Musical fantasy. Fantasy Musical fantasy

FANTASY AS GENRE OF INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC

Olga Elkan

candidate of culturology,assistant professor of theCrimean University of Culture, Arts, and Tourism,

Russia, Simferopol

ANNOTATION

The purpose of the article is to trace the history of the emergence and evolution of fantasy, ancient genre instrumental music that arose in Western European musical culture and found in t analysis and generalization scientific sources. Fantasy was interesting to composers in those historical periods when the genre’s heyday in musical art occurred in the Baroque era, and the next, brightest, in Romanticism. In the era of classicism, the fantasy genre somewhat loses its position, but acquires new individual stylistic characteristics: it is included in cycles, fused with other genres and forms. Currently, the genre is gaining popularity in new styles - in jazz music, original guitar repertoire.

ABSTRACT

The purpose of the article is to trace the history of the origin and evolution of fantasy, an ancient genre of instrumental music, which arose in Western European musical culture and met in the works of composers of different eras and styles. Research methods – analysis and generalization of scientific sources. Fantasy was interesting to composers in those historical periods when improvisation and emotionality prevailed in musical art. The first heyday of the genre falls on the Baroque era, and the next, the most striking – on Romanticism. In the classical era the genre of fantasy partially lost it’s positions, but gained a new individual-stylistic features being included in the cycles, fused with other genres and forms. Currently, the genre is gaining popularity with new styles in jazz music, original guitar repertoire.

Keywords: instrumental music; genre; fantasy.

Keywords: instrumental music; genre; fantasy.

Fantasy is one of the oldest genres of instrumental music, which arose in Western European musical culture and is found in the works of composers of different eras and styles. Yu. Chernyavskaya calls fantasy one of the most mysterious genres in music, which has more than four hundred years of history, but does not have clear genre boundaries. In various historical periods, V. Medushevsky mentions that Ovid associated the concept of “fantasy” with the name of the god of sleep, Fantasia; for Plato, fantasy is an obsession, inspiration; in the Middle Ages, fantasy was identified with sinful “dreaming,” and in the Renaissance, the genre of musical fantasy itself arose . Thus, on this moment There are discrepancies in the understanding of the term “fantasy”.

T. Kyureghyan offers several definitions of this musical concept: firstly, “fantasy (from the Greek φαντασία - imagination) is a genre of instrumental (occasionally vocal) music, personality traits which are expressed in deviations from the norms of construction usual for their time, less often - in an unusual image. In this understanding this term most common. Secondly, the word “fantasy” can be “an auxiliary definition indicating some freedom of interpretation of various fantasy genres” by F. Chopin). Thirdly, the term “fantasy” is often used to describe “common in the 19th-20th centuries. genre instrumental or orchestral music, based on the free use of themes borrowed from own compositions or works by other composers, as well as from folklore” (for example, “Serbian Fantasy” by N. Rimsky-Korsakov).

IN XVI-XVIII centuries“fantasies” were works for keyboard instruments(clavier, organ), which were distinguished by significant freedom of form, lack of connection with any traditional type of composition, emphasized by the improvisational nature of the presentation. Musicologists date the emergence of fantasy to the beginning of the 16th century. One of its sources was instrumental improvisation. Most of early fantasies are intended for plucked instruments: numerous fantasies for the lute and vihuela were created in Italy, Spain, Germany, France, and England. They were usually distinguished by contrapuntal or imitative presentation. These fantasies have not yet been clearly defined as a genre, since they were close to capriccio, toccata, canzone, ricercar, as a result of which it is not always even possible to determine why this or that play is called a fantasy.

The flowering of fantasy in the 17th century was associated with organ music. Fantastic and temperamental improvisation. Often the fantasy embodies the masterful polyphonic technique of composers of that time, for example, “Chromatic Fantasy” by J. Sweelinck, which combines the features of fugue, ricercar and polyphonic variations. In this era, fantasies are composed in variation forms (I. Froberger), rondo (I. Krieger), or consist of several contrasting sections (J. Cooper, W. Bird). In the 17th century, fantasies became very popular in England, for example, G. Purcell refers to them (“Fantasy for One Sound”). Virginalist composers J. Bull, W. Bird, A. Gibbons and others bring fantasy closer to the traditional English form called “ground” (). In England there are also examples of programmatic and non-programmatic fantasy suites (K. Simpson, J. Cooper, J. Jenkins, etc.).

