Environmental management refers to the totality of human actions associated with the use of natural resources. They are soil, subsoil, etc. There are: rational and efficient use of natural resources. Let's consider their features.

General information

Rational is the use of natural resources that creates conditions for human life and obtaining material goods, the most efficient operation of each natural complex. At the same time, human actions are aimed at preventing or reducing possible harm to the environment, maintaining and increasing the attractiveness and productivity of natural resources.

Irrational use of natural resources includes actions that result in a decrease in the quality of resources. Such activities lead to waste and depletion of mineral resources, pollution of nature, and deterioration of the aesthetic and health properties of the environment.

Development of environmental management

Human impact on the environment has undergone significant changes during historical development. On initial stages During the formation of society, people were passive users of resources. With the growth of productive forces, due to changes in socio-economic formations, the impact on nature has increased markedly.

Irrigation systems arose during the slave period and the era of feudalism. Under the capitalist system, people sought to extract as much profit as possible from resources. Private property relations were accompanied irrational environmental management. This has led to a significant reduction in the amount of renewable resources.

The most favorable conditions for rational use resources, according to many experts, are formed under a socialist system with a planned economy. In this case, the state is the owner of all the country's wealth and, accordingly, controls its expenditure. The use of resources under the socialist system is carried out taking into account the likely consequences of various transformations of nature.

Features of rational environmental management

With the correct use of natural resources, the restoration of renewable resources is ensured, repeatedly and in in full industrial waste is used. Due to this, environmental pollution is significantly reduced.

There are many examples in human history rational and irrational environmental management. The volumes of beneficial effects on nature, unfortunately, are decreasing over time. Nevertheless, rational environmental management still takes place today. Examples of such activities include the creation of landscapes, national parks, nature reserves, and the use of advanced production technologies. To reduce the negative impact on nature, treatment facilities are being created, closed water supply systems are being used at enterprises, and new, environmentally friendly types of fuel are being developed.

What activities are considered unsustainable environmental management?

It is considered improper to use resources in large quantities or not in full. This leads to their rapid depletion. Irrational environmental management is an impact on nature that causes a large number of waste that is not reused. As a result, the environment becomes heavily polluted.

Quite a lot can be cited examples of unsustainable environmental management. As a rule, improper use of resources is typical for extensive farming. Examples of unsustainable environmental management are:

• Use of slash-and-burn agriculture, overgrazing of livestock. This method of management is used mainly in underdeveloped African countries.
• Deforestation of the equatorial forest.
• Uncontrolled dumping of waste into lakes and rivers. This irrational environmental management is big problem for states Western Europe and Russia.
• air and water bodies.
• Uncontrolled destruction of animals and plants.

Working to prevent the destruction of natural resources

Today, many countries are fighting against unsustainable environmental management. This work is carried out on the basis of special programs and laws. To reduce the negative impact on nature, additional sanctions are introduced. In addition, special supervisory structures are being formed. Their powers include monitoring the use of resources, identifying facts irrational environmental management, identifying and bringing to justice those responsible.

International interaction

Cooperation between countries at the international level is extremely important for effectively combating unsustainable environmental management. This is especially true for those states in which environmental problems are very acute.

Interaction at the international level should be aimed at developing joint projects for questions:

• Assessing the condition and productivity of fishing resources in water bodies under national jurisdiction, bringing fishing capacity to a level comparable to long-term productivity. It is necessary to develop programs to restore populations of fish and other aquatic life to sustainable levels. At the same time, the measures developed should also apply to the resources available in the open seas.
• Conservation and rational use in the aquatic environment. In particular, we are talking about stopping the practice of rational environmental management, leading to irreversible consequences: destruction of populations, large-scale destruction of the habitat.

It is necessary to develop effective legal mechanisms and instruments, coordinate actions on the use of land and water resources.

Ecological problems

Nature pollution is such an undesirable change in the properties of the environment, which entails or may entail negative impact per person or ecosystem. Its most famous and widespread type is considered to be chemical emissions. However, radioactive, thermal,

As a rule, people have a negative impact on the state of natural resources in the course of their economic activities. Meanwhile, pollution of ecosystems is also possible due to natural phenomena. For example, volcanic eruptions, mudflows, earthquakes, etc. have a negative impact on nature.

Soil pollution

As a rule, the condition of the top layer of soil deteriorates when metals, pesticides, and various fertilizers get into it. Statistics show that more than 12 billion tons of garbage are removed from large cities every year.

Mining operations over large areas lead to the destruction of soil cover.

Negative impact on the hydrosphere

With irrational use of natural resources, people cause significant damage to the environment. Particularly acute in recent years has been the problem of pollution of water bodies with wastewater from industrial (chemical, metallurgical, etc.) enterprises, waste from agricultural land, and livestock farms.

Petroleum products pose the greatest danger to the aquatic environment.

Air pollution

Various enterprises that emit combustion products of mineral fuels, waste from chemical and metallurgical production have a negative impact on the state of the air environment. The main pollutants are carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides, and radioactive compounds.

Anti-pollution measures

As a result of irrational use, many environmental problems arise. First they appear at the local level, then at the regional level. Without proper attention from the authorities, environmental problems become global. Examples are depletion of the ozone layer, depletion of water reserves, and global warming.

