Artistic culture and art of ancient Sumer. Relief in Sumerian art. Architecture of Ur III Dynasty

ART OF THE ANCIENT INTERFLIVE REGION (MESOPOTAMIA)

Mesopotamia (Arabic: El-Jezira) is a historical and geographical region in the Middle East, located in the valley of two great rivers - the Tigris and Euphrates. Modern states, including the lands of Mesopotamia - Iraq, northeastern Syria, partly Turkey and Iran. There are alternative designations for the region: Mesopotamia and Mesopotamia. Mesopotamia is the birthplace of one of the ancient civilizations in the history of mankind - Ancient Mesopotamia.

One of the most ancient cultures, along with the Egyptian one, was the culture of Mesopotamia, which lasted from the 25th to the 4th millennium. The successive states in which the Assyro-Babylonian culture took shape - Sumer, Akkad, Assyria, Babylon, Urartu, etc., contributed to the culture of world civilization.

The art of Mesopotamia is profound symbolic. Any image contains additional meaning that goes beyond the plot. Behind each character in a wall painting or sculpture there is a system of concepts: good and evil, life and death. etc.

In Mesopotamia, as in Egypt, monumental architecture played a major role. At the same time, many features distinguish the art of Mesopotamia from Egyptian art. The differences are primarily due to natural conditions. River floods forced architects to erect buildings on elevated places. The lack of stone led to construction from raw bricks. An architectural form emerged with simple cubic volumes, with vertical divisions of the wall planes - niches and projections. The Mesopotamians used bright, colored finishes.

Monuments of art of the peoples of Western Asia have survived to this day in much smaller quantities than Egyptian ones. Wars, fires, and fragility of materials contributed to their destruction.

The peoples of Mesopotamia reached high perfection in art glyptics– artistic processing of precious stones, semi-precious stones and glass. Glyptics originated in Mesopotamia approximately in the 5th millennium BC. First, stamped, then cylinder seal-amulets were used. They were covered with the finest carvings depicting animals, people, and fantastic scenes. The result was miniature reliefs with a carefully constructed composition. For the inhabitants of Mesopotamia, seals were not just a sign of ownership, but objects with magical powers. The seals were kept as talismans, given to temples, and placed in the grave of the deceased.

ART OF THE SUMERIANS (27-25 centuries BC)

27-25 centuries BC. on the territory of Egypt there were many separate tribes and nationalities that adhered to a communal and slave-owning system. Slaves appeared as a result of wars - prisoners of war were no longer killed, but were made slaves. These were city centers (with adjacent rural settlements). There were endless wars between these cities: for territory, slaves, livestock, and the right to use water canals (as transport routes).

The Sumerians became one of the most influential peoples. The Sumerians are an alien tribe of unknown origin. But up to the 3-2 millennium BC. The Sumerians remained the most influential tribes in Mesopotamia. Since by the end of the 4th millennium BC. Writing (cuneiform) has already begun to appear, we have an idea of ​​their culture and mythology. The Sumerians wrote hymns, proverbs, and sayings to their gods. In general, these written sources are similar to later Greek myths. Hero-gods fall in love, get married, lose loved ones, descend into underground kingdom and return to earth again. That is, life - death - life.

In architecture, the main types of buildings developed, in art, relief, round sculpture, and crafts (glass and ceramic processing) typical for the culture of Mesopotamia were formed.

In the beginning (4 thousand BC) Sumerian architecture was simple. Dwellings were built round or rectangular in plan, from reed stems, the tops tied together in a bundle. Reed houses were coated with clay to retain heat. Gradually, throughout the world of Mesopotamia (up to Egypt), powerful monumental architecture developed, which became the main form of art.

Architecture. Very few architectural monuments of the Sumerian era have survived. Ancient city-states, surrounded by walls and towers, were grouped around temples dedicated to the gods of the elements, fertility and heavenly bodies (“Temple of the Sun” and “Temple of the Moon”). The most significant of the buildings that have reached us (only fragments have survived) are considered White Temple And Red Palace.

Sumerian architecture was characterized by:

The buildings were built on an artificial embankment (a compacted clay platform that protected the building from flooding);

Inside the building there was an open courtyard (light well), all the rooms were located around this courtyard;

The use of color in architecture (the walls of the platform, as well as the walls of the building, were painted and decorated with mosaics).

Raised above the residential part of the city, the temple reminded residents of the indissoluble connection between Heaven and Earth. Long ramps (gently sloping platforms) led upstairs. Temples were built from raw brick, sometimes stone was used. The temples were rectangular in plan. But there was an open courtyard in the center. There were no windows - light entered the room through openings under flat roofs and through entrances (in the form of arches).

In the 3rd millennium (30 centuries) BC. arose new type temple - ziggurat. The ziggurat is gradually becoming the main type of religious structure. The ziggurat temple was a stepped pyramid with a small sanctuary on top. The shape of the ziggurat obviously symbolizes the stairway to Heaven. Typically, a ziggurat consisted of several (from three to seven) huge platforms of a rectangular or truncated shape, made of raw brick and placed on ledges one on top of the other. The terraces were connected by giant outdoor ramps.

The terraces of the ziggurats were painted in primary colors: the lower tier - black (bitumen); the middle tier is red (clad with baked bricks); the upper one, connecting earth and sky - in White color(limestone). The ziggurat was crowned by a small sanctuary, often decorated with blue glazed tiles. This color scheme, according to mythological ideas, symbolized the connection between the earthly and heavenly worlds. Ziggurats resembled step pyramids.

In the second half of the 4th millennium, the writing - cuneiform b. According to legend, writing was given to the inhabitants of Sumer by the legendary hero Gilgamesh.

IN sculpture The first multi-figure compositions appear (for example, offering gifts to the goddess). This formed the basis for the future style of Egypt. The image was created on a plane, in profile. It was then that the tradition arose of depicting the head and legs in profile, and the torso in front. Sculpture developed much more slowly than architecture - because the Sumerians did not have such a developed funeral cult as the Egyptians (there was no need to create cult images).

The most common type of sculpture was adorant("to worship"). The adorant was a statue of a person praying - a figurine of a person sitting or standing with his hands folded on his chest. These figurines were brought as gifts to the temple. The huge eyes of adorants were often encrusted.

Main feature Sumerian sculpture - conventional representation, lack of portrait resemblance.

The Sumerians were an extremely warlike people. The main ones were the priests, who had their own squads. The Sumerians fought no less than they were engaged in peaceful affairs. For battles they used four-wheeled war chariots. Warriors were recruited - a person received land, but for this he was obliged to go to war. In the 3rd millennium BC. The Sumerians unite with the Akkadians. For the first time, an official document-agreement on mutual military assistance was recorded.

AKCADES (24-23 centuries BC)

The name “Akkadians” is associated with the Akkadian kingdom, the name of which in turn goes back to the city of Akkad, the capital of this entity. The self-name of the Akkadians (like the Sumerians) was “black-headed”.

Akkadian art has more realism.

Stella of King Naram-sin.(2 meters high). The stele was created to commemorate the military triumph of the Akkadian king Naram-sin over the Lullubi mountain tribe. Naramsin was the grandson of Sargon, the founder of the Akkadian Empire (2254 - 2218 BC). During this period, the Akkadian empire reached its peak. The brilliant reign of Naramsin is reflected in the art of the sculptor. Unity and clarity of composition appears. There are no “belts” dividing the image into tiers. Realistic image of a person. The artist unites the entire composition around the figure of the ruler. The center of the composition is the massive figure of the king leading his army into the attack. The king tramples the enemy's body with his foot. Soldiers of the Akkadian army climb steep mountain slopes, sweeping away any enemy resistance along the way. The defeated Lullubeys express their submission with all their appearance. Traditionally, the figure of the king is larger in size than the figures of the other characters. Naramsin himself holds a large bow and an ax in his hands, and on his head he has a conical horned helmet - a symbol of belonging to the gods. The master managed to convey space and movement, the volume of figures and show not only the warriors, but also the mountain landscape. The relief also shows the signs of the Sun and Moon, symbolizing the patron deities of royal power.