During the time of J. S. Bach, fantasy was assigned a certain freedom of development and alternation of its sections, an improvisational element became mandatory, and the content was more often directed towards Bach’s voicing and clavier music. Fantasies are distinguished by the predominance of spontaneous play and imagination over a thoughtful compositional plan. Often his fantasy is combined into a cycle with a fugue (like a toccata or prelude) and serves to prepare and shade the next piece, or is used as an introductory part to a suite or partita. Fantasy usually introduces the listener into the tonal, emotional, figurative, thematic sphere of the fugue, and in other cases, on the contrary, it contrasts and artistically highlights its qualities. I. Bach's fantasies are close to the toccata genre, however, as a rule, they do not include developed polyphonic structures. Greatest creation Bach in this genre is the famous “Chromatic Fantasy and Fugue” in D minor.

As Yu. Chernyavskaya notes, in the post-Bach era, a lyrical and psychological coloring of the content and close interaction with other genres developed. The fantasy genre is always based on the proclamation of freedom of creative design, non-subordination to any pre-established rules. This freedom is expressed in unexpected contrasts, the presence of open individual parts, a change in themes and images is avoided, and at the same time it must demonstrate the wealth of the composer’s creative imagination. V. Medushevsky defines the fantasy genre as “the art of combining images.”

Degree creative freedom can range from complete improvisation (in ancient organ and clavier fantasies) to original, but clearly thought out forms. The concepts of improvisation and spontaneity are closely related to the principle of freedom in the fantasy genre. But this does not mean that fantasy was always improvised by the composer in the course of playing music: it could be, and thought connects the genre of fantasy with improvisation, which “was considered at that time something like a sacrament, a sign of a true divine gift. The performer is primarily characterized by uniqueness. Creative insight of the 18th-19th centuries. we have the opportunity to observe numerous editions of collections of various preludes, cadenzas, capriccios, which were intended for students and amateurs who do not master the art of improvisation.”

In any case, in all musical and historical eras, an emphasis on freedom of form and deviation from established canons and norms is important for this genre. Different eras interpreted “freedom” in their own way in the fantasy genre. If in the first examples of the 16th century it was expressed in independence from the cantus firmus (the unchanging main voice in a strict polyphonic technique), then in the early Baroque era fantasy was “free” from other genres - dance, song, spiritual. By the end of the Baroque century, the freedom of fantasy is manifested in the fact that it was almost always built as an alternation of contrasting, sharply various types texture, character, manner of playing, and its form was improvisational, whimsical and never depended on the verbal text. That is, the exclusively instrumental nature of the genre was established. Fantasia with its improvisational solo instrument, and most of the fantasies are solo instrumental works. In addition, it was during this period that the tradition of writing fantasies was laid for that instrument, which the composer mastered perfectly and could masterfully demonstrate all its capabilities. Therefore one more important feature The genre of fantasy is its virtuosity (virtuosity is understood as the highest degree of mastery of performing skills).

In the era gallant style(beginning and middle of the 18th century) the genre of fantasy is practically not interesting to composers; it is being replaced by more clear and filigree forms. A few examples include “Three Dozen Fantasies for Harpsichord” by G. Telemann and fantasies by W. F. Bach. They are characterized by complete metrical freedom, absence of beats, frequent changes of tempo, variable harmony and tonal plan.

During the period of Classicism in Western European music, fantasies continued to develop, although in general it can be noted that composers do not often turn to this genre. Yu. Chernyavskaya explains this by the desire for clarity and rigor of the canon in this era. A fantasy of character, but at the same time it was introduced into larger classical cycles. J. Haydn introduced fantasy into the quartet (Op. 76, No. 6, 2nd movement). Lyrical fantasies V. Mozart indicate a romantic interpretation of the genre; they are close to the early classical style of F. E. Bach. V. Mozart introduces more developed melodic sections into fantasy, which serve as the main theme-images, and his traditional improvisational sections have an introductory or connecting character. L. Beethoven combined the principles of sonata construction and the subtitle “Sonata quasi una Fantasia” (also in Sonata No. 13). He introduced the idea of ​​symphonic development and virtuoso music into this genre.