Ways to solve these problems can be very different. At the local level, industrial enterprises, caring for the well-being of the population and the preservation of nature, are constructing powerful wastewater treatment complexes. Recently, energy-saving technologies have become widespread. It allows us to significantly reduce the negative impact on nature. It involves the recycling of waste raw materials.

Creation of protected areas

This is another way to ensure the safety of natural complexes. Specially protected areas are objects national treasure. They represent land with water bodies and the airspace above them, having recreational, aesthetic, health, cultural, historical, and scientific significance.

Such territories are withdrawn from circulation by the state. Within these zones, a special environmental management regime operates.

According to international environmental organizations, there are specially protected zones in many countries. There are many nature reserves and national parks in Russia. In such areas, conditions close to natural are created.

Conclusion

Environmental problems, unfortunately, are very acute today. At the international level, work is constantly being done to reduce the negative impact on nature. Almost all countries in the world participate in the Climate Agreement.

Programs aimed at conservation are being developed within states. This work is especially active in Russia. On the territory of the country there are National parks, nature reserves; some territories are under international protection.

- a type of relationship between a person and the environment in which people are able to intelligently develop natural resources and prevent the negative consequences of their activities. An example of rational environmental management is the creation cultural landscapes, application of low-waste and non-waste technologies. Rational environmental management includes the introduction of biological methods of controlling agricultural pests. Rational environmental management can also be considered the creation of environmentally friendly pure species fuel, improving technologies for the extraction and transportation of natural raw materials, etc.

In Belarus, the implementation of rational environmental management is controlled at the state level. To this end, a number of environmental laws have been adopted. Among them are the laws “On the protection and use of wildlife”, “On waste management”, “On the protection of atmospheric air”.

Creation of low-waste and non-waste technologies

Low-waste technologies — production processes, which ensure the fullest use of processed raw materials and generated waste. At the same time, substances are returned to the environment in relatively harmless quantities.

Part global problem Disposal of solid household waste is a problem of processing secondary polymer raw materials (especially plastic bottles). In Belarus, about 20-30 million of them are thrown away every month. Today, domestic scientists have developed and are using their own technology that makes it possible to process plastic bottles into fibrous materials. They serve as filters for purifying contaminated wastewater from fuels and lubricants, and are also widely used at gas stations. Filters made from recycled materials are not inferior in their physical and chemical properties to their analogues made from primary polymers. In addition, their cost is several times lower. In addition, machine sink brushes, packaging tape, tiles, paving slabs, etc. are made from the resulting fiber.

The development and implementation of low-waste technologies is dictated by the interests of environmental protection and is a step towards the development of waste-free technologies. Waste-free technologies imply full transition production to a closed resource cycle without any impact on the environment.

Since 2012, the largest biogas plant in Belarus has been launched at the Rassvet agricultural production complex (Mogilev region). It allows you to process organic waste (manure, bird droppings, household waste, etc.). After processing, gaseous fuel - biogas - is obtained. Thanks to biogas, the farm can completely avoid heating greenhouses with expensive natural gas in winter. In addition to biogas, environmentally friendly products are also obtained from production waste. organic fertilizers. These fertilizers are free of pathogenic microflora, weed seeds, nitrites and nitrates.

Another example of waste-free technology is the production of cheeses at most dairy enterprises in Belarus. IN in this case The fat-free and protein-free whey obtained from cheese production is completely used as raw material for the baking industry.

The introduction of low-waste and non-waste technologies also implies a transition to the next step in rational environmental management. This is the use of non-traditional, environmentally friendly and inexhaustible natural resources.

For the economy of our republic, the use of wind as an alternative energy source is especially important. A wind power plant with a capacity of 1.5 MW is successfully operating in the Novogrudok district of the Grodno region. This power is quite enough to provide electricity to the city of Novogrudok, where more than 30 thousand residents live. In the near future, more than 10 wind farms with a capacity of more than 400 MW will appear in the republic.

For more than five years, the Berestye greenhouse plant (Brest) in Belarus has been operating a geothermal station, which does not emit carbon dioxide, sulfur oxides and soot into the atmosphere during operation. At the same time, this type of energy reduces the country’s dependence on imported energy resources. Belarusian scientists have calculated that by extracting warm water from the depths of the earth, natural gas savings amount to about 1 million m3 per year.

Ways to green agriculture and transport

The development of environmentally friendly fuels for transport is no less important than the creation of new automotive technologies. Today there are many examples where alcohol and hydrogen are used as fuel in vehicles. Unfortunately, these types of fuel have not yet received mass distribution due to the low economic efficiency of their use. At the same time, so-called hybrid cars have become increasingly used. Along with an internal combustion engine, they also have an electric motor, which is intended for movement within cities.

Currently, there are three enterprises in Belarus producing biodiesel fuel for internal combustion engines. These are OJSC "Grodno Azot" (Grodno), OJSC "Mogilevkhimvolokno" (Mogilev), OJSC "Belshina" (Bobruisk). These enterprises produce about 800 thousand tons of biodiesel fuel per year, most of which is exported. Belarusian biodiesel fuel is a mixture of petroleum diesel fuel and a biocomponent based on rapeseed oil and methanol in a ratio of 95% and 5%, respectively. This fuel reduces carbon dioxide emissions into the atmosphere compared to conventional diesel fuel. Scientists have found that the production of biodiesel fuel has allowed our country to reduce the purchase of oil by 300 thousand tons per year.

