Regional traditions of ancient Russian icon painting of the 12th-13th centuries. Icon painter and icon painting in ancient Russia

Reflecting at my leisure, which I have a lot of, about the history of Christianity in Russia, I thought about icons, namely: which icon is considered the most ancient in Russia.
Useful to shovel the Internet.
And here's what I found.

The most ancient Russian icons date back to the 11th century. There are two of them. Both are from Novgorod. Both are huge in size - two and a half by one and a half meters.

Icon of the Apostles Peter and Paul, mid-11th century.
Wood, canvas, gesso. Egg tempera. 236×147 cm
Novgorod Museum-Reserve, Veliky Novgorod.

“The Apostles Peter and Paul” is an icon of the middle of the 11th century and, in general, the earliest known Russian easel painting. The icon comes from the Novgorod St. Sophia Cathedral, is kept in the collection of the Novgorod Museum-Reserve.

According to legend, this icon was brought from Korsun by Grand Duke Vladimir Monomakh, and therefore the icon was called "Korsun".
However, according to academician V.N. Lazarev, the significant size of the icon indicates that it was most likely painted on the spot, that is, in Novgorod, by an unknown master (Byzantine, Kiev or local Novgorod). Her style is inspired by frescoes.
Shortly after painting, the icon was covered with a gilded silver frame.

The icon was taken out of Novgorod three times (in the 16th century by Ivan the Terrible, in the 20th century by German occupiers and in 2002 by restorers), but always returned to the city.

During the post-war restoration in 1951, the icon was covered with wax and mastic, which was a mistake. In 2002, the mistakes of the previous restoration were corrected, the boards were freed from the salary, which, when removed, was disassembled into 600 fragments, cleaned of oxide and sulfurous film, then reassembled, the original gilding was discovered. However, for better preservation, scientists decided not to cover the icon with a salary anymore.

Alas, only fragments of the background, clothes executed in combinations of blue, white, soft pink and golden yellow tones, and a fragment of greenish-brown ocher around the neck of the Apostle Paul have survived from the original painting of the 11th century. The rest of the original painting - the faces, hands and feet of the apostles - is completely lost. These fragments did not reveal a painting layer older than the 15th century.

The second oldest Russian icon is also from Novgorod.

Icon of the Golden Robe of the Savior, mid-11th century.
Wood, canvas, gesso. Egg tempera. 242×148 cm

The icon received its name “Golden Robe” from the now lost solid silver gilded frame that adorned it. "Spas Golden Robe" dates back to the 11th century. However, in 1700 the icon was completely rewritten by the royal painter Kirill Ulanov. At the same time, he painted the clothes in detail with gold so that they corresponded to the name of the image.

This icon also comes from the Novgorod St. Sophia Cathedral. It was taken out (more specifically, brazenly taken from the Novgorodians and taken away) to Moscow in 1570 by Ivan the Terrible, who collected ancient images in the capital. True, two years later a copy of it was sent to Novgorod.

Currently, the icon is in the iconostasis of the Assumption Cathedral of the Kremlin, to the right of the royal doors.
Scientists note that the icons "Apostles Peter and Paul" and "Golden Robe of the Savior" were most likely painted around 1050, when the construction of the St. Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod was completed.

Thus, there are no older icons in Russia.
Although in general in Russia ...

In fact, in Russia in the first half of the 11th century, Prince Yaroslav the Wise built the Hagia Sophia in the center of Kyiv. And inside the cathedral, the world's most complete ensemble of original mosaics and frescoes of the first half of the 11th century has been preserved. But frescoes and mosaics from the point of view of art criticism cannot be fully called icons***. Yes, and Kievan Rus is now not Russia at all ...

Well, what is the most ancient Russian and not rewritten icon - what?
The omniscient Internet gladly answers this question.
This is "St. George" - the icon of the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin.

"St. George", to. XI-XII centuries.
Wood, canvas, gesso. Egg tempera. 174×122 cm
Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin, Moscow.

The indication "to XI-XII centuries.» says that the icon, even if it does not belong to the end of the XI century, then certainly refers to the very beginning of the XII. That is, it belongs to the number of the most ancient in Russia. This dating of the icon is based on the stylistic proximity of its painting to the mosaics and frescoes of St. Sophia of Kiev.

The icon, according to academician V. N. Lazarev, is of Novgorod origin and was taken (I repeat: impudently espropriated) to Moscow by Ivan the Terrible. At the same time, the scientist believes that Prince Georgy Andreevich, the youngest son of Andrei Bogolyubsky, who was expelled from Novgorod in 1175 and moved to Georgia, where he became the first husband of Queen Tamara, could have been a possible customer for the icon ... But this is just an assumption. Other experts attribute the icon to the end of the 11th century. And that's why.

