almost insurmountable necessity the entire system of clans, phratries and tribe develops. All three groups represent varying degrees of consanguinity, each of them being self-contained and managing its own affairs, but also serving as a complement to the other. The range of affairs subject to their management covers the entire totality of social affairs of a person standing at the lowest level of barbarism. Therefore, when we encounter a clan among any people as the main social unit, we will have to look for a tribal organization similar to the one described here, and where there are enough sources, like the Greeks and Romans, we will certainly find it.

In a ball game, phratries play against each other; each nominates its best players, the rest follow the game, arranged in phratries, and bet with each other, betting on the victory of their players.
In the tribal council, the sachems and military chiefs of each phratry sit together, one group against the other, each speaker speaking, addressing the representatives of each phratry as a special corporation.
If a murder occurred in a tribe, and the killer and the murdered did not belong to the same phratry, then the victim clan often appealed to its fraternal clans; They then convened a council of the phratry and addressed the other phratry as a whole, so that it, in turn, would assemble its own council to settle the matter.
In the event of the death of prominent persons, the opposite phratry took care of the funeral and funeral celebrations, while members of the phratry of the deceased participated in the funeral as relatives of the deceased. When a sachem died, the opposing phratry notified the allied Iroquois council of the vacancy of the position.
Coordination of candidates for sachems elected by fraternal clans.
The organization of religious mysteries by a religious brotherhood included in the phratry
The phratria went into battle as a special detachment in their own uniform and with their own banner, under the command of their own
leader.
Compiled from: Engels F. Origin of the Family, private property and states // Marx K., Engels F. Soch. 2nd ed. T. 21. S.
The union of several clans of one tribe constituted a phratry (from the Greek phratria - brotherhood). Phratries arose either by splitting one genus into several daughter genera, or by combining several independent childbirth. Accordingly, tribes or more amorphous ethnocultural formations were divided into two (the most typical form of dual organization) or several phratries. Often the phratry was characterized by exogamy, unilinearity, its own name, and certain spiritual and ritual functions. In many cases, their members traced their origins back to a common (usually mythical or legendary) ancestor.

Engels F. Origin of the family, private property and state. Friedrich Engels. Origin of family, private property and

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