Solar panels are also known to be used as a source of energy for transportation. In July 2015, a Swiss manned aircraft equipped with solar panels flew for the first time in the world for more than 115 hours. At the same time, it reached an altitude of about 8.5 km, using exclusively solar energy during the flight.

Preservation of the gene pool

The species of living organisms on the planet are unique. They store information about all stages of the evolution of the biosphere, which is of practical and great importance. educational value. There are no useless or harmful species in nature; they are all necessary for sustainable development biosphere. Any species that disappears will never appear on Earth again. Therefore, in conditions of increased anthropogenic impact on the environment, it is extremely important to preserve the gene pool of existing species on the planet. In the Republic of Belarus, the following system of measures has been developed for this purpose:

• creation of environmental areas - nature reserves, national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, etc.;
• development of a system for monitoring the state of the environment - environmental monitoring;
• development and adoption of environmental laws providing for various forms of liability for negative impacts on the environment. Responsibility concerns pollution of the biosphere, violation of the regime of protected areas, poaching, inhumane treatment of animals, etc.;
• breeding rare and endangered plants and animals. Relocating them to protected areas or new favorable habitats;
• creation of a genetic data bank (plant seeds, reproductive and somatic cells of animals, plants, fungal spores capable of reproducing in the future). This is relevant for the conservation of valuable plant varieties and animal breeds or endangered species;
• carrying out regular work on environmental education and upbringing of the entire population, and especially the younger generation.

Rational environmental management is a type of relationship between a person and the environment in which a person is able to intelligently develop natural resources and prevent the negative consequences of their activities. An example of rational environmental management is the use of low-waste and non-waste technologies in industry, as well as the greening of all spheres of human economic activity.

Humanity has already for a long time satisfies its needs for food, warmth, and rest using natural resources. In some cases, our activities cause irreparable harm to the environment. Therefore, we must use natural resources rationally.

This will allow us to economically and justifiably consume the gifts that our planet gives us. Rational environmental management, examples of which will allow us to delve into this issue, requires detailed consideration.

Concept of environmental management

Before considering examples of rational and irrational environmental management, it is necessary to define this concept. There are two main interpretations.

The first definition considers environmental management as a system of reasonable consumption of resources, which allows reducing the rate of processing and allows nature to recover. This implies that man does not infringe upon himself in the use of the gifts of the environment, but improves the technologies available to him for the full use of each natural resource.

The second definition states that environmental management is a theoretical discipline that considers ways to improve the rational use of available resources. This science is looking for ways to optimize this issue.

Resource classification

Rational environmental management, examples of which should be considered in more detail, requires thoughtful use of resources. It is necessary to understand what is meant by them. Natural resources are not created by man, but are used for his purposes.

These funds are classified according to different signs. Depending on the direction of use, there are industrial, recreational, medicinal, scientific and other resources. There is also a division into renewable and non-renewable groups. The first category includes the energy of wind, sun, ocean water, etc.

Natural resources are non-renewable. First of all, this should include oil, gas, coal and other fuel raw materials.

These approaches to grouping are conditional. After all, even the energy of the sun will one day be inaccessible to us. After a huge number of years, our star will still go out.

Types of natural resources

Existing natural resources are usually divided into several groups. They need to be considered in more detail. First of all, water resources are widely used in the modern world. We consume them and use them for technical purposes. It is necessary to maintain the purity of these resources without disturbing the original habitats of underwater flora and fauna.

The second important group is land resources. An example of rational environmental management is the plowing, for example, of natural landscapes for crops that, after their growth, do not deplete the soil.

Natural resources also include minerals, forests, flora and fauna. Energy resources are very important to us.

Signs of rationality

Considering today's human actions, for example, industrial production, agriculture, tourism, changes in natural landscapes, it is sometimes difficult to say unambiguously which of the above is an example of rational environmental management. After all, human activities affect our environment.

Rational environmental management is the most harmonious interaction between us and the world. This concept has several characteristic features.

The use of the gifts of nature is rational if in the process of their activities a person uses new technologies, as well as intensive approaches to production. To achieve this, waste-free manufacturing methods for new products are being introduced, and all technological processes are being automated.

This approach to management is typical for developed countries of the world. They serve as an example for many other states.

Irrational environmental management

Examples of rational environmental management are found everywhere today. But there is also a reverse approach to farming. It is characterized by a mass of negative phenomena, representing a dangerous trend both for the producing country and the whole world.

Irrational use of environmental resources is characterized as unreasonable, predatory consumption. At the same time, people do not think about the consequences of their actions. The irrational approach also has its own characteristic features. First of all, this includes an extensive approach to conducting business activities. At the same time, outdated technologies and production methods are used.

Such cycles are illogical and not fully thought through. The result is a lot of waste. Some of them harm the environment, human health, and even lead to the death of entire species of living beings.

Irrational environmental management is leading humanity into the abyss, an ecological crisis. This approach to management is typical for countries Latin America, Asia and Eastern Europe.

Basic examples

There are several main activities that can clearly be classified as one or another group of environmental resource use. An example of rational environmental management is the use of waste-free production technologies. For these purposes, closed or closed enterprises are created full cycle processing.

In this matter, it is important to constantly improve technology and approaches to manufacturing products. One of the main examples could also be the creation of protected areas, where measures are actively taken to protect and restore flora and fauna.

Human activity is depriving many species of animals and plants of their habitats. Changes are sometimes so strong that it is almost impossible to reverse them. Another example of rational environmental management is the restoration of natural resource development sites and the creation of natural landscapes.