In items found in Temple of Abu(modern Tell Asmar, Iraq) and stored in the Iraqi Museum, emphasize volumes inscribed in cylinders and triangles: as, for example, in skirts, which are flat cones, or in torsos, inscribed in triangles, with forearms also having a conical form. Even the details of the head (nose, mouth, ears and hair) are reduced to triangular shapes.

Among the masterpieces of Akkadian art are sculpted heads that quite accurately convey the ethnic type.

White Temple. During III dynasty In Ur, the first ziggurat of colossal size was built, consisting of three tiers (with a base of 56 x 52 m and a height of 21 m). Rising above a rectangular foundation, it was directed to all four cardinal directions. Currently, only two floors of its three terraces have survived. The walls of the platforms are tilted. From the base of this building, at a sufficient distance from the walls, a monumental staircase with two side branches begins at the level of the first terrace. At the top of the platforms was a temple dedicated to the moon god Sin. The staircase reached the very top of the temple, connecting the floors with each other. This monumental staircase responded to the desire for the gods to receive Active participation in worldly life.

The Sumerians joined Akkadian culture, adopting many of its features.

BABYLON (19th – 12th centuries BC)

The Sumerian-Akkadian kingdom conquered the kingdom of Babylon in the 19th century BC. Babylonian culture absorbed and developed everything that came before. Babylonian writing developed and spread throughout Western Asia. Heroic epics appeared. Astronomy developed. Babylonian art has almost never reached us. But in general, the Babylonians did not come up with anything new, but developed old achievements. The architecture remained the same, but became larger in scale. Palaces were built in the same way - the rooms were grouped around an open courtyard. There were paintings on the walls: scenes from life (picking dates, military victories). The drawings themselves were schematic and primitive. But they were distinguished by their richness of colors.

Judging by the excavation materials and descriptions, Babylon in the 12th century BC. was a huge, well-planned city, with streets intersecting at right angles. It was surrounded by a powerful triple wall, in which eight gates were made, bearing the names of the eight main gods. Numerous towers on very wide walls and a moat lined with bricks completed the powerful defensive fortifications of the city. In addition, the city had a lot of different religious buildings - temples, small shrines, and street altars.

On the north side in the city wall there were Gate of the goddess Ishtar. Ishtar is the goddess of fertility and war. The gates were in the form of four, square in plan, towers with an arched passage, behind which the main highway began - the processional road, which was considered sacred, as it led to the main temple of Babylon, dedicated to the god Marduk. The gate was visible from afar and struck the eye with the thick blue tiles, against which the rhythmically alternating white and yellow animals stood out brightly. Clear intervals between animal figures tuned the viewer to the rhythm of the solemn procession.

The road was paved with limestone slabs inlaid with red stone. The city wall, gate towers, and walls on the sides of the road were made of baked bricks, and on individual bricks the figures of walking lions, bulls and dragons were made in relief stamps - symbols of deities. The reliefs were covered with colored glaze.

HITTITS (18-8 centuries BC)

2nd millennium BC was a very busy, but little-studied time. At this time, the steppe pastoral peoples began to move. The Hittites are the general collective name for this association of peoples. The composition of the Hittites was heterogeneous. Therefore, art was very different. The Hittites built cities that were round or cylindrical in plan. A fortress wall was erected around the city. Monumental sculpture developed in the decoration of Hittite palaces and temples. Huge figures of lions and sphinxes carved from stone blocks on the sides of gates and entrances - this continued into later times. These huge, terrible animals were supposed to frighten spectators with their appearance. The Hittites try to convey rhythm and movement in their reliefs.

ASSYRIA (9th - 7th centuries BC)

The Assyrian state was very ancient. Appeared another 30 thousand years BC. But it became noticeable and powerful only around the 10th century BC. Assyria was a major military despotic power. And claimed world domination. Since at this time Assyria was already in contact with the culture of Greece, art also could not escape Greek influence. The Assyrians enslaved and exploited people en masse. The militarized nature of the state was manifested in architecture. Art was supposed to glorify military campaigns and military valor. Reliefs became especially popular. Despite a developed and influential religion, the art of Assyria was secular. The architecture was dominated not by cult architecture, but by palace architecture. A new type of city was created - a fortified city. The largest monument is Sargon's palace. The general plan is not very different from the already traditional one (around the yard, on the embankment). But this palace was of unprecedented size. The palace, surrounded by walls, like the entire city, rose on an artificial embankment lined with huge slabs. And it was asymmetrical - this was very new. No one had ever done anything asymmetrical before. The palace was surrounded by a wall, protecting not only from enemies, but also from the city in case of an uprising. The palace was divided into 3 parts: reception, residential and temple. Consisted of 7 tiers. Vaults and arches were used in the palace ceiling system.

I'm going - winged bull on the gate. On the sides of the huge massive gates of the main entrance there were figures of bulls - “walking” with the heads of people and the wings of eagles. The shedu had five legs, so it seemed to a person walking through the gate that a mighty guard was moving towards him, ready to block the enemy’s path. Similar bulls stood at the entrances of almost all Assyrian temples.

Palaces were decorated with reliefs (sometimes painted) and paintings on the walls. There was painting at the top, reliefs at the bottom. Human-level reliefs stretched for several hundred meters throughout the palace. The subjects of the compositions were mainly war, hunting, scenes of everyday life and court life, and, finally, scenes of religious content. The main attention was focused on those images where the king appeared central figure. All the work of Assyrian artists was aimed at glorifying him. Their task was also to emphasize the physical strength of the king, his warriors and retinue: we see in the reliefs huge people with powerful muscles, although their bodies are often constrained by a conventional canonical pose and heavy, fluffy clothing.

The mature skill of Assyrian artists was especially evident in conveying emotions. Artists noticed the suffering of animals mercilessly destroyed by people. The scenes of the death of gazelles, wild horses and lions are filled with amazing drama (the “wounded lioness” relief).

In the 9th century - highest point development - art became simple, clear and solemn. The landscape is almost completely absent. The human figures lost their realism and returned to conventionality.

In the 8th century BC. artists look more at a person's personality. Less muscle exaggeration. They are trying to convey personal traits. They work on folds and skin. By the end of the 8th century, the reliefs became more complicated, overloaded with details that were not related to the plot. But the sizes of the images are reduced, the image is again divided into tiers.

Heyday - 7th century. BC. The scenes and themes are still the same. Wars and the glorification of the king. But the realism increases. Dynamic composition. A variety of subjects appears. Hunting scenes appear. Animals are always wounded or killed. Nevertheless, some decorativeness appears in the relief.

Assyria developed and enriched cuneiform and science. It had an impact on many neighboring states. But all the neighboring enemies of Assyria united and in the 6th century it fell.

Art of Sumer (27-25 centuries BC)

At the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC. the growth of class contradictions led to the formation of the first small slave states in Mesopotamia, in which the vestiges of the primitive communal system were still very strong. Initially, such states became individual cities (with adjacent rural settlements), usually located in the sites of ancient temple centers. There were continuous wars between them for the possession of the main irrigation canals, for the seizure of the best lands, slaves and livestock.

Earlier than others, the Sumerian city-states of Ur, Uruk, Lagash and others arose in the south of Mesopotamia. Subsequently, economic reasons caused a tendency to unite into larger ones state entities, which was usually accomplished with the help military force. In the second half of the 3rd millennium, Akkad rose in the north, whose ruler, Sargon I, united under his rule most Mesopotamia, creating a single and powerful Sumerian-Akkadian kingdom. Royal power, which represented the interests of the slave-owning elite, especially since the time of Akkad, became despotic. The priesthood, which was one of the pillars of ancient Eastern despotism, developed a complex cult of the gods and deified the power of the king. A major role in the religion of the peoples of Mesopotamia was played by the worship of the forces of nature and remnants of the cult of animals. The gods were depicted as people, animals and fantastic creatures supernatural power: winged lions, bulls, etc.

