INTRODUCTION

Subject thesis"Features of the spatio-temporal organization of the plays of Botho Strauss".

Relevance and novelty works are that the German playwright, novelist and essayist Boto Strauss, representative new drama, practically unknown in Russia. One book has been published with translations of 6 of his plays (“So big - and so small”, “Time and Room”, “Ithaca”, “Hypochondriacs”, “Spectators”, “Park”) and an introductory word by Vladimir Kolyazin. Also in the dissertation work of I.S. Roganova, Strauss is mentioned as the author with whom the German postmodern drama begins. The production of his plays in Russia was carried out only once - by Oleg Rybkin in 1995 in the Red Torch, the play "Time and Room". Interest in this author began with a note about this performance in one of the Novosibirsk newspapers.

Target- identification and description of the features of the spatio-temporal organization of the author's plays.

Tasks: analysis of the spatial and temporal organization of each play; identification of common features, patterns in the organization.

object are the following plays by Strauss: "The Hypochondriacs", "So Big - and So Small", "Park", "Time and Room".

Subject are the features of the spatio-temporal organization of the plays.

This work consists of an introduction, two chapters, a conclusion and a bibliography.

The introduction indicates the topic, relevance, object, subject, goals and objectives of the work.

The first chapter consists of two paragraphs: the concept of artistic time and space, artistic time and art space in drama, the changes in the reflection of these categories that arose in the twentieth century are considered, as well as part of the second paragraph is devoted to the influence of cinema on the composition and spatio-temporal organization of the new drama.

The second chapter consists of two paragraphs: the organization of space in plays, the organization of time. The first paragraph reveals such features of the organization as the closedness of space, the relevance of indicators of the boundaries of this closeness, the shift in emphasis from external to internal space - memory, associations, montage in the organization. In the second paragraph, the following features of the organization of the category of time are revealed: montage, fragmentation associated with the relevance of the motive of recollection, retrospectiveness. Thus, montage becomes the main principle in the spatio-temporal organization of the plays under study.

In the study, we relied on the work of Yu.N. Tynyanov, O.V. Zhurcheva, V. Kolyazina, Yu.M. Lotman, M.M. Bakhtin, P. Pavi.

The volume of work - 60 pages. The list of sources used includes 54 names.

CATEGORIES OF SPACE AND TIME IN DRAMA

SPACE AND TIME IN A ARTWORK

Space and time - categories that include ideas, knowledge about the world order, the place and role of a person in it, give grounds for describing and analyzing the ways of their speech expression and representation in the fabric of a work of art. Understood in this way, these categories can be considered as means of interpreting a literary text.

In the literary encyclopedia, we will find the following definition for these categories, written by I. Rodnyanskaya: “artistic time and artistic space - the most important characteristics artistic image, organizing the composition of the work and ensuring its perception as a holistic and original artistic reality. <…>Its very content [of the literary and poetic image] necessarily reproduces the spatio-temporal picture of the world (transmitted by indirect means of storytelling) and, moreover, in its symbolic and ideological aspect” [Rodnyanskaya I. Artistic time and artistic space. http://feb-web.ru/feb/kle/Kle-abc/ke9/ke9-7721.htm].

In the spatio-temporal picture of the world, reproduced by art, including dramaturgy, there are images of biographical time (childhood, youth), historical, cosmic (the idea of ​​eternity and universal history), calendar, daily, as well as ideas about movement and immobility, about the relationship between past, present and future. Spatial pictures are represented by images of closed and open space, terrestrial and cosmic, really visible and imaginary, ideas about objectivity near and far. At the same time, any, as a rule, indicator, marker of this picture of the world in a work of art acquires a symbolic, iconic character. According to D.S. Likhachev, from epoch to epoch, as the understanding of the variability of the world becomes wider and deeper, the images of time are becoming increasingly important in literature: writers are more and more clearly aware of the “variety of forms of movement”, “mastering the world in its temporal dimensions”.

Artistic space can be dotted, linear, planar or volumetric. The second and third can also have a horizontal or vertical orientation. Linear space may or may not include the concept of directionality. In the presence of this sign (the image of a linear directed space, characterized by the relevance of the sign of length and the irrelevance of the sign of width, in art is often a road), linear space becomes a convenient artistic language for modeling temporal categories (“ life path”, “road” as a means of deploying character in time). To describe a point space, one has to turn to the concept of delimitation. The artistic space in a literary work is the continuum in which the characters are placed and the action takes place. Naive perception constantly pushes the reader to identify artistic and physical space.

However, the idea that an artistic space is always a model of some natural space is not always justified. The space in a work of art models different connections of the picture of the world: temporal, social, ethical, etc. This can happen because in one or another model of the world the category of space is intricately merged with certain concepts that exist in our picture of the world as separate or opposite. However, the reason may be elsewhere: in the artistic model of the world, “space” sometimes metaphorically assumes an expression that is not at all spatial relationships in the modeling structure of the world.

Thus, the artistic space is a model of the world of a given author, expressed in the language of his spatial representations. At the same time, as often happens in other matters, this language, taken by itself, is much less individual and more belongs to time, era, social and artistic groups than what the artist says in that language - than his individual model of the world.

In particular, artistic space can be the basis for interpretation artistic world, since the spatial relations:

They can determine the nature of the "resistance of the environment of the inner world" (D.S. Likhachev);

They are one of the main ways of realizing the worldview of the characters, their relationships, the degree of freedom / lack of freedom;

They serve as one of the main ways of embodying the author's point of view.

Space and its properties are inseparable from the things that fill it. Therefore, the analysis of artistic space and the artistic world is closely connected with the analysis of the features of the material world that fills it.

Time is introduced into the work by a cinematic technique, that is, by dividing it into separate moments of rest. This is a common approach fine arts, and none of them can do without it. The reflection of time in the work is fragmentary due to the fact that continuously flowing homogeneous time is not able to give a rhythm. The latter involves pulsation, condensation and rarefaction, deceleration and acceleration, steps and stops. Hence, figurative means Those that give rhythm must have a certain dissection in themselves, with some of their elements detaining attention and the eye, while others, intermediate, advancing one and the other from element to another. In other words, the lines that form the basic scheme of a pictorial work must permeate or reduce the alternating elements of rest and jump.

But it is not enough to decompose time into resting moments: it is necessary to link them into a single series, and this presupposes a certain internal unity of individual moments, which makes it possible and even necessary to move from element to element and, in this transition, to recognize in the new element something from an element that has just been abandoned. . Dismemberment is a condition for facilitated analysis; but the condition of facilitated synthesis is also required.

It can be said in another way: the organization of time is always and inevitably achieved by dismemberment, that is, by discontinuity. With the activity and synthetic nature of the mind, this discontinuity is given clearly and decisively. Then the synthesis itself, if it can only be within the power of the spectator, will be extremely full and sublime, it will be able to embrace great times and be full of movement.