Generally Accepted Principles

Accepted in the world general system, according to which national principles environmental management is considered appropriate. They must not cause irreparable damage to the environment. This is the main principle that puts the interests of nature above economic gain.

Several principles have been developed that can be an example of rational environmental management. Is draining swamps, thoughtless deforestation, and destruction of rare species of animals, according to these postulates, a real crime? Undoubtedly! People must learn to consume the minimum amount of resources.

Ways to improve the situation

Considering the rational management of natural resources, examples of which were given above, it should be said about real methods for its improvement. They are successfully used all over the world. First of all, enterprises conducting research in the field of increasing the comprehensiveness of natural resource development are financed.

Methods for the thoughtful placement of production facilities in each specific ecological zone are also being introduced. Are changing production cycles to reduce waste as much as possible. Taking into account the characteristics of the region, the economic specialization of enterprises is determined and environmental protection measures are developed.

Also, taking into account the peculiarities of the environmental situation, monitoring and control of the consequences of one or another type of human activity is carried out. The global community is faced with the need to implement Newest technologies, carry out environmental protection measures to maintain the ecological characteristics of the environment in which humanity can exist. After all, we are only a few steps away from the point of no return, when it will be impossible to restore the previous natural conditions.

Examples of the global community

A global example of rational environmental management is the organization of economic activities in New Zealand. This country has completely switched to inexhaustible energy sources and has established the priority value of protected areas.

It is a leader in eco-tourism. Forests in this country remain unchanged; their cutting down, as well as hunting, are strictly prohibited here. Many economically developed countries are also gradually switching to solar and wind energy. Each state undertakes, to the extent possible, to apply methods that increase the rationality of environmental management.

Having considered the rational management of natural resources, examples of which were presented above, one can understand its importance. The future of all humanity depends on our attitude towards the world around us. Scientists say that an environmental disaster is already close. The world community is obliged to take all measures to improve the organization of economic activities carried out by humans.

1. Environmental management. Examples of rational and irrational environmental management.

2. General economic and geographical characteristics of Western European countries.

3. Determine and compare the average population density of two countries (as chosen by the teacher) and explain the reasons for the differences.

1. Environmental management. Examples of rational and irrational environmental management.

The whole story human society is the story of his interaction with nature. Man has been using it for his economic purposes for a long time: hunting, gathering, fishing, as natural resources.

Over the course of several millennia, the nature of humanity's relationship with the environment has undergone great changes.

Stages of society's influence on the natural environment:

1) about 30 thousand years ago - gathering, hunting and fishing. Man adapted to nature, and did not change it.

2) 6-8 thousand years ago - the agricultural revolution: the transition of the main part of humanity from hunting and fishing to cultivating the land; There was a slight transformation of natural landscapes.

3) the Middle Ages - an increase in the load on the land, the development of crafts; a wider involvement of natural resources in the economic cycle was required.

4) 300 years ago - industrial revolution: rapid transformation of natural landscapes; growing human impact on the environment.

5) from the middle of the 20th century - the modern stage of the scientific and technological revolution: fundamental shifts in the technical basis of production; There are sharp shifts in the “society - natural environment” system.

Currently, the active role of man in the use of nature is reflected in environmental management as a special area of ​​economic activity.

Environmental management is a set of measures taken by society to study, protect, develop and transform the environment.

Types of environmental management:

1) rational;

2) irrational.

Rational environmental management is an attitude towards nature, which means, first of all, concern for maintaining ecological balance in the environment and completely excludes the perception of nature as an inexhaustible storehouse.

This concept presupposes intensive development of the economy - “in depth”, due to more complete processing of raw materials, reuse of production and consumption waste, the use of low-waste technologies, the creation of cultural landscapes, the protection of animal and plant species, the creation of nature reserves, etc.

For your information:

· There are more than 2.5 thousand large nature reserves, reserves, natural and national parks in the world, which together occupy an area of ​​2.7% of the earth's land. The largest national parks by area are in Greenland, Botswana, Canada, and Alaska.

· In the most developed countries, the use of recycled materials in the production of ferrous and non-ferrous metals, glass, paper, and plastics already reaches 70% or more.

Irrational environmental management is an attitude towards nature that does not take into account the requirements of environmental protection and its improvement (consumer attitude towards nature).

This approach assumes an extensive path of economic development, i.e. “in breadth”, thanks to the involvement of more and more new geographical areas and natural resources in economic turnover.

Examples of this attitude:

Deforestation;

The process of desertification due to excessive grazing;

Extermination of certain species of plants and animals;

Pollution of water, soil, atmosphere, etc.

For your information:

· It is estimated that one person “harasss” about 200 trees in his life: for housing, furniture, toys, notebooks, matches, etc. In the form of matches alone, the inhabitants of our planet burn 1.5 million cubic meters of wood annually.

· On average, each Moscow resident produces 300-320 kg of garbage per year, in Western European countries - 150-300 kg, in the USA - 500-600 kg. Each city dweller in the United States throws away 80 kg of paper, 250 metal cans, and 390 bottles per year.

Currently, most countries have environmental management policies; special environmental protection bodies have been created; environmental programs and laws and various international projects are being developed.

And the most important thing that a person must learn in his interaction with the natural environment is that all the continents of the planet are interconnected, and if the balance on one of them is disrupted, the other also changes. The slogan “Nature is a workshop, and man is a worker in it” has lost its meaning today.