During this period, the main features characteristic of the art of Mesopotamia of the early slave era were consolidated. The leading role was played by the architecture of palace buildings and temples, decorated with works of sculpture and painting. Due to the military nature of the Sumerian states, the architecture was of a fortress nature, as evidenced by the remains of numerous city buildings and defensive walls equipped with towers and well-fortified gates.

The main building material for buildings in Mesopotamia was raw brick, much less often baked brick. The design feature of monumental architecture was going back to the 4th millennium BC. the use of artificially constructed platforms, which is explained, perhaps, by the need to isolate the building from the dampness of the soil, moistened by spills, and at the same time, probably, by the desire to make the building visible from all sides. Another characteristic feature based on the same ancient tradition, there was a broken line of the wall formed by protrusions. Windows, when they were made, were placed at the top of the wall and looked like narrow slits. The buildings were also illuminated through a doorway and a hole in the roof. The roofs were mostly flat, but there was also a vault. Residential buildings discovered by excavations in the south of Sumer had an internal open courtyard around which covered rooms were grouped. This layout, which corresponded to the climatic conditions of the country, formed the basis for the palace buildings of the southern Mesopotamia. In the northern part of Sumer, houses were discovered that, instead of an open courtyard, had a central room with a ceiling. Residential buildings were sometimes two-story, with blank walls facing the street, as is often the case to this day in eastern cities.

About the ancient temple architecture of Sumerian cities of the 3rd millennium BC. give an idea of ​​the ruins of the temple at El Obeid (2600 BC); dedicated to the goddess of fertility Nin-Khursag. According to the reconstruction (however, not indisputable), the temple stood on a high platform (area 32x25 m), made of tightly compacted clay. The walls of the platform and sanctuary, in accordance with the ancient Sumerian tradition, were dissected by vertical projections, but, in addition, the retaining walls of the platform were coated in the lower part with black bitumen, and whitewashed at the top and thus were also divided horizontally. A rhythm of vertical and horizontal sections was created, which was repeated on the walls of the sanctuary, but in a slightly different interpretation. Here the vertical division of the wall was cut horizontally by ribbons of friezes.

For the first time, round sculpture and relief were used to decorate the building. The lion statues on the sides of the entrance (the oldest gate sculpture) were made, like all other sculptural decorations of El Obeid, from wood covered with a layer of bitumen with hammered copper sheets. Inlaid eyes and protruding tongues made of colored stones gave these sculptures a bright, colorful appearance.

Along the wall, in the niches between the ledges, there were very expressive copper figures of walking bulls. Higher up, the surface of the wall was decorated with three friezes, located at some distance from one another: a high relief with images of lying bulls made of copper and two with a flat mosaic relief laid out of white mother-of-pearl on black slate plates. In this way, a color scheme was created that echoed the colors of the platforms. On one of the friezes, scenes of economic life were quite clearly depicted, possibly having cult significance, on the other - sacred birds and animals walking in a line.

The inlay technique was also used when making columns on the facade. Some of them were decorated with colored stones, mother-of-pearl and shells, others with metal plates attached to a wooden base with nails with colored heads.

The copper high relief placed above the entrance to the sanctuary, turning in places into a round sculpture, was executed with undoubted skill; it depicts a lion-headed eagle clawing deer. This composition, repeated with minor variations on a number of monuments of the mid-3rd millennium BC. (on a silver vase of the ruler Entemena, votive plates made of stone and bitumen, etc.), was apparently the emblem of the god Nin-Girsu. A feature of the relief is a very clear, symmetrical heraldic composition, which later became one of characteristic features Central Asian relief.

The Sumerians created the ziggurat - a unique type of religious building, which for thousands of years occupied a prominent place in the architecture of the cities of Western Asia. The ziggurat was erected at the temple of the main local deity and was a high stepped tower made of raw brick; at the top of the ziggurat there was a small structure that crowned the building - the so-called “home of god.”

The ziggurat in Uret, erected in the 22nd - 21st centuries BC, has been preserved better than others, rebuilt many times. (reconstruction). It consisted of three massive towers, built one above the other and forming wide, possibly landscaped terraces, connected by stairs. The lower part had a rectangular base 65x43 m, the walls reached 13 m in height. The total height of the building at one time reached 21 m (which is equal to a five-story building today). Interior space in the ziggurat there was usually no or it was reduced to a minimum, to one small room. The towers of the ziggurat of Ur were of different colors: the lower one was black, coated with bitumen, the middle one was red (the natural color of baked brick), the upper one was white. On the upper terrace, where the “home of God” was located, religious mysteries took place; it may also have served as an observatory for the stargazer priests. Monumentality, which was achieved by massiveness, simplicity of shapes and volumes, as well as clarity of proportions, created the impression of grandeur and power and was a distinctive feature of ziggurat architecture. With its monumentality, the ziggurat is reminiscent of the pyramids of Egypt.

Plastic art of the mid-3rd millennium BC. characterized by the predominance of small sculpture, mainly for religious purposes; its execution is still quite primitive.

Despite the rather significant diversity represented by the sculpture monuments of various local centers of Ancient Sumer, two main groups can be distinguished - one associated with the south, the other with the north of the country.

The extreme south of Mesopotamia (the cities of Ur, Lagash, etc.) is characterized by almost complete indivisibility of the stone block and a very summary interpretation of the details. Squat figures with an almost absent neck, a beak-shaped nose and large eyes predominate. The body proportions are not respected. The sculptural monuments of the northern part of the southern Mesopotamia (the cities of Ashnunak, Khafadzh, etc.) are distinguished by more elongated proportions, greater elaboration of details, and a desire for a naturalistic accurate representation of the external features of the model, albeit with greatly exaggerated eye sockets and excessively large noses.

Sumerian sculpture is expressive in its own way. Especially clearly it conveys the humiliated servility or tender piety, so characteristic mainly of the statues of praying people, which noble Sumerians dedicated to their gods. There were certain postures and gestures that had been established since ancient times, which can always be seen in reliefs and in round sculpture.

Metal-plastic and other types of artistic craft were distinguished by great perfection in Ancient Sumer. This is evidenced by the well-preserved burial goods of the so-called “royal tombs” of the 27th - 26th centuries. BC, discovered in Ur. Finds in the tombs speak of class differentiation in Ur at this time and of a developed cult of the dead, associated with the custom of human sacrifices, which were widespread here. The luxurious utensils of the tombs are skillfully made from precious metals(gold and silver) and various stones (alabaster, lapis lazuli, obsidian, etc.). Among the finds of the “royal tombs”, a golden helmet of the finest work from the tomb of the ruler Meskalamdug, reproducing a wig with the smallest details intricate hairstyle. Very good is a golden dagger with a scabbard of fine filigree work from the same tomb and other objects that amaze with the variety of shapes and elegance of decoration. The goldsmiths' art in depicting animals reaches particular heights, as can be judged by the beautifully executed bull's head, which apparently adorned the soundboard of the harp. Generalized, but very faithfully, the artist conveyed the powerful, full of life bull's head; The swollen, seemingly fluttering nostrils of the animal are well emphasized. The head is inlaid: the eyes, beard and fur on the crown are made of lapis lazuli, the whites of the eyes are made of shells. The image is apparently associated with the cult of animals and with the image of the god Nannar, who was represented, judging by the descriptions of cuneiform texts, in the form of a “strong bull with an azure beard.”