The biggest distinguishing feature of the icon is that its painting is uniquely well preserved. There are only small losses on the face, on the background and on the clothes at the bottom of the icon.
Such safety was ensured by the unknown “barbarian from icon painting”, who covered the image of George with a continuous layer of dark brown paint, which was discovered only in the 1930s.

At the same time, the icon acquired another unique feature, namely: for many centuries the front side of the icon was its reverse side!
And there was an image of the Virgin and Child, made by a Greek master who worked in Moscow, dating from the middle of the 14th century.
Such an ancient image is in itself a great value in iconography.

However, this is not enough: an even earlier painting was found under the image of the Virgin. But the restorers did not completely clean up the image of the XIV century, only fragments were cleared ...

*** In art criticism, icons are images made within the framework of the Eastern Christian tradition on a solid surface (mainly on a linden board covered with gesso (that is, alabaster diluted with liquid glue).
However, from the theological and religious point of view, icons are also mosaic, pictorial and sculptural images in any artistic manner, if they are given the veneration established by the Seventh Ecumenical Council. Wikipedia

Nowhere has iconography reached such a development as in Russia, nowhere has it created so many masterpieces and has not become a favorite form of fine art for an entire people for centuries.

The cult of the icon (from the Greek eikon - image, image) originated in the 2nd century. and flourished in the 4th century; The oldest surviving icons date back to the 6th century. The icon should be considered not as an image identical to the Deity, in contrast to pre-Christian idols, but as a symbol that allows spiritual communion with the “original” (archetype), that is, penetration into the supernatural world through the subject of the material world.

Icons were originally made in the technique of encaustic (wax painting), then tempera and, in rare cases, mosaics, and later (mainly from the 18th century), oil painting. The icon was especially widespread in Byzantium; original schools of icon painting arose in Coptic Egypt and Ethiopia, in the South Slavic countries, in Georgia. The Old Russian icon acquired real artistic brightness and originality.

On the basis of archaeological excavations, it has been established that the work with paints was known in Ancient Russia even before the adoption of Christianity. This is evidenced by the discovery of a pestle for grinding paints, discovered in an excavation at the site of the ancient Saransk settlement, where the city of Rostov the Great was later founded. But the technology of painting and binders, on which thin paints were overwritten, are not yet known.

The icon consists of four to five layers, arranged in the following order: base, primer, paint layer, protective layer. The icon may have a salary of metals or any other materials.

The first layer is the base; most often it is a wooden board with a fabric called a canvas glued to it. Sometimes the board happens without a canvas. Very rarely, the basis for works of yolk tempera was made only from canvas. The reason for this phenomenon is obvious. Wood, not stone, served as our main building material, so that the vast majority of Russian churches (9/10) were wooden. With their decorative effect, ease of placement in the temple, the brightness and strength of their colors (ground on egg yolk), the icons painted on the board (pine and linden, covered with alabaster primer - "gesso"), were the best suited for the decoration of Russian wooden churches. No wonder it was noted that in Ancient Russia the icon was the same classical form of fine art as in Egypt - a relief, in Hellas - a statue, and in Byzantium - a mosaic.

The second layer is soil. If the icon is painted in a late manner, combining tempera with paints on other binders (mainly oil), and the layers of the primer are colored (colored pigments are used, not traditional chalk or plaster), then it is called “ground”. But in the yolk tempera that prevailed in icon painting, the ground is always white. This type of soil is called gesso.

The third layer is colorful. The paint layer consists of various paints successively applied to the primer. This is the most essential part of a painting, since it is with the help of paints that an image is created.

The fourth is a protective (or cover) layer of drying oil or oil varnish. Very rarely, egg white was used as a material for the protective layer (on Belarusian and Ukrainian icons). Currently - resin varnishes.

Salaries for icons were made separately and fixed on them with nails. They are made of metals, embroidered fabrics, and even carved wood, covered with gesso and gilding. They did not cover the entire pictorial surface with salaries, but mainly halos (crowns), the background and fields of the icon, and less often almost its entire surface, with the exception of images of heads (faces), arms and legs.

For many centuries in Russia they wrote in the technique of yolk tempera; now they use the terms "egg tempera", or simply "tempera".