2. General economic and geographical characteristics of Western European countries.

Western Europe is made up of more than 20 states distinguished by their historical, ethnic, natural, economic, social and cultural uniqueness.

The largest countries in the region: Germany, Italy, France, Spain, Great Britain, Sweden, etc.

Characteristics of the Western Europe region:

1) Economic-geographical location:

a) the region is located on the Eurasian continent, in the western part of Europe;

b) most of the countries have access to the seas, which are the main areas of world maritime transport (the Atlantic Ocean connects Europe with America, the Mediterranean Sea with Africa and Asia, the Baltic Sea with European countries);

c) the region in question borders on other economically developed regions, which has a positive effect on the development of its economy;

d) the region is in relative proximity to many developing countries, which means proximity to sources of raw materials and cheap labor.

2) Natural conditions and resources:

· relief: a combination of flat and mountainous terrain;

· mineral resources: unevenly distributed, some deposits have been depleted.

Industrial reserves: oil and gas (France, Netherlands); coal (Ruhr basin in Germany, Wales and Newcastle in Great Britain, etc.); iron ore (Great Britain, Sweden); non-ferrous metal ores (Germany, Spain, Italy); potassium salts (Germany, France). In general, the provision of this region is worse than that of North America and other regions.

· soils: very fertile (brown forest, brown, gray-brown);

· land resources: most of the land is occupied by arable land and pastures.

· climate: predominance of a temperate climate zone, in the south - subtropical, in the north - subarctic; summer temperatures (8-24 degrees above zero) and winter (from minus 8 to plus 8 degrees); precipitation ranges from 250 to 2000 mm per year;

· agroclimatic resources: favorable for growing crops such as rye, wheat, flax, potatoes, corn, sunflowers, sugar beets, grapes, citrus fruits (in the south), etc. As a result, we can say that the region is well provided with heat and moisture, except for the southern part.

· waters: rivers (Rhine, Danube, Seine, Loire, etc.); lakes (Geneva, etc.); glaciers (in the mountains);

· water resources: the resource availability of total river flow per capita is 2.5-50 thousand cubic meters per year, which indicates a good, but uneven supply.

· forests: mixed, broad-leaved and coniferous;

· forest resources: forests occupy 30% of the territory, most of them have been cut down; the largest reserves are in Sweden and Finland.

· resources of the World Ocean: oil and gas are produced in the area of ​​the North Sea and the shelf zone of the Bay of Biscay; Most of the seas have significant fish resources.

· non-traditional energy resources: geothermal sources in Iceland and Italy; The use of wind energy is promising in France and Denmark.

· recreational resources:

· Western Europe is the center of world tourism, 65% of the world's tourists are in France, Spain, Italy, etc.

3) Population:

a) number - over 300 million people;

b) population density - from 10 to 200 people/sq. km;

c) II type of reproduction; fertility, mortality and natural increase are low;

d) predominance of the female population;

e) population aging;

f) Indo-European language family:

· language groups and peoples: Germanic (Germans, English), Romance (French, Italians);

· interethnic problems in the countries: Spain (Basques), France (Corsicans), Great Britain ( Northern part Ireland);

· religions: Protestantism, Catholicism;

g) urbanization level is about 80%; largest cities: Rotterdam, Paris, Rome, Madrid, etc.

h) the region of Western Europe is a global hotbed of labor migration (entry of labor);

i) labor resources: (highly qualified)

40-60% are employed in the service and trade sectors;

30-35% - in industry and construction;

5-10% - in agriculture.

4) Economy:

Western Europe is one of the economic and financial centers of the world; In terms of the pace of economic development, the region has recently begun to lag behind the United States and Japan.

Conditions affecting development:

High technological level;

Highly qualified personnel;

Availability of unique natural resources;

Greater flexibility and adaptability of the production structure of small and medium-sized firms to the needs of the world market.

Industries:

a) energy is based on its own and imported resources. In the countries of northern and southern Europe great importance have water resources. Iceland uses geothermal energy. The region leads the world in the development of nuclear energy.

b) ferrous metallurgy:

Areas of old developments: Ruhr in Germany, Lorraine in France;

The focus on importing yellow ore led to a shift of enterprises to the sea: Taranto in Italy, Bremen in Germany.

c) non-ferrous metallurgy: uses ore concentrates from Africa and Asia (Germany, Belgium).

d) mechanical engineering determines the industrial face of Western Europe. The region produces everything from simple metal products to aircraft. The automotive industry is especially well developed: Volkswagen (Germany), Renault (France), Fiat (Italy), Volvo (Sweden).

e) chemical industry: Germany - production of dyes and plastics, France - synthetic rubber, Belgium - chemical fertilizers and soda, Sweden and Norway - forest chemicals, Switzerland - pharmaceuticals.

Agriculture is characterized by high productivity and diversity. Only tropical agricultural products and feed grains are imported. Livestock farming predominates (cattle, sheep, pig, poultry). Crops used in crop production: wheat, barley, corn, potatoes, sugar beets (France, Germany), grapes, olives (Italy, Spain).

Transport is highly developed. The role of road and sea transport is great (ports: Rotterdam, Marseille, Le Havre, etc.). The share of pipeline and air transport is increasing. A dense transport network has been developed.

5) Internal differences of the region:

Highly developed: Germany, France, Great Britain, Italy;

Moderately developed: Sweden, Spain, etc.;

Less developed: Portugal, Greece.