It is interesting to note that during the Classical period the form of fantasy retreated somewhat from improvisation and often resembled classical forms. For example, J. Haydn's Fantasy in C major No. 4 resembles a rondo sonata with development and mirror reprise. W. Mozart's fantasy in c-moll op.11 is based on the alternation of stable and unstable sections and has features of a concentric shape. L. Beethoven's Fantasia op.80 is written in variation form. It was united in the era of Classicism, but almost never had the features of any classical form - this is a cadence of a soloist in an instrumental concert. K. Czerny was the first to note the similarity of these two forms - fantasy and cadence, although in essence the cadence does not have the status of a full-fledged independent form, since it cannot be performed separately from the work for which it was written. But virtuosity, improvisation and pianistic skill really bring the two forms closer together.

IN romantic period stories musical art fantasy is experiencing a genuine flowering, not a single major composer ignores it. V. Medushevsky writes that fantasy “spreads into other genres” - that is, the very principle of freedom, improvisation, and fantasy penetrates all forms and genres of music. Early Romanticism essentially continued L. Beethoven’s idea of ​​a “fantasy sonata,” which combines the features of the sonata form with freedom of presentation. In addition, it was at this time that interest in fantasies of the paraphrase type - that is, written on popular themes from operas - increased. The most famous composer who wrote such fantasies is F. Liszt, thanks to whom this genre became not just a banal arrangement of a vocal theme for piano, but began to contain serious thematic transformations and dramatic conflicts (for example, the fantasy “Don Giovanni” on themes by W. Mozart). Composers XIX centuries have enriched fantasy with many qualities of romantic thinking, deepening the programmatic features that had previously appeared in this genre. Virtuosity comes to the fore as an obligatory quality of fantasy, largely because Romanticism is the era of virtuoso soloists.

In the 19th century, one can distinguish a separate branch in the development of the fantasy genre - in Russian music, which by this time had formed its own professional school of composition. Domestic composers take fantasy beyond the instrumental sphere. In vocal music, M. Glinka writes several fantasies - these are the romances “Venice Night”, “Night View”. In addition, in the work of Russian composers there has developed new variety genre - symphonic fantasy, in which national sources of thematicism and fantastic images often predominate: S. Rachmaninov wrote the fantasy “Cliff”, A. Glazunov - fantasies “Forest” and “Sea”, A. Dargomyzhsky - the fantasy “Baba Yaga”, M Mussorgsky - the famous “Night on Bald Mountain”. Lyrical-dramatic symphonic fantasies belong to P. Tchaikovsky: “The Tempest”, “Francesca da Rimini”, “Romeo and Juliet”.

In the late romantic period, interest in fantasy in Western European music began to fade, and in the culture of the first half of the twentieth century, this genre was rarely found at all. The music of the 20th century is distinguished by its particular rationality, complexity, and depth of concepts, so the spontaneity and improvisation of fantasy has become irrelevant. Pieces with this name were usually written by composers working in a polyphonic style or dedicating their works to the great masters of the Baroque era. For example, polyphonist M. Reger wrote “Choral Fantasies” for organ, P. Hindemith – “Contrapuntal Fantasy” for piano, F. Fortner – Fantasia on Bach’s monogram theme BACH.

By the end of the twentieth century, the genre began to gain popularity again, especially in new styles - for example, in jazz music, original guitar repertoire, etc. However, the name “fantasy” itself has become more vague, it can belong to completely different works, since in modern music there is complete freedom expressive means and compositional forms - which means that the definition of fantasy as a violation of traditional norms has lost its meaning. Yu. Chernyavskaya connects this “with the tendency to abandon a large number of traditional musical terms and genre designations. It is important to take into account that the relationship between the concepts of the canon and its violations (or the principle of fantasy) is ambiguous in the 20th century. Thus, systematic deviation from the canon in many areas of art of the century becomes the “new canon”... Fantasy as an idea continues to exist in various types of art of the 20th century. This idea was echoed in the field of fantasy, widespread in the art of the 20th and 21st centuries: cinema, literature and painting."