Tempera (from the Italian "temperare" - to mix paints) - painting with paints, in which the binder is most often an emulsion of water and egg yolk, less often - from vegetable or animal glue diluted in water with the addition of oil or oil varnish. Color and tone in works painted in tempera are incomparably more resistant to external influences and retain their original freshness much longer compared to oil painting paints. The technique of yolk tempera came to Russia from Byzantium at the end of the 10th century along with the art of icon painting.

Until the end of the 19th century, Russian icon painters, speaking about the process of mixing a pigment with a binder, used the expression “rub paints”, or “dissolve paints”. And the paints themselves were called "created". From the beginning of the 20th century, only paints made from powders of gold or silver mixed with a binder (created gold, crafted silver) began to be called created. The rest of the paints were called simply tempera.

Icons in Russia appeared as a result of the missionary activity of the Byzantine Church at a time when the significance of church art was experienced with particular force. What is especially important and what was a strong inner impulse for Russian ecclesiastical art is the fact that Russia adopted Christianity precisely at the epoch of the revival of spiritual life in Byzantium itself, the epoch of its heyday. During this period, nowhere in Europe was church art as developed as in Byzantium. And at that time, the newly converted Russia received, among other icons, as an example of Orthodox art, an unsurpassed masterpiece - the icon of the Mother of God, which later received the name of Vladimir.

Rostov-Suzdal school.

Rostov-Suzdal and Zalesskaya Rus are in ancient times vast lands from the Oka and the Volga to the White Lake. These lands became the second center of Russian statehood and culture after Kyiv. In the very center of Russia for three centuries, from the 10th to the 13th, the cities of Rostov the Great, Murom, Suzdal, Vladimir, Belozersk, Uglich, Kostroma, Tver, Nizhny Novgorod, Moscow arose.

The icons painted in Rostov the Great represent it as a center, a kind of academy for painters of North-Eastern Russia. They confirm the significance and bright originality of the national Central Russian ancient painting and its important role in public art.

The icons of the Rostov-Suzdal school already at the first meeting amaze us with the brightness and purity of light, the expressiveness of a strict design. They are characterized by a special harmony of a rhythmically built composition, soft warm shades of color.

The oldest of the Suzdal icons - the Maximovskaya Mother of God - was painted in 1299 by order of Metropolitan Maxim in connection with the transfer of the metropolitan see from Kyiv to Vladimir. The Mother of God is depicted full-length with a baby in her arms. The icon has significant losses from ancient painting, but the unusually expressive silhouette, smoothly running lines of the drawing speak of the very high skill of its creators.

Paintings of the 14th century - the time of the struggle with the Mongol-Tatars - bear the features of the time, their images are full of deep mournful power. They found expression in the icon of the Virgin (14th century). It is characteristic that even the clothes of the Virgin - maforium - with their almost black color symbolize the depth of sadness.

The 15th century is rightly considered the heyday of ancient Russian painting. In the traditions of the Rostov-Suzdal school, one of the masterpieces was painted in the 15th century - an icon depicting the Feast of the Intercession. This holiday was introduced by Andrei Bogolyubsky and became especially popular in the Vladimir-Suzdal land. The central image of this work is the Mother of God, who overshadows people with her cover, protecting them from troubles. This work is full of soothing harmony. This impression is created by a balanced composition, color, built on the relationship of light brown, red and white color shades.

In the 15th century, hagiographic icons became especially widespread, where the image of the saint is framed with hallmarks with scenes from his life. This is how the icon of Nikola (16th century) is made - a saint, especially popular in Russia. In this icon, the richness of pink, light green, light brown, the finest shades, next to blue and red spots on a white background, is striking. This richness of color gives the icon freshness and sonority.

For the 16th century, when the idea of ​​statehood is growing stronger, strict, sublime images are characteristic. At this time, the icon of the Mother of God Hodegetria (in Greek - “warrior”) was painted. Along with such works, there are others, they feel a living folk understanding of the images, their interpretation.

In the icon of the Annunciation, the artist introduces the image of swans, which in the popular imagination were associated with the image of a virgin bride.

From the 2nd half of the 16th century, the composition of icons began to become more complicated. This trend is gradually increasing, and in the 17th century the artist strives to convey in as much detail as possible the legend underlying this or that icon image. So, the icon "Descent into Hell" is not only very detailed, but for greater persuasiveness it is supplemented with inscriptions. In the underworld, next to the demons, personifying human sin, there are inscriptions: “tatba”, “fornication”, “despair”.

At the end of the 17th century, features appeared in Russian icon painting, indicating the approach of the era of realistic painting. Artists strive to paint icons in a manner close to realistic, conveying the volume of faces, figures, and environment. It is these features that characterize the icon of the Vladimir Mother of God of the late 17th century.