Samples were also found in the tombs of Ur mosaic art, among which the best is the so-called “standard” (as archaeologists called it): two oblong rectangular plates, fixed in an inclined position like a steep gable roof, made of wood covered with a layer of asphalt with pieces of lapis lazuli (background) and shells (figures ). This mosaic of lapis lazuli, shell and carnelian forms a colorful design. Divided into tiers according to the tradition already established by this time in Sumerian relief compositions, these plates convey pictures of battles and battles, tell about the triumph of the army of the city of Ur, about captured slaves and tribute, about the rejoicing of the victors. The theme of this “standard”, designed to glorify the military activities of the rulers, reflects the military nature of the state.

The best example of the sculptural relief of Sumer is the stele of Eannatum, called the “Stela of the Vultures”. The monument was made in honor of the victory of Eannatum, the ruler of the city of Lagash (25th century BC) over the neighboring city of Umma. The stela is preserved in fragments, but they make it possible to determine the basic principles of the ancient Sumerian monumental relief. The image is divided by horizontal lines into belts, along which the composition is built. Separate, often multi-temporal episodes unfold in these zones and create a visual narrative of events. Usually the heads of all those depicted are at the same level. The exception is the images of the king and god, whose figures were always made on a much larger scale. This technique emphasized the difference in the social status of those depicted and highlighted the leading figure of the composition. The human figures are all exactly the same, they are static, their turn on the plane is conventional: the head and legs are turned in profile, while the eyes and shoulders are shown in front. It is possible that this interpretation is explained (as in Egyptian images) by the desire to show the human figure in such a way that it is perceived especially clearly. On the front side of the “Stele of the Vultures” a large figure of the supreme god of the city of Lagash is depicted, holding a net in which the enemies of Eannatum are caught. On the back of the stele, Eannatum is depicted at the head of his formidable army, walking over corpses defeated enemies. On one of the fragments of the stele, flying kites carry away the severed heads of enemy warriors. The inscription on the stele reveals the content of the images, describing the victory of the Lagash army and reporting that the defeated inhabitants of Umma pledged to pay tribute to the gods of Lagash.

Glyptic monuments, that is, carved stones - seals and amulets, are of great value for the history of art of the peoples of Western Asia. They often fill the gaps caused by the lack of monuments of monumental art, and allow us to more fully imagine the artistic development of the art of Mesopotamia. Images on cylinder seals of Western Asia (I class="comment"> The usual form of seals of Western Asia is cylindrical, on the round surface of which artists easily placed multi-figure compositions.). They are often distinguished by great skill in execution. Made from various types of stones, softer for the first half of the 3rd millennium BC. and harder ones (chalcedony, carnelian, hematite, etc.) for the end of the 3rd, as well as the 2nd and 1st millennia BC. extremely primitive instruments, these small works of art are sometimes true masterpieces.

Cylinder seals dating back to the time of Sumer are very diverse. Favorite subjects are mythological, most often associated with the very popular epic in Western Asia about Gilgamesh - a hero of invincible strength and unsurpassed courage. There are seals with images on the themes of the myth of the flood, the flight of the hero Etana on an eagle to the sky for the “grass of birth”, etc. Sumerian cylinder seals are characterized by a conventional, schematic representation of the figures of people and animals, an ornamental composition and the desire to fill the entire surface of the cylinder with an image . As in monumental reliefs, artists strictly adhere to the arrangement of figures, in which all heads are placed at the same level, which is why animals are often represented standing on their hind legs. The motif of Gilgamesh’s fight against predatory animals that harmed livestock, often found on cylinders, reflects the vital interests of the ancient cattle breeders of Mesopotamia. The theme of the hero fighting with animals was very common in the glyptics of Western Asia and in subsequent times.

The most characteristic sculptural image of the early Sumerian period is the deep relief. This special kind sculpture in which the image is convex in relation to the flat surface of the background. For the Sumerians, it is almost a high relief, in which the image protrudes high above the background surface.

Relief depicting the head of the goddess Inanna of Uruk, one of the most early works of this kind. The details of the relief are clearly drawn - a large nose, thin lips, huge eye sockets. Particular emphasis is placed on the nasolabial lines, which gives the goddess an arrogant and rather gloomy expression. Unfortunately, the inlaid eyes that used to be in the sockets have not been preserved. The dimensions of the sculpture almost coincide with the real ones, the back surface is flat. It is suggested that the figure of the goddess was depicted on the surface of the temple wall, and above it, in the direction of the worshiper, a convex image of the goddess’s head was attached. This created the effect of the goddess entering the human world and served to intimidate mere mortals.

Later reliefs, dating back to the middle of the 3rd millennium BC, were constructed in honor of some important event - the construction of a temple, a victory on the battlefield. These were small boards with a relief image - palettes or plaques. They were carved from soft stone, easy to process. The entire plane of the palette was horizontally divided into registers, sequentially telling about some important event. At the center of this peculiar story was the ruler or his entourage. Moreover, the size of the image of each specific character was determined by the degree of significance of his social position.

Another typical example of a Sumerian relief is the stele of King Eanatum, erected in Lagash in honor of the victory over the main enemy, the city of Umma. On one side is a story about the campaign of King Eanatum, consisting of four parts - registers. The first part is sad - grief for the dead, then two registers depict Eanatum at the head of an army, first lightly and then heavily armed. The end of the story is an empty battlefield, the corpses of enemies and kites, above them are traditional symbols complete defeat enemy. By this time, the Sumerians had achieved significant mastery in the art of relief - all the figures occupy a certain place and are subordinate to the plane, the composition of the sculptural image is well maintained. Perhaps the Sumerians began to use stencils to carve out images; this is evidenced by almost identical triangles depicting the faces of warriors and horizontal rows of copies. The image of the god Ningirsu, the main deity of Lagash, occupies the entire second side of the stele. In his hands is a net with captured enemies.