6) External economic relations: countries are united in the European Union; There is a high level of regional integration within the Common European Economic Space.

3. Determination and comparison of the average population density of two countries (as chosen by the teacher) and explanation of the reasons.

Let's take Algeria and France for example, and compare their indicators.

· uneven population density:

From 200 to 600 people/square meter (on the coast);

From 1 person/sq. meter or less (the rest);

Factors that influenced this distribution of people across the territory:

1) natural: dry, hot climate, small amount of water, infertile soils on the predominant territory of Algeria do not contribute to high density in the given continental conditions of the northern part of the African continent; a significant increase in density on the Mediterranean coast (north of the country), is a consequence of a milder climate, large supplies of drinking water, etc.;

2) historical: since ancient times, most of Algeria has been an area of ​​nomadic residence.

· population density is high, its distribution is more uniform than in Algeria:

From 50 to 200 people/sq. meter (national average);

Up to 600 people/sq.meter or more (in the Paris area);

Factors that influenced this distribution:

1) natural: favorable climate, sufficient precipitation, no sudden temperature changes, as in the deserts of Algeria; fertile soils; abundance of rivers, lakes; access to the seas;

2) historical: how long ago this territory was developed;

3) economic: industrialized region.

The 3rd question on the ticket is most clearly examined using examples of countries that are quite contrasting in all respects (natural, economic, historical, social, etc.) - such as the countries of Africa, Asia in comparison with the countries of Western Europe.

Ticket number 5

Nature management- the activity of human society aimed at satisfying its needs through the use of natural resources. There are rational and irrational use of natural resources.

Irrational environmental management is a system of environmental management in which the most readily available natural resources are used in large quantities and usually not fully, which leads to their rapid depletion.
In this case, a huge amount of waste is produced and the environment is subjected to great pollution. Irrational use of natural resources is inherent in an extensive type of economy, an economy that develops through more and more new construction, the development of virgin lands, the use of natural resources, and an increase in the number of employees in enterprises.
Extensive farming can initially bring good results even at a relatively low scientific and technical level of industrial production, but it soon leads to the depletion of natural and labor resources in the country. One of the countless examples of irrational environmental management includes slash-and-burn agriculture, which is widespread even today in Southeast Asia. Land burning ultimately leads to the destruction of wood, air pollution, uncontrollable fires, etc.
Most often, irrational environmental management becomes a consequence of departmental interests and the interests of modern transnational corporations that locate hazardous production facilities in developing countries.

Rational environmental management is a system of environmental management in which extracted natural resources are fully used (and accordingly the amount of consumed resources is reduced), renewable natural resources are restored, production waste is reused and fully used (waste-free production), which makes it possible to significantly reduce environmental pollution . Rational use of natural resources is inherent in the intensive type of economy, which follows the path of development based on scientific and technological progress and optimal organization of labor with high labor productivity. An example of rational environmental management is waste-free production or a waste-free production cycle, in which waste is used to the fullest extent, resulting in a reduction in the consumption of raw materials.

Mineral resources— such resources are considered to be minerals extracted from the subsoil. Also, minerals are understood as natural mineral substances of the earth’s crust, which, at the established level of technological development, can be extracted and used in production in their natural form or pre-processed with a positive economic effect. The volume of use of mineral resources in the modern world is constantly growing. If, for example, in the Middle Ages only 18 chemical elements were extracted from the earth’s crust, now this number has increased to more than 80 elements. Since 1950, world mining production has tripled. Every year, more than 100 billion tons of mineral raw materials and fuel are extracted from the bowels of the planet. The modern national economy uses approximately 200 types of various mineral raw materials. It should be taken into account that almost all of them belong to the category of non-renewable, and also, the reserves of their individual types are far from identical. For example, the total geological reserves of coal in the world are approximately 14.8 trillion tons, and oil reserves are 400 billion tons. At the same time, it is necessary to take into account the constantly growing needs of mankind.

Land resources- the earth's surface suitable for human habitation, as well as for construction and any other types of economic activity. In addition to the size of the territory, land resources are characterized by their quality: relief, soil cover and a complex of other natural conditions. The wealth of mankind in land resources is determined primarily by the vast global land fund, which, according to various estimates, ranges from 13.1 to 14.9 billion hectares. One of the main characteristics of land resources is the structure of the land fund, i.e. the ratio of areas occupied by forests, agricultural crops, pastures, settlements, roads, industrial enterprises etc. The land fund also includes lands that are inconvenient for farming, such as deserts, highlands, etc.
In the structure of the world land fund, cultivable lands occupy only 11%, with meadows and pastures from 23 to 25%, forests and shrubs - 31%, and settlements only only 2%. Almost the entire remaining territory consists of unproductive and unproductive lands.
These include mountains, deserts, glaciers, swamps, etc. But despite their small number, cultivated lands provide humanity with 88% of the necessary food products.
The main tracts of arable land on the planet are located in the Northern Hemisphere, namely in Western and Eastern Europe, Southern Siberia, South, East, Southeast Asia and on the plains of the USA and Canada. These lands are located mainly in forest, forest-steppe and steppe zones of the world. Pasture lands are also very important for human society and provide about 10% of the food consumed by people. Territories occupied by forests are of great importance as a source of valuable wood, as the “lungs” of our planet, producing oxygen necessary for human life. Forest areas create forest resources.