All these icons of the Rostov-Suzdal school amaze us either by the brightness, freshness and harmony of the artistic structure, or by the complexity and amusingness of the narrative, opening a window into the past for us, giving us the opportunity to get in touch with the rich and in some ways not fully understood world of our ancestors.

Moscow school.

The Moscow school took shape and developed intensively in the era of the strengthening of the Moscow principality. Painting of the Moscow school in the 14th century. represented a synthesis of local traditions and advanced trends of Byzantine and South Slavic art (the icons "Savior the Fiery Eye" and "Savior the Shoulder", 1340, the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin). The heyday of the Moscow school in the late 14th - early 15th centuries. associated with the activities of prominent artists Theophan the Greek, Andrei Rublev, Daniil Cherny. The traditions of their art were developed in the icons and murals of Dionysius, which attract with the sophistication of proportions, decorative festivity of color, and balance of compositions.

The Rostov-Suzdal school, known in Russia since pre-Mongol times, served as the soil on which Moscow painting developed and developed in the 14-16 centuries.

It existed for a long time next to the Rostov-Suzdal painting, but the final dissolution of the Rostov-Suzdal painting in the new Moscow direction did not happen. The originality of the first is obvious, and even in the 16th century their works remain faithful to their traditions.

When did the Moscow school of painting appear?

This is very difficult to ascertain, since at first the art of Moscow resembled the art of the Vladimir-Suzdal land, just as the history of Moscow itself merged with its history.

Perhaps the origin of the Moscow school can be associated with such icons of Central Russian origin, such as, for example, "Boris and Gleb" of the early 14th century. Royally majestic, slender and graceful are these young warriors in magnificent clothes, with a sword and a cross in their hands.

Already in the early Moscow icons, colors complement each other, and the beauty of their dimensional consistency, and not in contrasts. And the linear rhythm of Moscow icon painting is also softly but confidently coordinated in measured sound, without the effects that, for example, a comparison of the vertical with the horizontal gives.

By the beginning of the 15th century, Moscow occupied an exceptional position in Eastern Europe, both politically and culturally. The Moscow principality grew stronger and grew. Artists from many countries rushed to Moscow, for whom it became one of the largest cultural centers. So Theophanes the Greek, who had already become famous in Novgorod, ended up in Moscow.

The perfection of Feofan's artistic techniques - the legacy of a very ancient culture that had long reached its zenith - was especially important for the final formation of the art of a young, but already conscious of its world significance power.

In Moscow, perhaps under the influence of the Moscow painting tradition, Feofan showed in his compositions less passion, less dynamism, but more than in Novgorod, majestic solemnity. This is evidenced by the central figures painted by him of the deesis tier of the iconostasis of the Annunciation Cathedral, among which the figure of Mary is especially attractive with its picturesque perfection. His other Moscow works have not been preserved.

In addition to Theophan himself, they worked on the painting of the Annunciation Cathedral under his general supervision “Prokhor the elder from Gorodets, and the black Andrei Rublev”.

Andrei Rublev was revered during his lifetime for outstanding skill, but true fame came to him after his death, and not immediately. But this glory turned out to be indisputable.

The discovery of Rublev's "Trinity" made a stunning impression, everyone was seized with boundless admiration: one of the most significant, most spiritual creations of world painting was released from the dungeon that had hidden it for so long.

"Trinity" served as the foundation for the reconstruction of the creative individuality of Andrei Rublev. And even the idea was expressed that it was this Rublev masterpiece that most likely gives the key to understanding the beauties of all ancient Russian painting.

All Rublyov's painting sounds like a delightful symphony, like a lyrical verse about universal brotherly affection. How much joy is generously prepared for us here by the means of painting alone, so that before this creation of Rublev we are really ready to agree with Leonardo Da Vinci, who said that painting is the queen of the arts.

These feelings, these joys arise in the contemplation of Rublev's "Trinity", even if you do not know what, in essence, its plot is. The icon in marvelous colors and images glorifies brotherhood, unity, reconciliation, love, and with its very beauty proclaims the hope for the triumph of these good principles.

In the work of Rublev, the ancient Russian pictorial culture found its most vivid, most complete expression, and his “Trinity” was destined to serve as a beacon for all subsequent Russian icon painting, until this art itself lost its full-bloodedness. The seal of Rublev's genius on many works of art that the Russian people have the right to be proud of.