The active, productive nature of the Sumerian people, who grew up in constant struggle with difficult natural conditions, left humanity with many remarkable achievements in the field of art. However, among the Sumerians themselves, as well as among other peoples of pre-Greek antiquity, the concept of “art” did not arise due to the strict functionality of any product. All works of Sumerian architecture, sculpture and glyptics had three main functions: cultic, pragmatic and memorial. The cult function included the participation of the product in a temple or royal ritual, its symbolic correlation with world of the dead ancestors and immortal gods. The pragmatic function allowed the product (for example, a print) to participate in the ongoing social life, showing the high social status of its owner. The memorial function of the product was to appeal to posterity with a call to forever remember their ancestors, make sacrifices to them, pronounce their names and honor their deeds. Thus, any work of Sumerian art was designed to function in all spaces and times known to society, carrying out symbolic communication between them. The actual aesthetic function of art had not yet been identified at that time, and the aesthetic terminology known from the texts was in no way connected with the understanding of beauty as such.
Sumerian art begins with the painting of pottery. Already in the example of ceramics from Uruk and Susa (Elam), which came from the end of the 4th millennium, one can see the main features of Western Asian art, which is characterized by geometricism, strictly consistent ornamentation, rhythmic organization of the work and a subtle sense of form. Sometimes the vessel is decorated with geometric or floral patterns, in some cases we see stylized images of goats, dogs, birds, even the altar in the sanctuary. All ceramics of this time are painted with red, black, brown and purple patterns on a light background. There is no blue color yet (it will appear only in Phenicia in the 2nd millennium, when they learn to obtain indigo dye from seaweed), only the color of the lapis lazuli stone is known. Green in its pure form was also not obtained - the Sumerian language knows “yellow-green” (salad), the color of young spring grass.
What do the images on early pottery mean? First of all, a person’s desire to master the image of the external world, subjugate it and adapt it to his earthly goal. A person wants to contain within himself, as if to “eat” through memory and skill, what he is not and what is not him. When depicting, the ancient artist did not even allow the thought of a mechanical reflection of the object; on the contrary, he immediately includes him in the world of his own emotions and thoughts about life. This is not just mastery and accounting, it is almost immediately systemic accounting, placing inside “our” idea of ​​the world. The object will be placed symmetrically and rhythmically on the vessel, and will be given a place in the order of things and lines. In this case, the object’s own personality, with the exception of texture and plasticity, is never taken into account.
The transition from ornamental vessel painting to ceramic relief occurs at the beginning of the 3rd millennium in a work known as the “alabaster vessel of Inanna from Uruk.” Here we see the first attempt to move from a rhythmic and haphazard arrangement of objects to a kind of prototype of a story. The vessel is divided by transverse stripes into three registers, and the “story” presented on it must be read by register, from bottom to top. In the lowest register there is a certain designation of the scene of action: a river, depicted by conventional wavy lines, and alternating ears of corn, leaves and palm trees. The next row is a procession of domestic animals (long-haired rams and sheep) and then a row of naked male figures with vessels, bowls, dishes full of fruit. The upper register depicts the final phase of the procession: the gifts are piled in front of the altar, next to them are the symbols of the goddess Inanna, a priestess in a long robe in the role of Inanna meets the procession, and a priest in clothes with a long train is heading towards her, supported by a man following him in a short skirt.
In the field of architecture, the Sumerians are known mainly as active temple builders. It must be said that in the Sumerian language the house and the temple are called the same, and for the Sumerian architect “to build a temple” sounded the same as “to build a house.” The god-owner of the city needed a dwelling that corresponded to people’s idea of ​​his inexhaustible power, large family, military and labor valor and wealth. Therefore, a large temple was built on a high platform (to some extent this could protect against destruction caused by floods), with stairs or ramps on both sides. In early architecture, the temple sanctuary was moved to the edge of the platform and had an open courtyard. In the depths of the sanctuary there was a statue of the deity to whom the temple was dedicated. From the texts it is known that the sacred center of the temple was the throne of God (bar), which needed to be repaired and protected from destruction in every possible way. Unfortunately, the thrones themselves have not survived. Until the beginning of the 3rd millennium there was free access to all parts of the temple, but later the uninitiated were no longer allowed into the sanctuary and courtyard. It is quite possible that the temples were painted from the inside, but in the humid climate of Mesopotamia the paintings could not be preserved. In addition, in Mesopotamia, the main building materials were clay and mud brick molded from it (with an admixture of reeds and straw), and the century of mud building was short-lived, therefore, from the most ancient Sumerian temples, only ruins have survived to this day, from which we are trying to reconstruct the structure and temple decoration.
By the end of the 3rd millennium, another type of temple was attested in Mesopotamia - a ziggurat, built on several platforms. The reason for the emergence of such a structure is not known for certain, but it can be assumed that the Sumerians’ attachment to the sacred place played a role here, which resulted in the constant renovation of short-lived adobe temples. The renewed temple had to be built on the site of the old one, preserving the old throne, so that the new platform rose above the old one, and during the life of the temple such renovation took place several times, as a result of which the number of temple platforms increased to seven. There is, however, another reason for the construction of high multi-platform temples - this is the astral orientation of the Sumerian intellect, the Sumerian love for the upper world as the bearer of properties of a higher and unchangeable order. The number of platforms (no more than seven) could symbolize the number of heavens known to the Sumerians - from the first heaven of Inanna to the seventh heaven of An. The best example of a ziggurat is the temple of the king of the III dynasty of Ur, Ur-Nammu, which has been perfectly preserved to this day. Its huge hill still rises 20 meters. The upper, relatively low tiers rest on a huge truncated pyramid about 15 meters high. Flat niches broke up the inclined surfaces and softened the impression of the massiveness of the building. The processions moved along wide and long converging staircases. The solid adobe terraces were of different colors: the bottom was black (coated with bitumen), the middle tier was red (clad with baked bricks) and the top was whitened. At a later time, when seven-story ziggurats began to be built, yellow and blue (“lapis lazuli”) colors were introduced.
From Sumerian texts devoted to the construction and consecration of temples, we learn about the existence inside the temple of the chambers of the god, goddess, their children and servants, about the “Abzu pool” in which blessed water was stored, about the courtyard for making sacrifices, about the strictly thought-out decoration of the temple gates , which were protected by images of a lion-headed eagle, snakes and dragon-like monsters. Alas, with rare exceptions, none of this can be seen now.
Housing for people was not built so carefully and thoughtfully. The development was carried out spontaneously; between the houses there were unpaved curves and narrow alleys and dead ends. The houses were mostly rectangular in plan, without windows, and lit through doorways. A patio was a must. Outside, the house was surrounded by an adobe wall. Many buildings had sewerage. The settlement was usually surrounded from the outside by a fortress wall that reached considerable thickness. According to legend, the first settlement surrounded by a wall (that is, a “city” itself) was ancient Uruk, which received the permanent epithet “Fenced Uruk” in the Akkadian epic.
The next most important and developed type of Sumerian art was glyptics - carvings on cylindrical seals. The shape of a cylinder drilled through was invented in Southern Mesopotamia. By the beginning of the 3rd millennium, it became widespread, and carvers, improving their art, placed quite complex compositions on a small printing surface. Already on the first Sumerian seals we see, in addition to traditional geometric patterns, an attempt to talk about the surrounding life, be it the beating of a group of tied naked people (possibly prisoners), or the construction of a temple, or a shepherd in front of the sacred flock of the goddess. In addition to scenes of everyday life, there are images of the moon, stars, solar rosettes and even two-level images: symbols of astral deities are placed on the upper level, and animal figures on the lower level. Later, plots related to ritual and mythology arise. First of all, this is the “fighting frieze” - a composition depicting a scene of a battle between two heroes and a certain monster. One of the heroes has a human appearance, the other is a mixture of animal and savage. It is quite possible that this is one of the illustrations for the epic songs about the exploits of Gilgamesh and his servant Enkidu. The image of a certain deity sitting on a throne in a boat is also widely known. The range of interpretations of this plot is quite wide - from the hypothesis of the moon god’s journey across the sky to the hypothesis of the traditional ritual journey for the Sumerian gods to their father. Big mystery For researchers, there still remains the image of a bearded, long-haired giant holding in his hands a vessel from which two streams of water flow. It was this image that was subsequently transformed into the image of the constellation Aquarius.
In the glyptic plot, the master avoided random poses, turns and gestures, but conveyed the most complete, general characteristics of the image. This characteristic of a person’s figure turned out to be a full or three-quarter turn of the shoulders, an image of the legs and face in profile, and a full-face view of the eyes. With this vision, the river landscape was quite logically conveyed by wavy lines, a bird - in profile, but with two wings, animals - also in profile, but with some details of the front (eyes, horns).
The cylinder seals of Ancient Mesopotamia can tell a lot not only to an art critic, but also to a social historian. On some of them, in addition to images, there are inscriptions consisting of three or four lines, which inform about the ownership of the seal to a certain person (the name is given), who is the “slave” of such and such a god (the name of the god follows). A cylinder seal with the owner's name was attached to any legal or administrative document, performing the function of a personal signature and indicating the high social status of the owner. Poor and unofficial people limited themselves to applying the fringed edge of their clothing or imprinting a nail.
Sumerian sculpture begins for us with the figurines from Jemdet Nasr - images of strange creatures with phallus-shaped heads and large eyes, somewhat similar to amphibians. The purpose of these figurines is still unknown, and the most common hypothesis is their connection with the cult of fertility and reproduction. In addition, one can recall small sculptural figurines of animals from the same time, very expressive and accurately replicating nature. Much more characteristic of early Sumerian art is deep relief, almost high relief. Of the works of this kind, the earliest is, perhaps, the head of Inanna of Uruk. This head was slightly smaller in size than a human head, cut flat at the back and had holes for mounting on the wall. It is quite possible that the figure of the goddess was depicted on a plane inside the temple, and the head protruded in the direction of the worshiper, creating an intimidating effect caused by the goddess emerging from her image into the world of people. Looking at Inanna's head, we see a large nose, a large mouth with thin lips, a small chin and eye sockets, in which huge eyes were once inlaid - a symbol of all-vision, insight and wisdom. Soft, subtle modeling emphasizes the nasolabial lines, giving the entire appearance of the goddess an arrogant and somewhat gloomy expression.
The Sumerian relief of the mid-3rd millennium was a small palette or plaque made of soft stone, built in honor of some solemn event: a victory over an enemy, the foundation of a temple. Sometimes such a relief was accompanied by an inscription. It, as in the early Sumerian period, is characterized by horizontal division of the plane, register-by-register narration, and the identification of central figures of rulers or officials, and their size depended on the degree of social significance of the character. A typical example of such a relief is the stele of the king of the city of Lagash, Eanatum (XXV century), built in honor of the victory over the hostile Ummah. One side of the stele is occupied by a large image of the god Ningirsu, who holds in his hands a net with small figures of captive enemies floundering in it. On the other side is a four-register story about Eanatum's campaign. The narrative begins with a sad event - mourning the dead. The two subsequent registers depict the king at the head of a lightly armed and then a heavily armed army (perhaps this is due to the order of action of the military branches in battle). The top scene (the worst preserved) is of kites over an empty battlefield, taking away the corpses of enemies. All relief figures may have been made using the same stencil: identical triangles of faces, horizontal rows of spears clenched in fists. According to the observation of V.K. Afanasyeva, there are much more fists than faces - this technique achieves the impression of a large army.
But let's return to Sumerian sculpture. It experienced its true flourishing only after the Akkadian dynasty. From the time of the Lagash ruler Gudea (died c. 2123), who took charge of the city three centuries after Eanatum, many of his monumental statues made of diorite have survived. These statues sometimes reach the size of a man. They depict a man wearing a round cap, sitting with his hands folded in a prayer position. On his knees he holds a plan of some kind of structure, and at the bottom and sides of the statue there is cuneiform text. From the inscriptions on the statues we learn that Gudea is renovating the main city temple on the instructions of the Lagash god Ningirsu and that these statues are placed in the temples of Sumer in the place of commemoration of deceased ancestors - for his deeds Gudea is worthy of eternal afterlife feeding and remembrance.
Two types of statues of the ruler can be distinguished: some are more squat, with somewhat shortened proportions, others are more slender and graceful. Some art historians believe that the difference in types is due to the difference in craft technologies between the Sumerians and Akkadians. In their opinion, the Akkadians processed stone more skillfully and more accurately reproduced the proportions of the body; The Sumerians strived for stylization and conventionality due to their inability to work well on imported stone and accurately convey nature. Recognizing the difference between the types of statues, one can hardly agree with these arguments. The Sumerian image is stylized and conventional by its very function: the statue was placed in the temple in order to pray for the person who placed it, and the stele is also intended for this. There is no figure as such - there is the influence of the figure, prayerful worship. There is no face as such - there is an expression: large ears are a symbol of tireless attention to the advice of elders, large eyes are a symbol of close contemplation of invisible secrets. There were no magical requirements for the similarity of sculptural images with the original; the transmission of internal content was more important than the transmission of form, and the form was developed only to the extent that it met this internal task (“think about the meaning, and the words will come by themselves”). Akkadian art from the very beginning was devoted to the development of form and, in accordance with this, was able to execute any borrowed plot in stone and clay. This is precisely how one can explain the difference between the Sumerian and Akkadian types of Gudea statues.
The jewelry art of Sumer is known mainly from the rich materials from excavations of the tombs of the city of Ur (I Dynasty of Ur, c. 26th century). When creating decorative wreaths, headband crowns, necklaces, bracelets, various hairpins and pendants, craftsmen used a combination of three colors: blue (lapis lazuli), red (carnelian) and yellow (gold). In fulfilling their task, they achieved such sophistication and subtlety of form, such an absolute expression of the functional purpose of the object and such virtuosity in technical techniques that these products can rightfully be classified as masterpieces of jewelry art. There, in the tombs of Ur, a beautiful sculpted head of a bull with inlaid eyes and a lapis lazuli beard was found - a decoration of one of the musical instruments. It is believed that in the art of jewelry and inlaying musical instruments, the craftsmen were free from ideological super-tasks, and these monuments can be attributed to manifestations of free creativity. This is probably not the case after all. After all, the innocent bull that adorned the Ur harp was a symbol of stunning, terrifying power and longitude of sound, which is fully consistent with the general Sumerian ideas about the bull as a symbol of power and continuous reproduction.
Sumerian ideas about beauty, as mentioned above, did not correspond at all to ours. The Sumerians could have given the epithet “beautiful” (step)
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Art of Sumer (27-25 centuries BC)