The simplest and at the same time the most open method of cinematic analysis is achieved by a simple sequence of images whose spaces physically have nothing in common, are not coordinated with each other and are not even connected. In fact, this is the same cinematographic tape, but not cut in many places and therefore does not in the least condone the passive linking of images to each other.

An important characteristic of any art world is statics/dynamics. In its embodiment, the most important role belongs to space. Statics assumes time to be stopped, frozen, not turning forward, but statically oriented towards the past, that is real life cannot be in a closed space. Movement in a static world has the character of "mobile immobility". Dynamics is living, absorbing the present into the future. The continuation of life is possible only outside of isolation. And the character is perceived and evaluated in unity with his location, he, as it were, merges with space into an indivisible whole, becomes a part of it. The dynamics of a character depends on whether he has his own individual space, his own path relative to the world around him, or whether he remains, according to Lotman, the same type of environment around him. Kruglikov V.A. even makes it possible "to use the designations of individuality and personality as an analogue of space and time of a person." “Then it is appropriate to present individuality as a semantic image of the unfolding of the “I” in the space of a person. At the same time, individuality designates and indicates the location of personality in a person. In turn, a personality can be represented as a semantic image of the development of the “I” in a person’s time, as that subjective time in which movements, displacements and changes in individuality take place.<…>The absolute fullness of individuality is tragic for a person, as well as the absolute fullness of the personality ”[ Kruglikov V.A. Space and time of the "man of culture"//Culture, man and picture of the world. Ed. Arnoldov A.I., Kruglikov V.A. M., 1987].

V. Rudnev singles out three key parameters of the characteristics of artistic space: closedness/openness, straightness/curvature, greatness/smallness. They are explained in the psychoanalytic terms of Otto Rank's theory of birth trauma: at birth, there is a painful transition from the closed, small, crooked space of the mother's womb to the vast, direct and open space of the external world. In the pragmatics of space, the concepts of "here" and "there" play the most important role: they model the position of the speaker and the listener in relation to each other and in relation to the outside world. Rudnev proposes to distinguish here, there, nowhere with a capital and small letter:

“The word “here” with a small letter means the space that is in relation to the sensory reachability of the speaker, that is, the objects located “here” he can see, hear or touch.

The word "there" with a small letter means a space "located beyond the border or on the border of sensory reach from the side of the speaker. The boundary can be considered such a state of affairs when an object can be perceived by only one sense organ, for example, it can be seen, but not heard (it is located there, at the other end of the room) or, conversely, heard, but not seen (it is located there, behind partition).

The word "Here" with a capital letter means the space that unites the speaker with the object in question. It can be really very far. “He is here in America” (in this case, the speaker may be in California, and the one in question may be in Florida or Wisconsin).

An extremely interesting paradox is connected with the pragmatics of space. It is natural to assume that if an object is here, then it is not somewhere there (or nowhere). But if this logic is made modal, that is, the operator “maybe” is assigned to both parts of the statement, then the following will be obtained.

It is possible that the object is here, but perhaps not here. All plots connected with space are built on this paradox. For example, Hamlet in Shakespeare's tragedy kills Polonius by mistake. This error lurks in the structure of the pragmatic space. Hamlet thinks that there, behind the curtain, hides the king, whom he was going to kill. The space there is a place of uncertainty. But even here there can be a place of uncertainty, for example, when a double of the one you are waiting for comes to you, and you think that someone is here, but in fact he is somewhere there or he was completely killed (Nowhere) ”[ Rudnev V.P. Dictionary of culture of the twentieth century. - M.: Agraf, 1997. - 384 p.].

The idea of ​​the unity of time and space arose in connection with the advent of Einstein's theory of relativity. This idea is also confirmed by the fact that quite often words with a spatial meaning acquire temporal semantics, or have syncretic semantics, denoting both time and space. No object of reality exists only in space outside of time or only in time outside of space. Time is understood as the fourth dimension, the main difference of which from the first three (space) is that time is irreversible (anisotropic). Here is how Hans Reichenbach, a researcher of the philosophy of time of the 20th century, puts it:

1. The past does not return;

2. The past cannot be changed, but the future can;

3. It is impossible to have a reliable protocol about the future [ibid.].

The term chronotope, introduced by Einstein in his theory of relativity, was used by M.M. Bakhtin in the study of the novel [Bakhtin M.M. Epic and novel. St. Petersburg, 2000]. Chronotope (literally - time-space) - a significant relationship of temporal and spatial relations, artistically mastered in literature; the continuity of space and time, when time acts as the fourth dimension of space. Time condenses, becomes artistically visible; space is drawn into the movement of time, plot. Signs of time are revealed in space, and space is comprehended and measured by time. This intersection of rows and the merging of signs characterizes the artistic chronotope.

The chronotope determines the artistic unity of a literary work in its relation to reality. All temporal-spatial definitions in art and literature are inseparable from each other and are always emotionally-value-based.

The chronotope is the most important characteristic of an artistic image and at the same time a way of creating artistic reality. MM. Bakhtin writes that "every entry into the sphere of meanings takes place only through the gates of chronotopes." The chronotope, on the one hand, reflects the worldview of its era, on the other hand, the measure of the development of the author's self-awareness, the process of the emergence of points of view on space and time. As the most general, universal category of culture, artistic space-time is able to embody "the worldview of the era, the behavior of people, their consciousness, the rhythm of life, their attitude to things" (Gurevich). The chronotopic beginning of literary works, - Khalizev writes, - is capable of giving them a philosophical character, "bringing" the verbal fabric to the image of being as a whole, to the picture of the world [Khalizev V.E. Theory of Literature. M., 2005].

In the spatio-temporal organization of the works of the twentieth century, as well as modern literature, various, sometimes extreme, tendencies coexist (and struggle) - an extraordinary expansion or, on the contrary, a concentrated compression of the boundaries of artistic reality, an inclination to increase conventionality or, conversely, to the emphasized documentary nature of chronological and topographic landmarks, isolation and openness, deployment and illegality. Among these trends, the following are the most obvious:

Striving for nameless or fictitious topography: City, instead of Kyiv, at Bulgakov (this throws a certain legendary reflection on historically specific events); the unmistakably recognizable but never named Cologne in H. Böll's prose; the story of Macondo in García Márquez's carnivalized national epic One Hundred Years of Solitude. It is significant, however, that artistic time-space here it requires real historical-geographical identification, or at least rapprochement, without which the work cannot be understood at all; widely used is the artistic time of a fairy tale or parable, closed, excluded from the historical account - "The Trial" by F. Kafka, "The Plague" by A. Camus, "Watt" by S. Beckett. The fabulous and parable “once”, “once”, equal to “always” and “whenever” corresponds to the eternal “conditions of human existence”, and is also used to ensure that the habitually modern coloring does not distract the reader in search of historical correlations, does not excite “ naive” question: “when did this happen?”; topography eludes identification, localization in the real world.