Bibliography:

1. Kyuregyan T.S. Fantasy / T.S. Kyureghyan // Music Encyclopedia in 6 volumes / ed. Yu.V. Keldysh. – M.: Soviet Encyclopedia, Soviet composer, 1981. – T. 5. – P. 767-771.
2. Lyakhina T.V. On some features of works on borrowed themes in the works of virtuosos of the 19th century / T.V. Lyakhina // Bulletin of St. Petersburg State University of Culture and Culture, 2014. – No. 1 (18). – pp. 133-137.
3. Medushevsky V.V. Fantasy in culture and music / V.V. Medushevsky // Music, Culture, Person / Ed. M. Muginshtein. – Sverdlovsk, 1991. – P. 44-51.
4. Chernyavskaya Yu.G. Fantasy writings of Robert Schumann on the history and theory of the fantasy genre: abstract. dis... cand. claim: 17.00.02 / Yu.G. Chernyavskaya. – M., 2017. – 24 p.

from Greek pantaoia - imagination; lat. and Italian fantasia, German Fantasie, French fantaisie, English fancy, fansy, phanancy, fantasy

1) A genre of instrumental (occasionally vocal) music, the individual features of which are expressed in deviations from the usual norms of construction for their time, less often - in the unusual figurative content of traditions. composition scheme. Ideas about F. were different in different musical historical periods. era, however, at all times the boundaries of the genre remained unclear: in the 16-17 centuries. F. closes with ricercar, toccata, in the 2nd half. 18th century - with a sonata, in the 19th century. - with a poem, etc. F. is always associated with common in given time genres and forms. At the same time, the work called F. is an unusual combination of “components” (structural, content) that are usual for a given era. The degree of distribution and freedom of the genre of music depends on the development of music. forms in a given era: periods of orderliness, in one way or another strict style(16th - early 17th centuries, Baroque art of the 1st half of the 18th century), marked by the “lush flowering” of F.; on the contrary, the loosening of established “solid” forms (romanticism) and especially the emergence of new forms (20th century) are accompanied by a reduction in the number of frescoes and an increase in their structural organization. The evolution of the genre of f. is inseparable from the development of instrumentalism as a whole: the periodization of the history of f. coincides with the general periodization of Western European. music lawsuit F. is one of the oldest genres of instruments.

music, but, unlike most early instruments. genres that have developed in connection with poetic. speech and dance. movements (canzone, suite), F. is based on the actual music. patterns.

The emergence of F. dates back to the beginning. 16th century One of its origins was improvisation. The early f. parts are intended for plucked instruments: numerous. F. for lute and vihuela were created in Italy (F. da Milano, 1547), Spain (L. Milan, 1535; M. de Fuenllana, 1554), Germany (S. Kargel), France (A. Rippe), England ( T. Morley). F. for clavier and organ were found much less frequently (F. in “Organ tablature” by X. Kotter, “Fantasia allegre” by A. Gabrieli).

They are usually distinguished by contrapuntal, often sequential imitation. presentation; these F. are so close to capriccio, toccata, tiento, canzone that it is not always possible to determine why the play is named F. (for example, the F. given below resembles ricercar).

In the 17th century F. is becoming very popular in England. G. Purcell addresses it (for example, “Fantasy for one sound”); J. Bull, W. Bird, O. Gibbons and other virginalists bring F. closer to tradition. English shape - ground (it is significant that the variant of its name - fancy - coincides with one of the names of F.). The heyday of F. in the 17th century. associated with org. music. F. by G. Frescobaldi are an example of ardent, temperamental improvisation; "Chromatic Fantasy" by the Amsterdam master J. Sweelink (combines the features of simple and complex fugue, ricercar, polyphonic variations) testifies to the emergence of monumental instrumental music. style; S. Scheidt worked in the same tradition, who called F. contrapuntal. chorale arrangements and chorale variations. The work of these organists and harpsichordists prepared the great achievements of J. S. Bach. At this time, the attitude towards F. is determined as a work of elation, excitement or drama. character with the typical freedom of alternation and development or whimsicality of changes of muses. images; improvisation becomes almost obligatory. an element that creates the impression of a direct statement, the predominance of a spontaneous play of imagination over a deliberate compositional plan. In Bach's organ and keyboard works, F. is the most pathetic and most romantic. genre. F. in Bach (as in D. Buxtehude and G. F. Telemann, who uses the da capo principle in F.) or is combined in a cycle with a fugue, where, like a toccata or prelude, it serves to prepare and shade the next piece (F. and fugue for organ g-moll, BWV 542), or is used as an entry. parts in a suite (for violin and keyboard A-dur, BWV 1025), partita (for keyboard A-moll, BWV 827), or, finally, exists as an independent piece. prod. (F. for organ G major BWV 572). In Bach, the strictness of organization does not contradict the principle of free F. For example, in “Chromatic Fantasy and Fugue” the freedom of presentation is expressed in the bold combination of different genre features - org. improvisation texture, recitative and figurative treatment of the chorale. All sections are held together by the logic of the movement of keys from T to D, followed by a stop at S and a return to T (i.e., the principle of the ancient two-part form is extended to F.). A similar picture is characteristic of other fantasies of Bach; although they are often full of imitations, the main shaping force in them is harmony. Ladoharmonic. the frame of the form can be revealed through giant org. points supporting the tonics of the leading keys.