At the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC. the growth of class contradictions led to the formation of the first small slave states in Mesopotamia, in which the vestiges of the primitive communal system were still very strong. Initially, such states became individual cities (with adjacent rural settlements), usually located in the sites of ancient temple centers. There were continuous wars between them for the possession of the main irrigation canals, for the seizure of the best lands, slaves and livestock.

Earlier than others, the Sumerian city-states of Ur, Uruk, Lagash and others arose in the south of Mesopotamia. Subsequently, economic reasons gave rise to a tendency to unite into larger state formations, which was usually accomplished with the help of military force. In the second half of the 3rd millennium, Akkad rose in the north, whose ruler, Sargon I, united most of Mesopotamia under his rule, creating a single and powerful Sumerian-Akkadian kingdom. The royal government, which represented the interests of the slave-owning elite, especially since the time of Akkad, became despotic. The priesthood, which was one of the pillars of ancient Eastern despotism, developed a complex cult of the gods and deified the power of the king. A major role in the religion of the peoples of Mesopotamia was played by the worship of the forces of nature and remnants of the cult of animals. The gods were depicted as people, animals and fantastic creatures of supernatural power: winged lions, bulls, etc.

During this period, the main features characteristic of the art of Mesopotamia of the early slave era were consolidated. The leading role was played by the architecture of palace buildings and temples, decorated with works of sculpture and painting. Due to the military nature of the Sumerian states, the architecture was of a fortress nature, as evidenced by the remains of numerous city buildings and defensive walls equipped with towers and well-fortified gates.

The main building material for buildings in Mesopotamia was raw brick, much less often baked brick. The design feature of monumental architecture was going back to the 4th millennium BC. the use of artificially constructed platforms, which is explained, perhaps, by the need to isolate the building from the dampness of the soil, moistened by spills, and at the same time, probably, by the desire to make the building visible from all sides. Another characteristic feature, based on an equally ancient tradition, was the broken line of the wall formed by the projections. Windows, when they were made, were placed at the top of the wall and looked like narrow slits. The buildings were also illuminated through a doorway and a hole in the roof. The roofs were mostly flat, but there was also a vault. Residential buildings discovered by excavations in the south of Sumer had an internal open courtyard around which covered rooms were grouped. This layout, which corresponded to the climatic conditions of the country, formed the basis for the palace buildings of the southern Mesopotamia. In the northern part of Sumer, houses were discovered that, instead of an open courtyard, had a central room with a ceiling. Residential buildings were sometimes two-story, with blank walls facing the street, as is often the case to this day in eastern cities.

About the ancient temple architecture of Sumerian cities of the 3rd millennium BC. give an idea of ​​the ruins of the temple at El Obeid (2600 BC); dedicated to the goddess of fertility Nin-Khursag. According to the reconstruction (however, not indisputable), the temple stood on a high platform (area 32x25 m), made of tightly compacted clay. The walls of the platform and sanctuary, in accordance with the ancient Sumerian tradition, were dissected by vertical projections, but, in addition, the retaining walls of the platform were coated in the lower part with black bitumen, and whitewashed at the top and thus were also divided horizontally. A rhythm of vertical and horizontal sections was created, which was repeated on the walls of the sanctuary, but in a slightly different interpretation. Here the vertical division of the wall was cut horizontally by ribbons of friezes.