The presence of two different non-merged spaces in one artistic world: the real, that is, the physical, surrounding the heroes, and the “romantic”, created by the imagination of the hero himself, caused by the collision of the romantic ideal with the coming era of huckstering, put forward by bourgeois development. Moreover, the emphasis from the space of the outer world moves to the inner space of human consciousness. Under the internal space of the development of events is meant the memory of the character; the intermittent, reverse and direct course of plot time is motivated not by the author's initiative, but by the psychology of recall. Time "stratifies"; in extreme cases (for example, in M. Proust), the narrative “here and now” is left with the role of a frame or a material reason for the excitation of a memory that freely flies through space and time in pursuit of the desired moment of the experienced. In connection with the discovery of the compositional possibilities of "recollection", the original correlation in importance between moving and "attached to the place" characters often changes: spiritual path, were, as a rule, mobile, and the extras merged with the everyday background into a motionless whole, now, on the contrary, the "remembering" hero, who belongs to central characters, being endowed with its own subjective sphere, the right to demonstrate its inner world (the position "at the window" of the heroine of the novel by V. Wolfe "A trip to the lighthouse"). This position allows you to compress own time actions down to a few days and hours, while the time and space of an entire human life can be projected onto the screen of recollection. The content of the character's memory here plays the same role as the collective knowledge of the legend in relation to ancient epic, - it frees from the exposition, the epilogue, and in general any explanatory moments provided by the initiative intervention of the author-narrator.

The character also begins to be thought of as a kind of space. G. Gachev writes that “Space and Time are not objective categories of being, but subjective forms of the human mind: a priori forms of our sensibility, that is, orientation outward, outward (Space) and inward (Time)” [Gachev G.D. European images Space and Time//Culture, man and picture of the world. Ed. Arnoldov A.I., Kruglikov V.A. M., 1987]. Yampolsky writes that "the body forms its own space," which, for clarity, he calls "place." This gathering of spaces into a whole, according to Heidegger, is the property of a thing. A thing embodies a certain collective nature, a collective energy, and it creates a place. The collection of space introduces boundaries into it, boundaries give life to space. The place becomes a cast from a person, his mask, the boundary in which he himself acquires being, moves and changes. “The human body is also a thing. It also deforms the space around it, giving it the individuality of the place. The human body needs a localization, a place where it can place itself and find a home in which it can stay. As Edward Casey noted, “the body as such is an intermediary between my consciousness of a place and the place itself, moving me between places and introducing me into the intimate cracks of each given place [Yampolsky M. The Demon and the Labyrinth].

Thanks to the elimination of the author as a narrating person, wide possibilities opened up before montage, a kind of spatio-temporal mosaic, when different "theaters of action", panoramic and close-ups are compared without motivations and comments as a "documentary" face of reality itself.

In the twentieth century there were concepts of multidimensional time. They originated in the mainstream of absolute idealism, the British philosophy of the early twentieth century. 20th century culture was influenced by W. John Wilm Dunn's serial concept ("Experiment with Time"). Dunn analyzed the well-known phenomenon of prophetic dreams, when at one end of the planet a person dreams of an event that a year later happens quite in reality at the other end of the planet. Explaining this mysterious phenomenon, Dunn came to the conclusion that time has at least two dimensions for one person. In one dimension a person lives, and in another he observes. And this second dimension is space-like, it is possible to move through it into the past and into the future. This dimension manifests itself in altered states of consciousness, when the intellect does not put pressure on a person, that is, first of all, in a dream.

The phenomenon of neo-mythological consciousness at the beginning of the 20th century actualized the mythological cyclic model of time, in which not a single postulate of Reichenbach works. This cyclical time of the agrarian cult is familiar to everyone. After winter, spring comes, nature comes to life, and the cycle repeats itself. In the literature and philosophy of the twentieth century, the archaic myth of the eternal return becomes popular.

In contrast to this, the consciousness of a person of the late twentieth century, based on the idea of ​​linear time, which presupposes the existence of a certain end, just postulates the beginning of this end. And it turns out that time no longer moves in the usual direction; to understand what is happening, a person turns to the past. Baudrillard writes about it this way: “We use the concepts of past, present and future, which are very conditional, when discussing the beginning and the end. However, today we find ourselves embroiled in a kind of perpetual process, which no longer has any final.

The end is also the ultimate goal, the goal that makes this or that movement purposeful. From now on, our history has neither purpose nor direction: it has lost them, lost them irrevocably. Staying on the other side of truth and error, on the other side of good and evil, we are no longer able to go back. Apparently, for any process there is a specific point of no return, after passing which it loses its finiteness forever. If completion is absent, then everything exists only by being dissolved in an endless history, an endless crisis, an endless series of processes.

Having lost sight of the end, we desperately try to fix the beginning, this is our aspiration to find the origins. But these efforts are in vain: both anthropologists and paleontologists discover that all sources disappear in the depths of time, they are lost in the past, as infinite as the future.

We have already passed the point of no return and are fully involved in a non-stop process in which everything is immersed in an infinite vacuum and has lost its human dimension, and which deprives us of both the memory of the past, and the focus on the future, and the ability to integrate this future into the present. From now on, our world is a universe of abstract, incorporeal things that continue to live by inertia, which have become simulacra of themselves, but do not know death: infinite existence is guaranteed to them because they are only artificial formations.

And yet, we are still in the thrall of the illusion that certain processes will necessarily reveal their finiteness, and with it their direction, will allow us to retrospectively establish their origins, and as a result, we will be able to comprehend the movement of interest to us using the concepts of cause. and consequences.

The absence of an end creates a situation in which it is difficult to get rid of the impression that all the information we receive does not contain anything new, that everything we are told about has already happened. Since now there is no completion, no ultimate goal, since humanity has gained immortality, the subject has ceased to understand what he is. And this acquired immortality is the last fantasy born of our technologies” [Baudrillard Jean Paroli from fragment to fragment Ekaterinburg, 2006] .

It should be added that the past is available only in the form of memories, dreams. This is an ongoing attempt to embody once again what has already been, what has already happened once and should not happen again. In the center - the fate of a man who found himself "at the end of time". Often used in a work of art is the motive of expectation: the hope for a miracle, or longing for a better life, or the expectation of trouble, a premonition of disaster.

In Deja Loer's play "Olga's Room" there is a phrase that illustrates this tendency to turn to the past: "Only if I can reproduce the past with absolute accuracy, can I see the future."

The concept of running backwards time comes into contact with the same idea. “Time introduces a completely understandable metaphysical confusion: it appears together with a person, but precedes eternity. Another obscurity, no less important and no less expressive, prevents us from determining the direction of time. They say that it flows from the past into the future: but the opposite is no less logical, as the Spanish poet Miguel de Unamuno wrote about ”(Borges). Unamuno does not mean a simple countdown, time here is a metaphor for a person. Dying, a person begins to consistently lose what he managed to do and survive, all his experience, he unwinds like a ball to a state of non-existence.