Land water resources- rivers, lakes, groundwater. There are several areas for using water resources. The most important of these is meeting humanity's needs for fresh water. River waters are widely used for this purpose.
According to some estimates, approximately 47 thousand km3 pass through the rivers annually, according to others only 40 thousand km3. This is not so much, considering that less than 50% of this amount can actually be used. Humanity's need for fresh water is constantly increasing. In 1980 it was 3.5 thousand km3 per year, and by 2000 it should increase to 5 thousand km3 per year.
Almost 65% of all river water is consumed by agriculture, where its irreversible consumption is very high, especially for irrigation.
Such an increase in consumption with unchanged river flow resources can lead to a shortage of fresh water.
Moreover, many countries have long experienced such a shortage.
To solve the problem of water supply in the world, various ways are used. The main one is saving water, reducing its losses through the introduction of more modern methods and technology. The construction of reservoirs plays an important role in this. Currently, more than 30 thousand reservoirs have been built in the world, the total volume of which is approximately 6.5 thousand km3.
This is 3.5 times greater than the one-time volume of water in all rivers of the globe. Taken together, the reservoirs cover an area of ​​400 thousand km2, which is 10 times larger than the area of ​​the Sea of ​​Azov.
The countries with the largest number of large reservoirs include the United States (reservoirs on the Missouri and Colorado rivers) and Russia (Volga and Yenisei cascades of reservoirs).
As other solutions water problem can be considered: desalination of sea water, common in the countries of the Persian Gulf, the Mediterranean, Turkmenistan, in the south of the USA, in Japan, on the islands of the Caribbean Sea; redistribution of river flow in moisture-abundant areas (USA, Canada, Australia, India, etc.).
The latter requires a particularly careful approach, since on a large scale it can cause much more environmental damage than economic benefit. In many countries around the world, water is transported in sea tankers and transmitted through long-distance water pipelines. Today, even ideas for transporting Antarctic icebergs to countries in the hot zone are being considered. Rivers are also widely used around the world for energy. There are three categories of hydropower potential. The theoretical (gross) hydro potential, which is usually estimated at 30–50 trillion kW/h of possible electricity generation per year, technical potential is approximately 20 trillion kW/h per year. In the modern world, groundwater is also a source of fresh water, which is also used for medicinal purposes ( mineral water), and for heating (thermal springs).

Forest resources- one of the most important species biosphere resources. Forest resources include wood, cork, resin, mushrooms, berries, nuts, medicinal plants, hunting and fishing resources, etc., as well as beneficial features forests: climate-regulating, water-protecting, anti-erosion, health-improving, etc.
Forest resources are classified as renewable resources and are considered according to two main criteria: the size of the forest area and standing timber reserves. Thus, forests occupy 4.1 billion hectares or about 27% of the Earth’s land area, and the world’s wood reserves amount to about 350 billion m3, which, due to constant growth, increase annually by 5.5 billion m3.
However, forests are often cut down for arable land, plantations, and construction. In addition, wood is quite widely used for firewood and wood-processing products. The result is deforestation, which has reached alarming proportions today.
The world's forest area decreases annually by at least 25 million hectares, and global timber harvest in 2000 already reached 5 billion m3. This means that its annual growth rate is fully utilized. The largest area of ​​forests remains in Eurasia. This is about 40% of all the world's forests and almost 42% of the total timber supply, including 2/3 of the volume of the most valuable wood species.
Australia has the least forest cover. Since the sizes of the continents are not the same, their forest cover, the ratio of the forested area to the total area of ​​the continent, is taken into account. According to this indicator, South America ranks first in the world.
In the economic assessment of forest resources, such a characteristic as wood reserves is of primary importance. The countries of Asia, South and North America are leading in this regard.
Leading positions in this area are occupied by countries such as Russia, Canada, the USA, and Brazil. The following countries are characterized by a virtual absence of forests: Libya, Bahrain, Qatar, etc.

Resources of the World Ocean— the main resources of the World Ocean are biological, energy, mineral and energy.

Biological resources of the World Ocean- animals and plants, energy generated today by the country's hydroelectric power stations. The biomass of the World Ocean is 140 billion tons. Water
The world's oceans have huge reserves of deuterium, its resources are diverse.
One of the most important resources is animals (fish, mollusks, cetaceans) actively swimming in the water column and mineral resources. The biological and mineral resources of the world's oceans are exhaustible. Their uncontrolled use has endangered the existence of marine mammals and led to a strong reduction in the number of fish, bottom plants and animals. Mainly human production involves fish, which accounts for 85% of the marine biomass used, and bivalves (scallops, oysters, mussels). All greater application find algae. Medicines, starch are obtained from algae, paper and fabrics are made. Algae is an excellent feed for livestock and a good fertilizer. There are more or less productive areas in the ocean. The most productive ones include the Norwegian, Bering, Okhotsk and Japanese seas. The resources of the world's oceans are still underutilized. Ocean waters are rapidly becoming polluted. A huge amount of “dirt” is carried into the ocean from land by rivers and sewage. More than 30% of the ocean surface is covered with an oil film, destructive for all living things.
The destruction of plankton, i.e. protozoa and crustaceans passively floating in water, led to a reduction in fish production. Radioactive products enter the World Ocean, which also pollute its waters.