For the first time, round sculpture and relief were used to decorate the building. The lion statues on the sides of the entrance (the oldest gate sculpture) were made, like all other sculptural decorations of El Obeid, from wood covered with a layer of bitumen with hammered copper sheets. Inlaid eyes and protruding tongues made of colored stones gave these sculptures a bright, colorful appearance.

Along the wall, in the niches between the ledges, there were very expressive copper figures of walking bulls. Higher up, the surface of the wall was decorated with three friezes, located at some distance from one another: a high relief with images of lying bulls made of copper and two with a flat mosaic relief laid out of white mother-of-pearl on black slate plates. In this way, a color scheme was created that echoed the colors of the platforms. On one of the friezes, scenes of economic life were quite clearly depicted, possibly having cult significance, on the other - sacred birds and animals walking in a line.

The inlay technique was also used when making columns on the facade. Some of them were

decorated with colored stones, mother-of-pearl and shells, others with metal plates attached to a wooden base with nails with colored heads.

The copper high relief placed above the entrance to the sanctuary, turning in places into a round sculpture, was executed with undoubted skill; it depicts a lion-headed eagle clawing deer. This composition, repeated with minor variations on a number of monuments of the mid-3rd millennium BC. (on a silver vase of the ruler Entemena, votive plates made of stone and bitumen, etc.), was apparently the emblem of the god Nin-Girsu. A feature of the relief is a very clear, symmetrical heraldic composition, which later became one of the characteristic features of the Western Asian relief.

The Sumerians created the ziggurat - a unique type of religious building, which for thousands of years occupied a prominent place in the architecture of the cities of Western Asia. The ziggurat was erected at the temple of the main local deity and was a high stepped tower made of raw brick; At the top of the ziggurat there was a small structure that crowned the building - the so-called “home of God.”

The ziggurat in Ur, erected in the 22nd - 21st centuries BC, has been preserved better than others, rebuilt many times. (reconstruction). It consisted of three massive towers, built one above the other and forming wide, possibly landscaped

terraces connected by stairs. The lower part had a rectangular base 65x43 m, the walls reached 13 m in height. The total height of the building at one time reached 21 m (which is equal to a five-story building today). There was usually no interior space in a ziggurat, or it was reduced to a minimum, to one small room. The towers of the ziggurat of Ur were of different colors: the lower one was black, coated with bitumen, the middle one was red (the natural color of baked brick), the upper one was white. On the upper terrace, where the “home of God” was located, religious mysteries took place; it may also have served as an observatory for the stargazer priests. Monumentality, which was achieved by massiveness, simplicity of shapes and volumes, as well as clarity of proportions, created the impression of grandeur and power and was a distinctive feature of ziggurat architecture. With its monumentality, the ziggurat is reminiscent of the pyramids of Egypt.

Plastic art of the mid-3rd millennium BC. characterized by the predominance of small sculpture, mainly for religious purposes; its execution is still quite primitive.

Despite the rather significant diversity represented by the sculpture monuments of various local centers of Ancient Sumer, two main groups can be distinguished - one associated with the south, the other with the north of the country.

The extreme south of Mesopotamia (the cities of Ur, Lagash, etc.) is characterized by almost complete indivisibility of the stone block and a very summary interpretation of the details. Squat figures with an almost absent neck, a beak-shaped nose and large eyes predominate. The body proportions are not respected. The sculptural monuments of the northern part of the southern Mesopotamia (the cities of Ashnunak, Khafadzh, etc.) are distinguished by more elongated proportions, greater elaboration of details, and a desire for a naturalistic accurate representation of the external features of the model, albeit with greatly exaggerated eye sockets and excessively large noses.

Sumerian sculpture is expressive in its own way. Especially clearly it conveys the humiliated servility or tender piety, so characteristic mainly of the statues of praying people, which noble Sumerians dedicated to their gods. There were certain postures and gestures that had been established since ancient times, which can always be seen in reliefs and in round sculpture.

Metal-plastic and other types of artistic craft were distinguished by great perfection in Ancient Sumer. This is evidenced by the well-preserved burial goods of the so-called “royal tombs” of the 27th - 26th centuries. BC, discovered in Ur. Finds in the tombs speak of class differentiation in Ur at this time and of a developed cult of the dead, associated with the custom of human sacrifices, which were widespread here. The luxurious utensils of the tombs were skillfully made of precious metals (gold and silver) and various stones (alabaster, lapis lazuli, obsidian, etc.). Among the finds from the “royal tombs”, a golden helmet of the finest work from the tomb of the ruler Meskalamdug, reproducing a wig with the smallest details of an intricate hairstyle, stands out. Very good is a golden dagger with a scabbard of fine filigree work from the same tomb and other objects that amaze with the variety of shapes and elegance of decoration. The goldsmiths' art in depicting animals reaches particular heights, as can be judged by the beautifully executed bull's head, which apparently adorned the soundboard of the harp. Generalized, but very faithfully, the artist conveyed a powerful, complete

life of a bull's head; The swollen, seemingly fluttering nostrils of the animal are well emphasized. The head is inlaid: the eyes, beard and fur on the crown are made of lapis lazuli, the whites of the eyes are made of shells. The image is apparently associated with the cult of animals and with the image of the god Nannar, who was represented, judging by the descriptions of cuneiform texts, in the form of a “strong bull with an azure beard.”

In the tombs of Ur, examples of mosaic art were also found, among which the best is the so-called “standard” (as archaeologists called it): two oblong rectangular plates, fixed in an inclined position like a steep gable roof, made of wood covered with a layer of asphalt with pieces of lapis. azure (background) and shells (figures). This mosaic of lapis lazuli, shell and carnelian forms a colorful design. Divided into tiers according to the already established by this time

traditions in Sumerian relief compositions, these plates convey pictures of battles and battles, tell about the triumph of the army of the city of Ur, about captured slaves and tribute, about the rejoicing of the victors. The theme of this “standard”, designed to glorify the military activities of the rulers, reflects the military nature of the state.

The best example of the sculptural relief of Sumer is the stele of Eannatum, called the “Stela of the Vultures”. The monument was made in honor of the victory of Eannatum, the ruler of the city of Lagash (25th century BC) over the neighboring city of Umma. The stele was preserved in fragments, but they make it possible to determine

basic principles of ancient Sumerian monumental relief. The image is divided by horizontal lines into belts, along which the composition is built. Separate, often multi-temporal episodes unfold in these zones and create a visual narrative of events. Usually the heads of all those depicted are at the same level. The exception is the images of the king and god, whose figures were always made on a much larger scale. This technique emphasized the difference in the social status of those depicted and highlighted the leading figure of the composition. The human figures are all exactly the same, they are static, their turn on the plane is conventional: the head and legs are turned in profile, while the eyes and shoulders are shown in front. It is possible that this interpretation is explained (as in Egyptian images) by the desire to show the human figure in such a way that it is perceived especially clearly. On the front side of the “Stela of the Vultures” a large figure of the supreme god of the city of Lagash is depicted, holding a net in which the enemies of Eannatum are caught. On the back of the stele, Eannatum is depicted at the head of his formidable army, walking over the corpses of defeated enemies. On one of the fragments of the stele, flying kites carry away the severed heads of enemy warriors. The inscription on the stele reveals the content of the images, describing the victory of the Lagash army and reporting that the defeated inhabitants of Umma pledged to pay tribute to the gods of Lagash.

Glyptic monuments, that is, carved stones - seals and amulets, are of great value for the history of art of the peoples of Western Asia. They often fill the gaps caused by the lack of monuments of monumental art, and allow us to more fully imagine the artistic development of the art of Mesopotamia. Images on cylinder seals of Western Asia (The usual form of seals of Western Asia is cylindrical, on the round surface of which artists easily placed multi-figure compositions.). They are often distinguished by great skill in execution. Made from various types of stones, softer for the first half of the 3rd millennium BC. and harder ones (chalcedony, carnelian, hematite, etc.) for the end of the 3rd, as well as the 2nd and 1st millennia BC. extremely primitive instruments, these small works of art are sometimes true masterpieces.