Artistic time and art space the most important characteristics of the artistic image, providing a holistic perception of artistic reality and organizing the composition of the work. The art of the word belongs to the group of dynamic, temporal arts (in contrast to the plastic, spatial arts). But the literary and poetic image, formally unfolding in time (as a sequence of text), with its content reproduces the spatio-temporal picture of the world, moreover, in its symbolic-ideological, value aspect. Such traditional spatial landmarks as “house” (an image of a closed space), “space” (an image of an open space), “threshold”, “window”, “door” (the border between one and the other) have long been the point of application of comprehending forces in literary and artistic (and, more broadly, cultural) models of the world (the symbolic richness of such spaces, images is obvious, such as the house of Gogol's "old-world landowners" or Raskolnikov's coffin-like room in Crime and Punishment, 1866, F.M. Dostoevsky, like a steppe in "Taras Bulba", 1835, N.V. Gogol or in the story of the same name by A.P. Chekhov). The artistic chronology is also symbolic (the movement from spring and summer heyday to autumn sadness, characteristic of the world of Turgenev's prose). In general, the ancient types of value situations, realized in spatiotemporal images (chronotope, according to M.M. Bakhtin), are “idyllic time” in father's house, "adventurous time" of trials in a foreign land, "mystery time" of descent into the underworld of disasters - one way or another preserved in a reduced form by the classical literature of the New Age and modern literature(“station” or “airport” as places of decisive meetings and clearings, choice of path, sudden recognition, etc. correspond to the old “crossroads” or roadside inn; “laz” - to the former “threshold” as the topos of the ritual transition).

In view of the iconic, spiritual, symbolic nature of the art of the word spatial and temporal coordinates of literary reality are not fully concretized, discontinuous and conditional (the fundamental unrepresentability of spaces, images and values ​​in mythological, grotesque and fantastic works; the uneven course of plot time, its delays at the points of descriptions, retreats, parallel flow in different storylines). However, here the temporary nature of the literary image, noted by G.E. Lessing in Laocoön (1766), makes itself felt - the convention in the transfer of space is felt weaker and is realized only when trying to translate literary works into the language of other arts; meanwhile, the conventionality in the transfer of time, the dialectic of the discrepancy between the time of the narration and the time of the events depicted, compositional time with the plot are mastered by the literary process as an obvious and meaningful contradiction.

Archaic, oral and generally early literature is sensitive to the type of temporal confinement, orientation in the collective or historical account of time (for example, in the traditional system of literary genres, lyric is “present”, and epic is “long gone”, qualitatively separated from the life time of the performer and listeners) . The age of myth for its keeper and narrator is not a thing of the past; the mythological narrative ends with the correlation of events with the real composition of the world or its future destiny(the myth of Pandora's box, of the chained Prometheus, who will someday be released). The time of a fairy tale is a deliberately conditional past, a fictitious time (and space) of unheard-of things; the ironic ending (“and I was there, drinking honey-beer”) often emphasizes that there is no way out of the time of the fairy tale during its rendering (on this basis, one can conclude that the fairy tale originated later than the myth).

As the decay of archaic, ritual models of the world, marked by features of naive realism (observance of the unity of time and place in ancient drama with its cult and mythological origins), in the spatio-temporal representations that characterize the literary consciousness, a measure of conventionality is growing. In an epic or fairy tale, the tempo of the narration could not yet sharply outstrip the tempo of the events depicted; an epic or fairy-tale action could not unfold simultaneously (“in the meantime”) on two or more sites; it was strictly linear and, in this respect, remained faithful to empiricism; the epic narrator did not have a field of vision expanded in comparison with the usual human horizon; at each moment he was in one and only one point of the plot space. "Copernican coup" produced by the modern European novel in spatio-temporal organization of narrative genres, consisted in the fact that the author, along with the right to unconventional and frank fiction, acquired the right to dispose of novel time as its initiator and creator. When fiction removes the mask of a real event, and the writer openly breaks with the role of a rhapsodist or chronicler, then there is no need for a naive-empirical concept of event time. Temporal coverage can now be arbitrarily wide, the pace of narration can be arbitrarily uneven, parallel “theatres of action”, reversal of time and exits to the future known to the narrator are acceptable and functionally important (for purposes of analysis, explanation or entertainment). The boundaries between the compressed author's presentation of events, which speeds up the passage of plot time, the description, which stops its course for the sake of reviewing space, and the dramatized episodes, the compositional time of which "keeps up" with the plot time, become much sharper and are realized. Accordingly, the difference between the non-fixed (“omnipresent”) and localized in space (“witness”) position of the narrator, which is characteristic mainly of “dramatic” episodes, is felt more sharply.

If in a short story of a novelistic type (a classic example is “ Queen of Spades”, 1833, A.S. Pushkin) these moments of the new artistic time and artistic space are still brought to a balanced unity and are in complete submission to the author-narrator, who talks with the reader, as it were, “on the other side” of the fictional space-time, then in In the "big" novel of the 19th century, such unity fluctuates markedly under the influence of emerging centrifugal forces. These “forces” are the discovery of everyday time and habitable space (in the novels of O. Balzac, I.S. Turgenev, I.A. Goncharov) in connection with the concept of the social environment that forms the human character, as well as the discovery of a multi-subject narrative and transferring the center of space-time coordinates to the inner world of the characters in connection with the development of psychological analysis. When long-term organic processes come into the narrator's field of vision, the author runs the risk of facing the impossible task of reproducing life "from minute to minute." The way out was to transfer the sum of everyday circumstances that repeatedly affect a person beyond the time of action (the exposition in Father Goriot, 1834-35; Oblomov's dream is a lengthy digression in Goncharov's novel) or to distribute the work of episodes shrouded in the course of everyday life over the entire calendar plan (in the novels of Turgenev, in the "peaceful" chapters of the epic of L.N. Tolstoy). Such an imitation of the “river of life” itself with particular persistence requires the narrator to have a guiding supra-event presence. But, on the other hand, the opposite, in essence, process of “self-elimination” of the author-narrator is already beginning: the space of dramatic episodes is increasingly organized from the “observational position” of one of the characters, events are described synchronously, as they are played out before the eyes of the participant. It is also significant that chronicle-everyday time, in contrast to the event-based (in the source - adventure) does not have an unconditional beginning and an unconditional end ("life goes on").