A special variety of Bach's frescoes are certain choral arrangements (for example, "Fantasia super: Komm, heiliger Geist, Herre Gott", BWV 651), the principles of development in which do not violate the traditions of the choral genre. An extremely free interpretation characterizes the improvisational, often untimed fantasies of F. E. Bach. According to his statements (in the book "Experience the right way playing the clavier", 1753-62), "a fantasy is called free when more tonalities are involved in it than in a play composed or improvised in strict meter... Free fantasy contains various harmonic passages that can be performed with both broken chords and and all kinds of different figurations... Tactless free fantasy is excellent for expressing emotions."

Confusedly lyrical. the fantasies of W. A. ​​Mozart (clavier F. d-moll, K.-V. 397) testify to the romanticism. interpretation of the genre. In the new conditions they perform their long-standing function. plays (but not for the fugue, but for the sonata: F. and sonata c minor, K.-V. 475, 457), recreate the principle of alternating homophonic and polyphonic. presentations (org. F. f-moll, K.-V. 608; diagram: A B A1 C A2 B1 A3, where B - fugue sections, C - variations). I. Haydn introduced F. into the quartet (Op. 76 No. 6, part 2). L. Beethoven cemented the union of the sonata and F. with the creation of the famous 14th sonata op. 27 No. 2 - “Sonata quasi una Fantasia” and the 13th sonata op. 27 No. 1. He brought the idea of ​​symphony to F. development, virtuoso qualities of instruments. concert, monumentality of the oratorio: in F. for piano, choir and orchestra in c-moll op. 80, as a hymn to art, a theme was heard (in the C major central part, written in the form of variations), which was later used as a “theme of joy” in the finale of the 9th symphony.

Romantics, for example. F. Schubert (F. series for fp. in 2 and 4 hands, F. for violin and fn. op. 159), F. Mendelssohn (F. for fn. op. 28), F. Liszt (org. and fn. . F.) and others, enriched F. with many typical qualities, deepening the programmatic features that had previously appeared in this genre (R. Schumann, F. for fn. C-dur op. 17). It is significant, however, that the “romantic freedom” characteristic of the forms of the 19th century concerns F. to the least extent. It uses common forms - sonata (A. N. Scriabin, F. for fn. h-moll op. 28; S. Frank, org. F. A-dur), sonata cycle (Schumann, F. for fn. C-dur op. 17). In general, for F. 19th century. characterized, on the one hand, by merging with free and mixed forms(including with poems), on the other - with rhapsodies. Mn. works that do not bear the name F., in essence, are them (S. Frank, “Prelude, Chorale and Fugue”, “Prelude, Aria and Finale”). Rus. composers introduce F. into the sphere of wok. (M. I. Glinka, “Venice Night”, “Night View”) and symphony. music: a specific pattern has developed in their work. orc. a type of genre is symphonic fantasy (S. V. Rachmaninov, “Cliff”, op. 7; A. K. Glazunov, “Forest”, op. 19, “Sea”, op. 28, etc.). They give F. something distinctly Russian. character (M. P. Mussorgsky, “Night on Bald Mountain”, the form of the cut, according to the author, is “Russian and original”), then the favorite eastern (M. A. Balakirev, eastern F. “Islamey” for fp. ), then a fantastic (A. S. Dargomyzhsky, “Baba Yaga” for orchestra) coloring; endow it with philosophically significant plots (P. I. Tchaikovsky, "The Tempest", F. for orchestra based on the drama of the same name by W. Shakespeare, op. 18; "Francesca da Rimini", F. for orchestra on the plot of the 1st song of Hell from " Divine Comedy"Dante, op. 32).