Cylinder seals dating back to the time of Sumer are very diverse. Favorite subjects are mythological, most often associated with the very popular epic in Western Asia about Gilgamesh - a hero of invincible strength and unsurpassed courage. There are seals with images on the themes of the myth of the flood, the flight of the hero Etana on an eagle to the sky for the “grass of birth”, etc. Sumerian cylinder seals are characterized by a conventional, schematic representation of the figures of people and animals, an ornamental composition and the desire to fill the entire surface of the cylinder with an image . As in monumental reliefs, artists strictly adhere to the arrangement of figures, in which all heads are placed at the same level, which is why animals are often represented standing on their hind legs. The motif of Gilgamesh’s fight against predatory animals that harmed livestock, often found on cylinders, reflects the vital interests of the ancient cattle breeders of Mesopotamia. The theme of the hero fighting with animals was very common in the glyptics of Western Asia and in subsequent times.

Art of Akkad (24th - 23rd centuries BC)

In the 24th century BC. The Semitic city of Akkad rose, uniting most of Mesopotamia under its rule. The struggle for the unification of the country stirred up the broad masses of the population and had historically progressive significance, making it possible to organize a common irrigation network necessary for the development of the economy of Mesopotamia.

In the art of the Akkadian kingdom (24th - 23rd centuries BC), realistic tendencies developed. One of best works from this time is the victory stele of King Naramsin. The Naramsin stela, 2 m high, is made of red sandstone. It tells the story of Naramsin's victory over the mountain tribes. A new quality and an important stylistic difference between this stele and earlier monuments is the unity and clarity of the composition, which is especially strongly felt when comparing this monument with the stele of Eannatum discussed above, similar in theme. There are no more "belts" dividing the image. Successfully using the technique of diagonal construction, the artist shows the ascent of troops up the mountain. The skillful arrangement of figures throughout the relief field creates the impression of movement and space. A landscape appeared, which is the unifying motif of the composition. The wavy lines show the rocks, and a few trees give the idea of ​​a wooded area.

Realistic tendencies also affected the interpretation of human figures, and this primarily applies to Naramsin. The short tunic (which is a new type of clothing) leaves a freely conveyed strong muscular body exposed.

The arms, legs, shoulders, and body proportions are well modeled - much more correct than in ancient Sumerian images. The composition skillfully contrasts the defeated army of the enemy, begging for mercy, descending from the mountain, and Naramsin’s warriors, full of energy, ascending the mountain. The pose of a mortally wounded warrior, who fell over backward from the blow of a spear, is very accurately conveyed.

pierced his neck. The art of Mesopotamia had never known anything like this before. New feature is also the transfer of the volume of figures in relief. However, the turn of the shoulders in the profile depiction of the head and legs, as well as the conventional different scales of the figures of the king and warriors, remain canonical.

Round sculpture also acquires new features, an example of which is a sculptural head made of copper found in Nineveh, conventionally called the head of Sargon I, the founder of the Akkadian dynasty. Sharp, harsh realistic power in the rendering of a face, which is given living, expressive features, carefully executed

the rich helmet, reminiscent of the “wig” of Meskalamdug, the boldness and at the same time subtlety of execution bring this work closer to the work of the Akkadian masters who created the Naramsin stele.

In the seals of the time of Akkad, one of the main subjects remains Gilgamesh and his exploits. The same features that clearly appeared in the monumental relief determine the character of these miniature reliefs. Without abandoning the symmetrical arrangement of figures, the Akkadian masters bring greater precision and clarity to the composition, striving to convey movement more naturally. The bodies of people and animals are modeled three-dimensionally, and the muscles are emphasized. Landscape elements are introduced into the composition.

Art of Sumer (23 - 21 centuries BC)

In the second half of the 3rd millennium BC. (23rd - 22nd centuries) there was an invasion of the Gutian mountain tribe into Mesopotamia, which conquered the Akkadian state. The power of the Gutian kings lasted in Mesopotamia for about a century. The southern cities of Sumer suffered less than others from the conquest. A new flourishing, based on the expansion of foreign trade, was experienced by some ancient centers, especially Lagash, whose ruler, Gudea, apparently retained some independence. Communication with other peoples, acquaintance with their culture were great importance for the development of the art of this time. This is evidenced by both art monuments and written monuments - cuneiform texts, which are the best examples literary style of the ancient Sumerians. Gudea became especially famous for his construction activities and his concern for the restoration of ancient structures. However architectural monuments from this time very little has survived to this day. ABOUT high level artistic culture Gudea's time is best evidenced by the monumental

sculpture. Statues of Gudea have been preserved, remarkable in their execution technique. Most of them were dedicated to the deity and stood in temples. This largely explains the traditional static nature and features of canonical convention. At the same time, in the statues of Gudea, great changes in Sumerian art are clearly visible, which adopted many progressive features of the art of the time of Akkad.

The best surviving statue of Gudea depicts him seated. This sculpture very clearly demonstrates the combination of the usual for Sumerian-Akkadian art of the undivided stone block with new feature- subtle modeling of the naked body and the first, albeit timid attempt to outline the folds of clothing. The lower part of the figure forms a single stone block with the seat, and the clothing, reminiscent of a smooth case, under which there is absolutely no sense of the body, is only a good field for inscriptions. The interpretation of the upper part of the statue is completely different. Well modeled strong

Gudea's shoulders, chest and arms. The soft fabric, thrown over the shoulder, lies in slightly visible folds at the elbow and at the hand, which can be felt under the fabric. The rendering of the naked body and folds of clothing testifies to a much more developed sense of plasticity than was previously the case, and to the considerable skill of the sculptors.

The heads of the Gudea statues are especially remarkable. In the interpretation of the face, there appears a desire to convey portrait features. Prominent cheekbones, thick eyebrows, and a rectangular chin with a dimple in the middle are emphasized. However, in general, the appearance of the strong and strong-willed face of young Gudea is conveyed in a generalized way.

After the expulsion of the Gutians in 2132 BC. dominion over Mesopotamia passes to the city. Uru, where is this

The 3rd dynasty of Ur reigns. Ur acts as a new, after Akkad, unifier of the country, forming a powerful Sumerian-Akkadian state, claiming world domination.

Probably at the turn of Gudea's reign and time reign III the dynasty of Ur created such wonderful work art, like a female head made of white marble with eyes inlaid with lapis lazuli, where the sculptor’s desire for grace, for a plastic and soft rendering of forms is clearly visible, and there are also undoubted features of realism in the interpretation of eyes and hair. A face full of tender beauty with expressive blue eyes is a first-class example of Sumerian art. The most numerous monuments of the III dynasty of Ur - cylinder seals - show how, in connection with the strengthening of despotism, the development of hierarchy and the establishment of a strictly defined pantheon of deities, universally binding canons were developed in art that glorified the divine power of the king. Subsequently (which will find its most vivid expression in Babylonian glyptics) there is a narrowing of the subject matter and a craft following ready-made samples. In standard compositions, the same motif is repeated - worship of the deity.

Look

39. Stele of Naram-Suen from Susa. Victory of the king over the Lullubeys. Naram-Suen is the king of Akkad, Akkad and Sumer, “the king of the four countries of the world.” (2237-2200 BC) at the top are the patron gods, Naram-Sin, who defeated the enemy and the second enemy begs for mercy, at the bottom is an army climbing the mountains. Unlike Sumerian reliefs, there are elements of landscape (tree, mountain) here, the figures are not lined up, but are located taking into account the terrain.

Temple dairy - decorative frieze of the temple of Ninhursag at al-Ubaid with Imdugud and deer (London, British Museum)

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