In an effort to resolve these contradictions, Chekhov, in accordance with his general idea of ​​​​the course of life (the time of everyday life is the decisive tragic time of human existence), merged eventful time with everyday time to an indistinguishable unity: episodes that once happened are presented in a grammatical imperfect - as repeatedly repeated everyday scenes that fill a whole segment of everyday life. (This folding of a large “piece” of plot time into a single episode, which simultaneously serves as both a summary story about the past stage and an illustration to it, a “test” taken from everyday life, is one of the main secrets of Chekhov’s famous brevity.) From the crossroads In the classic novel of the mid-19th century, the path opposite to Chekhov's was paved by Dostoevsky, who concentrated the plot within the boundaries of a critical, critical time of decisive trials, measured in a few days and hours. The chronicle gradualness here is actually depreciated in the name of the decisive disclosure of the characters in their fateful moments. In Dostoevsky’s intense turning point corresponds to the space illuminated in the form of a stage, extremely involved in events, measured by the steps of the characters - the “threshold” (doors, stairs, corridors, lanes, where you can’t miss each other), “accidental shelter” (tavern, compartment), “ hall for a gathering, ”corresponding to situations of crime (crossing), confession, public trial. At the same time, the spiritual coordinates of space and time embrace the human universe in his novels (the ancient golden age, the French Revolution, "quadrillions" of space years and versts), and these instantaneous mental cuts of world existence prompt us to compare Dostoevsky's world with the world " Divine Comedy"(1307-21) Dante and "Faust" (1808-31) I.V. Goethe.

In the spatio-temporal organization of a work of literature of the 20th century, the following trends and features can be noted:

1. The symbolic plane of the realistic spatio-temporal panorama is accentuated, which, in particular, is reflected in the inclination towards nameless or fictitious topography: City, instead of Kyiv, by M.A. Bulgakov; the county of Yoknapatofa in the south of the USA, created by the imagination of W. Faulkner; the generalized "Latin American" country of Macondo in the national epic of the Colombian G. Garcia Marquez "One Hundred Years of Solitude" (1967). However, it is important that artistic time and artistic space in all these cases require real historical and geographical identification, or at least convergence, without which the work is incomprehensible;
2. The closed artistic time of a fairy tale or parable is often used, which is often excluded from the historical account, which often corresponds to the uncertainty of the scene (“The Trial”, 1915, F. Kafka; “The Plague”, 1947, A. Camus; “Watt”, 1953, S. Beckett );
3. A remarkable milestone in modern literary development- appeal to the character's memory as an internal space for the development of events; the intermittent, reverse and other course of plot time is motivated not by the author's initiative, but by the psychology of recall (this takes place not only in M. Proust or W. Wolf, but also in writers of a more traditional realistic plan, for example, in G. Böll, but in modern Russian literature by V.V. Bykov, Yu.V. Trifonov). Such a setting of the hero's consciousness makes it possible to compress the actual time of action to a few days and hours, while the time and space of an entire human life can be projected onto the screen of recollection;
4. Modern literature has not lost a hero moving in an objective earthly expanse, in a multifaceted epic space of collective historical destinies - what are the heroes of The Quiet Don (1928-40) by M.A. Sholokhov, The Life of Klim Samgin, 1927-36, M. Gorky.
5. The “hero” of a monumental narrative can become itself historical time in its decisive "nodes", subordinating the fate of the heroes as private moments in an avalanche of events (A.I. Solzhenitsyn's epic "The Red Wheel", 1969-90).

The natural forms of existence of the depicted world (as well as the world of time and the real world) are time and space. Time and space in literature are a kind of conventionality, on the nature of which various forms of the spatio-temporal organization of the artistic world depend.

Among other arts, literature deals with time and space most freely (only the art of cinema can compete in this respect).

In particular, literature can show events taking place simultaneously in different places: for this, the narrator just needs to introduce into the narrative the formula “In the meantime, something happened there” or a similar one. Just as simply, literature passes from one temporal stratum to another (especially from the present to the past and vice versa); the earliest forms of such temporal switching were the memories and the story of a hero - we already meet them in Homer.

Another important property of literary time and space is their discreteness (discontinuity). With regard to time, this is especially important, since literature does not reproduce the entire time stream, but selects only artistically significant fragments from it, denoting “empty” intervals with formulas such as “how long, how short”, “several days have passed”, etc. Such temporal discreteness serves as a powerful means of dynamizing first the plot, and subsequently psychologism.

The fragmentation of artistic space is partly related to the properties of artistic time, but partly it has an independent character. Thus, the instantaneous change of space-time coordinates, natural for literature (for example, the transfer of action from St. Petersburg to Oblomovka in Goncharov's novel Oblomov) makes it unnecessary to describe the intermediate space (in this case- roads). The discreteness of the actual spatial images lies in the fact that in the literature a particular place can not be described in all details, but only indicated by individual signs that are most significant for the author and have a high semantic load. The rest (as a rule, a large part) of the space is "finished" in the reader's imagination. Thus, the scene of action in Lermontov's "Borodino" is indicated by only four fragmentary details: "a large field", "redoubt", "guns and forests blue tops". Just as fragmentary, for example, is the description of Onegin's village study: only a "portrait of Lord Byron", a figurine of Napoleon and - a little later - books are noted. Such discreteness of time and space leads to significant artistic savings and increases the significance of a separate figurative detail.

The nature of the conventionality of literary time and space depends to a great extent on the type of literature. In the lyrics, this convention is maximum; in lyrical works, in particular, there may be no image of space at all - for example, in Pushkin's poem "I loved you ...". In other cases, spatial coordinates are present only formally, being conditionally allegorical: for example, it is impossible to say that the space of Pushkin's "Prophet" is the desert, and Lermontov's "Sail" is the sea. However, at the same time, lyrics are capable of reproducing object world with its spatial coordinates, which have great artistic significance. So, in Lermontov's poem "How often, surrounded by a motley crowd ..." the opposition of the spatial images of the ballroom and the "wonderful kingdom" embodies the antithesis of civilization and nature, which is very important for Lermontov.

With artistic time, lyricism handles just as freely. We often observe in it a complex interaction of time layers: past and present (“When a noisy day falls silent for a mortal ...” by Pushkin), past, present and future (“I will not humiliate myself before you ...” Lermontov), ​​mortal human time and eternity (“rolling down from the mountain, the stone lay in the valley ...” Tyutchev). There is also a complete absence of a significant image of time in the lyrics, as, for example, in Lermontov’s poems “Both Boring and Sad” or Tyutchev’s “Wave and Thought” - the time coordinate of such works can be defined by the word “always”. On the contrary, there is also a very sharp perception of time by a lyrical hero, which is typical, for example, for the poetry of I. Annensky, as even the titles of his works speak of: “A moment”, “Anguish of fleetingness”, “Minute”, not to mention deeper images. However, in all cases, lyrical time has a high degree of convention, and often abstract.

The conventions of dramatic time and space are connected mainly with the orientation of the drama towards the theatrical production. Of course, each playwright has his own construction of a space-time image, but the general character of convention remains unchanged: “Whatever significant role in dramatic works they do not acquire narrative fragments, no matter how the depicted action is fragmented, no matter how the characters’ statements that sound aloud are subordinated to the logic of their inner speech, the drama is committed to pictures closed in space and time.