In the 20th century F. how independent. the genre is rare (M. Reger, “Choral F.” for organ; O. Respighi, F. for piano with orchestra, 1907; J. F. Malipiero, “Fantasy of Every Day” for orchestra, 1951; O. Messiaen, F. for violin and piano; F. for 6-string guitar and piano; A. Hovaness, F. from the suite “Shalimar”; . I. Peiko, "Concert F." for horn and chamber orchestra, etc.). Sometimes neoclassical tendencies appear in F. (F. Busoni, “Contrapuntal F.”; P. Hindemith, sonatas for viola and fp. - in F, 1st part, in S., 3rd part; K. Karaev, sonata for violin and piano, finale; J. Yuzeliūnas, organ concerto, 1st movement). In a number of cases, new compositions are used in F. means of the 20th century - dodecaphony (A. Schoenberg, F. for violin and piano; F. Fortner, F. on the theme “BACH” for 2 pianos, 9 solo instruments and orchestra), sonorous-aleatoric. techniques (S. M. Slonimsky, “Coloristic F.” for ph.).

In the 2nd half. 20th century One of the important genre features of f. is the creation of an individual, improvisational, spontaneous (often with a tendency to end-to-end development) forms - characteristic of music of any genre, and in this sense many newest works(for example, the 4th and 5th lines of the sonata by B. I. Tishchenko) close with F.

2) Auxiliary. definition indicating a certain freedom of interpretation of various. genres: waltz-F. (M.I. Glinka), impromptu-F., polonaise-F. (F. Chopin, op. 66.61), sonata-F. (A. N. Scriabin, op. 19), overture-F. (P. I. Tchaikovsky, “Romeo and Juliet”), F. quartet (B. Britten, “Fantasy quartet” for oboe and string trio), recitative F. (S. Frank, sonata for violin and piano, part 3), F.-burlesque (O. Messiaen), etc.

3) Common in the 19-20 centuries. genre instrumental or orc. music, based on the free use of themes borrowed from one’s own compositions or from the works of other composers, as well as from folklore (or written in folk style). Depending on the degree of creativity. processing of the themes of F. or forms a new artistic whole and then approaches paraphrase, rhapsody (numerous fantasies of Liszt, “Serbian F.” for the orchestra of Rimsky-Korsakov, “F. on the themes of Ryabinin” for f. with the orchestra of Arensky, “Cinematic F.” "on the themes of the musical farce "Bull on the Roof" for violin and orchestra by Milhaud, etc.), or is a simple "montage" of themes and passages, similar to a medley (F. on the themes of classical operettas, F. on the themes of popular songs composers, etc.).

4) Creative fantasy (German: Phantasie, Fantasie) - the ability of human consciousness to imagine (internal vision, hearing) phenomena of reality, the appearance of which is historically determined by societies. experience and activity of mankind, and to the mental creation by combining and processing of these ideas (at all levels of the psyche, including the rational and subconscious beginning) of art. images Adopted in Sov. science (psychology, aesthetics) understanding the nature of creativity. F. is based on the Marxist position about historical. and societies. conditionality of human consciousness and on Lenin’s theory of reflection. In the 20th century There are other views on the nature of creativity. F., which are reflected in the teachings of S. Freud, C. G. Jung and G. Marcuse.

Literature: 1) Kuznetsov K. A., Musical and historical portraits, M., 1937; Mazel L., Fantasia in F minor by Chopin. Experience of analysis, M., 1937, the same, in his book: Studies on Chopin, M., 1971; Berkov V. O., Chromatic fantasy by J. Sweelink. From the history of harmony, M., 1972; Miksheeva G., Symphonic fantasies of A. Dargomyzhsky, in the book: From the history of Russian and Soviet music, vol. 3, M., 1978; Protopopov V.V., Essays on the history of instrumental forms of the 16th - early 19th centuries, M., 1979.

Musical fantasy

Fantasy is a musical form that departs in its construction from the established musical forms of rondo and sonata. F.'s form is free and depends on the wishes of the composer. Nevertheless, the construction of F. must have a certain logic. Although Liszt's symphonic poems belong to the field of f., nevertheless, their musical architecture is distinguished by great harmony. F. was written by Bach (chromatic F. for piano), Liszt (Hungarian F. for piano and orchestra), Beethoven (F. for piano, choir and orchestra, op. 80), Dargomyzhsky (Chukhon F.). F. are written for orchestra and programs; in this case, the layout of F. depends on the plot. The field of F. includes improvisation, in which the form is formed impromptu.

Encyclopedic Dictionary F.A. Brockhaus and I.A. Efron. - St. Petersburg: Brockhaus-Efron. 1890-1907 .

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