Mineral resources of the World Ocean- resources that are in the water itself, and those that are extracted from its bottom. The most valuable resource is water itself, which contains 75 chemical elements. On an industrial scale, sodium, chlorine, magnesium and bromine are already extracted from it. But when these elements are extracted, some potassium and calcium compounds are obtained as by-products.
Desalination of seawater is currently becoming increasingly important. The bottom of the World Ocean is also rich in mineral resources. They include ore deposits below the surface of the seabed.

Energy resources — to modern man An extremely large amount of energy is needed: for heating housing, for operating equipment and transport, and lighting. Energy consumption per last century increased 100 times. It is still growing so quickly that very soon there may not be enough natural resources to satisfy all human needs. Energy sources are very diverse. These are coal, oil, peat, gas, falling water, wind, nuclear energy. All named types of energy, excluding atomic energy, are solar energy. The water cycle in nature occurs due to solar heat; Air also moves thanks to the Sun.

Coal, gas and oil is a natural fuel formed from the fossil remains of animals and plants that have accumulated underground and turned into combustible substances over millions of years. It is the most important source of energy, providing about 75% of all our electricity needs. The largest gas field is considered Urengoy in Russia.
It produces up to 200,000 million m3 of gas per year. The largest oil field, Hawar, is located in Saudi Arabia and covers 8,000 km2. Peat is a less valuable fuel and is used less in industry than gas and oil. It is formed continuously. Every autumn, the plants in the swamp die, and layers of peat form in their place.
In addition to fuel, today hundreds of different products are produced from oil, coal and gas. Even sitting in a room, you can count dozens of them: plastic parts of the TV, music center, nylon shirts, foam mattress, nylon stockings, cellophane bags, washing powder, medications (aspirin, streptocide, pyramidon, etc.).
Every year the world's energy resources are decreasing, as a result of which energy processing and conservation are becoming more and more important for humanity. It is necessary that as much plastic, glass, paper, and metal as possible be recycled. It is desirable to reduce energy consumption in industrial and domestic sectors as much as possible.
You can save oil and gas by using new types of energy, such as nuclear energy, solar energy, and wind energy.
Man has learned to use the atom for peaceful purposes. IN atomic bomb, a dangerous weapon, when the nucleus fissions, energy is released in a split second. In a power plant, control rods in the reactor delay the process while allowing energy to be released gradually. Over the course of several months, you can use this energy by converting it into electricity. Fuel elements for nuclear reactor are uranium dioxide tablets that are placed in thin tubes separated by partitions. Exist different types reactors. Some of them were previously used in weapons. For example, the first N-reactors were created for plutonium bombs. Magnox reactors produce plutonium and electricity. The most commonly used reactors are those previously used on nuclear submarines. The most advanced ones at present are gas-cooled reactors.
The Fukushima nuclear power plant in Japan is considered the largest. It operates 10 separate reactors, which together produce 8,814 megawatts. The biggest problem is the disposal of nuclear waste. Scientists have calculated that it will take 80,000 years for the radioactivity of the waste already accumulated in the modern world to disappear.
The safest in this regard are renewable types of energy. Most of The energy produced on the planet is provided by fossil fuels, and they are coming to an end. The use of nuclear energy also has a number of problems. As a result, people need renewable energy sources such as sunlight, wind, heat from the Earth’s core, and waves. Currently, they generate about 5% of all energy on the planet, but it is possible that this figure will increase in the future. The main source of a significant portion of energy on Earth is the Sun. It is this that helps plants grow, causing water to evaporate, forming clouds that fall to the ground as rain, replenishing rivers. The sun controls both the wind and the waves. Every year the sun provides a volume of heat equal to the energy that can be obtained from 60 bln tons of oil. Even a hundredth part of it with 5% efficiency will provide any country in the world with electricity.
But there is a problem. Oil and other fossil fuels are very easy to use because they contain energy that has been stored between layers of rock under pressure for millions of years. But sunlight can only be converted into electricity using solar cells. It is not easy to do this effectively because it is dispersed over vast areas. Electricity is thus difficult to collect in large quantities.
The same problems arise when trying to “tame” the wind. Like energy sunlight, it is difficult to use in industrial quantities. But it is suitable for local use. Already in ancient times people built windmills. Travelers went “to distant lands” under sail in caravels. It was on sailing ships that the first circumnavigation of the world was made. Already in ancient Egypt primitive wind engines were built to grind grain and irrigate fields. In our country there are now several thousand wind turbines, and there are also wind power plants. But, just like the energy of sunlight, only a small fraction of wind energy is used so far. Although this energy is very great. Scientists believe that every year the winds carry almost 3 times more energy over the territory of Russia than that contained in coal, oil, peat, and rivers of the country.
It is of great importance that wind power plants can be built in any corner of our country. Wind engines are widely used in polar stations located on the islands of the Arctic Ocean. Although there are very severe frosts here in winter, down to -50°C, wind turbines function flawlessly. They are the ones who always provide polar explorers with light and warmth, and provide current to their radio receivers and radio transmitters.

Environmental pollution— undesirable changes in its properties as a result of anthropogenic input of various substances and compounds. Environmental pollution leads to harmful effects on the lithosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere.
The main source of such pollution is the return into nature of a huge mass of waste that is generated in the process of production and consumption of human society.
According to scientists, already in 1970 they amounted to 40 million tons, and by the end of the 20th century. their volume has reached 100 billion tons. The entry into the environment of chemicals synthesized by humans and previously not existing in nature is especially dangerous.