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* Khalizev V.E. Drama is a kind of literature. M., 1986. S. 46.

The greatest freedom in dealing with artistic time and space has epic race; it also exhibits the most complex and interesting effects in this region.

According to the peculiarities of artistic convention literary time and space can be divided into abstract and concrete. This division is especially important for the artistic space. We will call an abstract space such a space that has a high degree of conventionality and which, in the limit, can be perceived as a “general” space, with coordinates “everywhere” or “nowhere”. It does not have a pronounced characteristic and therefore does not have any influence on the artistic world of the work: it does not determine the character and behavior of a person, is not associated with the features of the action, does not set any emotional tone, etc. Thus, in Shakespeare's plays, the place of action is either completely fictional ("Twelfth Night", "The Tempest"), or has no influence on the characters and circumstances ("Hamlet", "Coriolanus", "Othello"). As Dostoevsky rightly remarked, "his Italians, for example, are almost entirely the same Englishmen"*. In a similar way, the artistic space is built in the dramaturgy of classicism, in many romantic works (ballads by Goethe, Schiller, Zhukovsky, short stories by E. Poe, Lermontov's The Demon), in literature of decadence (plays by M. Maeterlinck, L. Andreev) and modernism (" Plague" by A. Camus, plays by J.-P. Sartre, E. Ionesco).

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* Dostoevsky F.M. Full coll. soch., V 30 t. M., 1984. T. 26. S. 145.

On the contrary, concrete space does not simply “tie” the depicted world to one or another topographical reality, but actively influences the entire structure of the work. In particular, for the Russian literature XIX in. characteristic is the concretization of space, the creation of images of Moscow, St. Petersburg, a county town, a manor, etc., as mentioned above in connection with the category of literary landscape.

In the XX century. One more trend was clearly identified: a peculiar combination within the limits of a work of art of concrete and abstract space, their mutual "overflow" and interaction. At the same time, a symbolic meaning and a high degree of generalization are given to a specific place of action. The concrete space becomes a universal model of being. At the origins of this phenomenon in Russian literature were Pushkin ("Eugene Onegin", "History of the village of Goryukhina"), Gogol ("The Government Inspector"), then Dostoevsky ("Demons", "The Brothers Karamazov"); Saltykov-Shchedrin "History of one city"), Chekhov (almost all mature creativity). In the 20th century, this trend finds expression in the works of A. Bely ("Petersburg"), Bulgakov ("White Guard", "Master and Margarita"), Ven. Erofeev ("Moscow-Petushki"), and in foreign literature- by M. Proust, W. Faulkner, A. Camus ("The Outsider") and others.

(It is interesting that a similar tendency to turn real space into a symbolic one is observed in the 20th century in some other arts, in particular, in cinema: for example, in F. Coppola's films "Apocalypse Now" and F. Fellini's "Orchestra Rehearsal" quite concrete at the beginning space is gradually, towards the end, transformed into something mystical and symbolic.)

The corresponding properties of artistic time are usually associated with abstract or concrete space. Thus, the abstract space of the fable is combined with abstract time: “The strong are always to blame for the weak ...”, “And in the heart the flatterer will always find a corner ...”, etc. In this case, the most universal laws of human life, timeless and extraspatial, are mastered. And vice versa: spatial specifics are usually supplemented by temporal ones, as, for example, in the novels of Turgenev, Goncharov, Tolstoy, etc.

The forms of concretization of artistic time are, firstly, the "binding" of the action to real historical landmarks and, secondly, the precise definition of "cyclic" time coordinates: the seasons and the time of day. The first form was especially developed in aesthetic system realism of the XIX-XX centuries. (thus, Pushkin insistently pointing out that in his "Eugene Onegin" time is "calculated according to the calendar"), although it arose, of course, much earlier, apparently already in antiquity. But the measure of specificity in each individual case will be different and accentuated to varying degrees by the author. For example, in "War and Peace" by Tolstoy, "The Life of Klim Samgin" by Gorky, "The Living and the Dead" by Simonov, etc. artistic worlds real historical events are directly included in the text of the work, and the time of action is determined not only to the nearest year and month, but often even one day. But in Lermontov's "A Hero of Our Time" or Dostoevsky's "Crime and Punishment", the time coordinates are quite vague and can be guessed by indirect signs, but at the same time, the link in the first case to the 30s, and in the second to the 60s, is quite obvious.

The image of the time of day has long had a certain emotional meaning in literature and culture. So, in the mythology of many countries, the night is the time of the undivided domination of secret and most often evil forces, and the approach of dawn, heralded by the cock crow, brought deliverance from evil spirits. Clear traces of these beliefs can be easily found in literature up to the present day (Bulgakov's Master and Margarita, for example).

These emotional and semantic meanings were preserved to a certain extent in the literature of the 19th–20th centuries. and even became enduring metaphors like "the dawn of a new life." However, for the literature of this period, a different tendency is more characteristic - to individualize the emotional and psychological meaning of the time of day in relation to a specific character or lyrical hero. So, the night can become a time of intense reflection (“Poems composed at night during insomnia” by Pushkin), anxiety (“The pillow is already hot ...” by Akhmatova), longing (“The Master and Margarita” by Bulgakov). Morning can also change its emotional coloring to the exact opposite, becoming a time of sadness (“Foggy Morning, Gray Morning...” by Turgenev, “A Pair of Bays” by A.N. Apukhtin, “Gloomy Morning” by A.N. Tolstoy). In general, individual shades in the emotional coloring of time exist in latest literature great multitude.

The season has been mastered in the culture of mankind since the most ancient times and was associated mainly with the agricultural cycle. In almost all mythologies, autumn is the time of death, and spring is the time of rebirth. This mythological scheme has passed into literature, and traces of it can be found in a wide variety of works. However, more interesting and artistically significant are the individual images of the seasons of each writer, filled, as a rule, with psychological meaning. There are already complex and implicit relationships between the time of year and the state of mind, giving a very wide emotional spread (“I don’t like spring ...” by Pushkin - “I love spring more than anything ...” Yesenin). Correlation psychological state character and lyrical hero with this or that season becomes in some cases a relatively independent object of reflection - here we can recall Pushkin's sensitive feeling of the seasons ("Autumn"), Blok's "Snow Masks", lyrical digression in Tvardovsky's poem "Vasily Terkin": "And at what time of the year // Is it easier to die in a war?" The same time of the year is individualized by different writers, carries a different psychological and emotional load: let's compare, for example, Turgenev's summer in nature and St. Petersburg's summer in Dostoevsky's "Crime and Punishment"; or almost always a joyful Chekhovian spring (“I felt May, dear May!” - “The Bride”) with spring in Bulgakov’s Yershalaim (“Oh, what a terrible month of Nisan this year!”).

Like local space, concrete time can reveal in itself the beginnings of absolute, infinite time, as, for example, in Dostoevsky's "Demons" and "The Brothers Karamazov", in Chekhov's late prose ("Student", "On Affairs of Service", etc.) , in "The Master and Margarita" by Bulgakov, the novels of M. Proust, "Magic Mountain" by T. Mann, etc.

Both in life and in literature, space and time are not given to us in their pure form. We judge space by the objects that fill it (in a broad sense), and we judge time by the processes taking place in it. For a practical analysis of a work of art, it is important to at least qualitatively (“more - less”) determine the fullness, saturation of space and time, since this indicator often characterizes the style of the work. For example, Gogol's style is characterized mainly by the most filled space, as we talked about above. A somewhat smaller, but still significant saturation of space with objects and things is found in Pushkin ("Eugene Onegin", "Count Nulin"), Turgenev, Goncharov, Dostoevsky, Chekhov, Gorky, Bulgakov. But in the style system, for example, Lermontov's space is practically not filled. Even in A Hero of Our Time, not to mention such works as Demon, Mtsyri, Boyar Orsha, we cannot imagine a single specific interior, and the landscape is most often abstract and fragmentary. There is no subject saturation of space and such writers as L.N. Tolstoy, Saltykov-Shchedrin, V. Nabokov, A. Platonov, F. Iskander and others.

The intensity of artistic time is expressed in its saturation with events (in this case, by “events” we mean not only external, but also internal, psychological ones). Three options are possible here: average, “normal” time occupancy with events; increased intensity of time (the number of events per unit of time increases); reduced intensity (saturation with events is minimal). The first type of organization of artistic time is presented, for example, in Pushkin's Eugene Onegin, the novels of Turgenev, Tolstoy, Gorky.

The second type - in the works of Lermontov, Dostoevsky, Bulgakov. The third - in Gogol, Goncharov, Leskov, Chekhov.

The increased saturation of artistic space is combined, as a rule, with a reduced intensity of artistic time, and vice versa: a reduced saturation of space is combined with an increased saturation of time.

For literature as a temporary (dynamic) art form, the organization of artistic time is, in principle, more important than the organization of space. The most important problem here is the relationship between the time depicted and the time of the image. Literary reproduction of any process or event requires a certain time, which, of course, varies depending on the individual pace of reading, but still has some certainty and somehow correlates with the time of the depicted process. Thus, Gorky's "Life of Klim Samghin", which covers forty years of "real" time, requires, of course, a much shorter time period for reading.

The depicted time and the time of the image, or, in other words, real and artistic time, as a rule, do not coincide, which often creates significant artistic effects. For example, in Gogol's "The Tale of How Ivan Ivanovich Quarreled with Ivan Nikiforovich" between the main events of the plot and the last visit of the narrator to Mirgorod, about a decade and a half passes, which are extremely sparingly noted in the text (of the events of this period, only the deaths of judge Demyan Demyanovich and crooked Ivan Ivanovich). But these years were not completely empty either: all this time the lawsuit continued, the main characters grew old and approached inevitable death, still busy with the same “business”, in comparison with which even eating a melon or drinking tea in a pond seem to be activities full of meaning. The time interval prepares and enhances the sad mood of the finale: what at first was only funny, then becomes sad and almost tragic after a decade and a half.

In literature, rather complex relationships often arise between real and artistic time. Yes, in some cases real time in general can be equal to zero: this is observed, for example, in various kinds of descriptions. Such time is called eventless. But event time, in which at least something happens, is internally heterogeneous. In one case, we have events and actions that significantly change either a person, or the relationship of people, or the situation as a whole - such time is called plot time. In another case, a picture of sustainable existence is drawn, i.e. actions and deeds that are repeated from day to day, from year to year. In the System of such artistic time, which is often called "chronicle-everyday", practically nothing changes. The dynamics of such time is maximally conditional, and its function is to reproduce a stable way of life. Good example such a temporary organization is the image of the cultural and everyday way of life of the Larin family in Pushkin's Eugene Onegin (“They kept in a peaceful life // Habits of dear old times ...”). Here, as in some other places in the novel (the depiction of Onegin's daily activities in the city and in the countryside, for example), it is not dynamics that is reproduced, but static, not once, but always.

The ability to determine the type of artistic time in a particular work is a very important thing. The ratio of time of eventless ("zero"), chronicle-everyday and event-plot largely determines the tempo organization of the work, which, in turn, determines the nature of aesthetic perception, forms the reader's subjective time. Thus, Gogol's "Dead Souls", in which eventless and chronicle everyday time predominates, create the impression slow pace and require an appropriate "reading mode" and a certain emotional mood: artistic time is unhurried, so should be the time of perception. For example, Dostoevsky's novel "Crime and Punishment" has a completely opposite tempo organization, in which event time predominates (recall that we include not only plot twists and turns, but also internal, psychological events as "events"). Accordingly, both the mode of its perception and the subjective pace of reading will be different: often the novel is read simply “excitedly”, in one breath, especially for the first time.

The historical development of the spatio-temporal organization of the artistic world reveals a very definite tendency towards complication. in the 19th and especially in the 20th century. writers use space-time composition as a special, conscious artistic technique; begins a kind of "game" with time and space. Her idea, as a rule, is to compare different times and spaces, to reveal both the characteristic properties of "here" and "now", and the general, universal laws of human existence, independent of time and space; it is the understanding of the world in its unity. This artistic idea was very accurately and deeply expressed by Chekhov in the story “Student”: “The past,” he thought, “is connected with the present by an uninterrupted chain of events that followed one from the other. And it seemed to him that he had just seen both ends of this chain: he touched one end, as the other trembled.<...>truth and beauty, which directed human life there, in the garden and in the courtyard of the high priest, have continued uninterruptedly to this day and, apparently, have always been the main thing in human life and in general on earth.

In the XX century. comparison, or, in the apt word of Tolstoy, “conjugation” of space-time coordinates has become characteristic of very many writers - T. Mann, Faulkner, Bulgakov, Simonov, Aitmatov, and others. One of the most striking and artistically significant examples of this trend is Tvardovsky’s poem "Beyond the distance - the distance." The space-time composition creates in it an image of the epic unity of the world, in which there is a rightful place for the past, the present, and the future; and a small forge in Zagorye, and a great forge in the Urals, and Moscow, and Vladivostok, and the front, and the rear, and much more. In the same poem, Tvardovsky figuratively and very clearly formulated the principle of space-time composition:

There are two types of travel:

One - to start off from a place into the distance,

The other is to sit in your place,

Scroll back the calendar.

This time the reason is special

Let me combine them.

Both that and that - by the way, both of me,

And my path is doubly beneficial.

These are the main elements and properties of that side art form, which we called the depicted world. It should be emphasized that the depicted world is extremely important side the entire work of art: the stylistic, artistic originality of the work often depends on its features; without understanding the features of the depicted world, it is difficult to come to an analysis of the artistic content. We recall this because in the practice of school teaching the depicted world is not singled out at all as a structural element of the form, and, consequently, its analysis is often neglected. Meanwhile, as one of the leading writers of our time U. Eco said, “for storytelling, first of all, it is necessary to create a certain world, arranging it as best as possible and thinking it through in detail”*.

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* Eco W. The name of the rose. M., 1989. S. 438.

TEST QUESTIONS:

1. What is meant in literary criticism by the term "depicted world"? In what way is its non-identity of primary reality manifested?

2. What is an art piece? What groups exist artistic details?

3. What is the difference between detail-detail and detail-symbol?

4. What is the purpose of a literary portrait? What types of portraiture do you know? What is the difference between them?

5. What functions do images of nature perform in literature? What is a "cityscape" and why is it needed in a work?

6. What is the purpose of describing things in a work of art?

7. What is psychologism? Why is it used in fiction? What forms and techniques of psychologism do you know?

8. What is fantasy and lifelike as a form of artistic convention?

9. What functions, forms and techniques of science fiction do you know?

10. What is plot and descriptiveness?

11. What types of spatio-temporal organization of the depicted world do you know? What artistic effects does the writer extract from images of space and time? What is the relationship between real time and artistic time?

Exercises

1. Determine what type of artistic details (detail-detail or detail-symbol) is typical for "Belkin's Tales" by A.S. Pushkin, "Notes of a hunter" I.S. Turgenev, "White Guard" M.A. Bulgakov.

2. What type of portrait (portrait-description, portrait-comparison, portrait-impression) belong to:

a) a portrait of Pugachev ("The Captain's Daughter" by A.S. Pushkin),

b) a portrait of Sobakevich (“Dead Souls” by N.V. Gogol),

c) a portrait of Svidrigailov (“Crime and Punishment” by F.M. Dostoevsky),

d) portraits of Gurov and Anna Sergeevna (“Lady with a Dog” by A.P. Chekhov),

e) a portrait of Lenin (“V.I. Lenin” by M. Gorky),

f) a portrait of Biche Seniel (“Running on the Waves” by A. Green).

3. In the examples from the previous exercise, set the type of connection between the portrait and character traits:

- direct match

- contrast inconsistency,

is a complex relationship.

4. Determine what functions the landscape performs in the following works:

N.M. Karamzin. Poor Lisa

A. S. Pushkin. gypsies,

I.S. Turgenev. Forest and steppe,

A. P. Chekhov. Lady with a dog,

M. Gorky. Okurov town,

V.M. Shukshin. The desire to live.

5. In which of the following works does the image of things play a significant role? Determine the function of the world of things in these works.

A.S. Griboyedov. Woe from the mind

N.V. Gogol. old world landowners,

L.N. Tolstoy. Sunday,

A.A. Block. Twelve,

A.I. Solzhenitsyn. One day Ivan Denisovich

A. and B. Strugatsky. Predatory things of the century.

6. Determine the prevailing forms and techniques of psychologism in the following works:

M.Yu. Lermontov. Hero of our time,

N.V. Gogol. Portrait,

I.S. Turgenev. Asya,

F.M. Dostoevsky. Teenager,

A. P. Chekhov. new cottage,

M. Gorky. At the bottom,

M.A. Bulgakov. Dog's heart.

7. Determine in which of the following works fantasy is an essential characteristic of the depicted world. In each case, analyze the predominant functions and devices of fiction.

N.V. Gogol. The missing letter

M.Yu. Lermontov. Masquerade,

I.S. Turgenev. Knocking!,

N.S. Leskov. The Enchanted Wanderer,

M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin. Chizhikovo grief, lost conscience,

F.M. Dostoevsky. Bobok,

S.A. Yesenin. Black man,

M.A. Bulgakov. Rock eggs.

8. Determine in which of the following works the essential characteristic of the depicted world is plot, descriptiveness and psychologism:

N.V. Gogol. The story of how Ivan Ivanovich and Ivan Nikiforovich quarreled, Marriage,

M.Yu. Lermontov. Hero of our time,

A.N. Ostrovsky. Wolves and sheep

L.N. Tolstoy. After the ball,

A P. Chekhov. Gooseberry,

M. Gorky. Life of Klim Samgin.

9. How and why space-time effects are used in the following works:

A.S. Pushkin. Boris Godunov,

M.Yu. Lermontov. Daemon,

N.V. Gogol. haunted place,

A.P. Chekhov. Gull,

M.A. Bulgakov. diaboliad,

A.T. Tvardovsky. Ant Country,

A. and B. Strugatsky. Noon. XXII century.

Final task

Analyze the structure of the depicted world in two or three of the following works according to the following algorithm:

1. For the depicted world are essential:

1.1. plot,

1.2. descriptiveness

1.2.1. analyze:

a) portraits

b) landscapes,

c) the world of things.

1.3. psychologism

1.3.1. analyze:

a) forms and techniques of psychologism,

b) the functions of psychologism.

2. For the depicted world, it is essential

2.1. lifelikeness

2.1.1. determine lifelike functions,

2.2. fantasy

2.2.1. analyze:

a) the type of fantastic imagery,

b) forms and techniques of fantasy,

c) fantasy functions.

3. What type of artistic details prevails

3.1. details-details

3.1.1. to analyze on one or two examples the artistic features, the nature of the emotional impact and the functions of details, details,

3.2. details-symbols

3.2.1. to analyze on one or two examples the artistic features, the nature of the emotional impact and the functions of the details-symbols.

4. Time and space in the work are characterized

4.1. concreteness

4.1.1. analyze the artistic impact and function of a particular space and time,

4.2. abstractness

4.2.1. analyze the artistic impact and function of abstract space and time,

4.3. abstractness and concreteness of time and space are combined in an artistic image

4.3.1. to analyze the artistic impact and functions of such a combination.

Make a summary of the previous analysis about the artistic features and functions of the depicted world in this work.

Texts for analysis

A.S. Pushkin. Captain's daughter, Queen of Spades,

N.V. Gogol. May Night, or Drowned Woman, Nose, Dead Souls,

M.Yu. Lermontov. Demon, Hero of our time,

I.S. Turgenev. Fathers and Sons,

N.S. Leskov. Old years in the village of Plodomasovo, Enchanted Wanderer,

I.A. Goncharov. Oblomov,

ON THE. Nekrasov. Who lives well in Russia,

L.N. Tolstoy. Childhood, Death of Ivan Ilyich,

F.M. Dostoevsky. Crime and Punishment,

A.P. Chekhov. On business, Bishop,

E. Zamyatin. We,

M.A. Bulgakov. Dog's heart,

A.T. Tvardovsky. Terkin in the other world

A. I. Solzhenitsyn. One day of Ivan Denisovich.