A number of excellent Moscow icons of the first decades of the 15th century testify to the general flourishing of painting in the Rublev era. One of the greatest masters, whose names have not come down to us, was the author of the icon of the Archangel Michael from the Archangel Cathedral in Moscow, which, in terms of its artistic merits, can be put on a par with the highest achievements of ancient Russian painting. Moreover, in this icon, the beginning of not bright joy or pacifying sincerity triumphs, but the epic, heroic.

Archangel Michael here is not a meek, thoughtful angel with a poetically inclined head, but a menacingly straightened young warrior, with a sword in his hands, breathing courage. It was not for nothing that he was considered the leader of the heavenly host, the conqueror of Satan and the patron of Russian princes. There is no longer a sweet dream of a well-ordered world, but the embodiment of military prowess and the will to fight.

The whole composition in its linear and colorful rhythm is dynamic, everything in it seethes, as if obeying a certain force that shines through in the gaze of the winged guardian of the Russian land.

... The torch of Russian art, so highly raised by Rublev, passes by the end of the century into the hands of his worthy successor Dionisy. His frescoes at the Ferapontov Monastery are a monument of ancient Russian art. In his compositions there is such bright elegance, such high decorativeness, such exquisite grace, such sweet femininity in their rhythm, in their gentle sound, and at the same time such solemn, strictly measured, “slowness”, which corresponded to the court ceremonial of the then Moscow. In this regularity, restraint, Dionysius shows artistic wisdom, already appreciated by his contemporaries. The turns of the figures are barely indicated, the movements sometimes freeze in one gesture or even a hint of a gesture. But this is enough, because the integrity and beauty of his compositions are based on the absolute internal balance of all parts. And as P.P. Muratov rightly says, “after Dionysius, ancient Russian painting created many beautiful works, but the Dionysian dimension and harmony were never returned to it.”

The last great flapping of the wings of ancient Russian creativity.

Stroganov school.

The name "Stroganov school" arose due to the frequent use of the family mark of the Solvychegodsk merchants Stroganovs on the reverse side of the icons of this direction, but the authors of most of the works of the Stroganov school were Moscow royal icon painters, who also carried out orders from the Stroganovs - connoisseurs of fine and sophisticated craftsmanship. Icons of the Stroganov school are characterized by their small size, miniature writing, juicy, dense, half-tone color scheme, enriched by the extensive use of gold and silver, the fragile effeminacy of the characters' poses and gestures, and the complex fantasy of landscape backgrounds.

Novgorod school.

The most fully preserved ancient monuments of Novgorod painting. In some works, the influence of Byzantine art can be traced, which indicates the wide artistic ties of Novgorod. The type of a motionless saint with large features and wide eyes is common. For example, "St. George", the Armory, Moscow; double-sided icon with images of the Savior Not Made by Hands and the Adoration of the Cross, late 12th century, Tretyakov Gallery.

The glory of the "Novgorod letters" - the icons of the Novgorod school - was so great that many connoisseurs considered almost all the best ancient Russian icons to be Novgorod, and some researchers even tried to attribute Rublev and Dionisy to it.

These attempts were not justified. But there is no doubt that in the 15th century the Novgorod school reached its peak, which "leaves behind everything that was created before." (I.V. Alpatov)

In Novgorod painting, almost from its inception and in all subsequent centuries, the folk principle manifests itself with special force, with special perseverance. It will find a broad reflection of the practical - economic attitude to the functions and meanings of the saints.

Inherited from paganism, the closest intertwining with everyday life, divine forces with the forces of nature and its benefits has long left its mark on the ancient Russian worldview.

The icon painter never painted from nature, he strove to capture an idea. Novgorod art is especially characterized by the desire to make the idea extremely clear, really tangible, accessible.

Among the earliest Novgorod icons that have come down to us are masterpieces of world significance. Such, for example, is the "Angel with Golden Hair", probably written at the end of the 12th century. What a high, pure beauty in this unforgettable image!

In the icon of the Novgorod school "Assumption" (13th century), some figures of the apostles literally shock us with the life truth of those deep experiences that an inspired artist unknown to us captured in them. Often the artist portrayed very real people, while typical representatives of the ruling Novgorod elite, with the highest heavenly powers. This is a significant phenomenon in ancient Russian painting, very characteristic of the Novgorod school with its desire for concreteness, truthful expressiveness. Thanks to this, we can clearly imagine the appearance of the then noble Novgorodian.

Novgorod icons are very emotional. Thus, in the icons of the Assumption of the Virgin, the artist conveyed with amazing power the great drama of death, the all-consuming human grief. The same theme found expression in the famous icon "The Entombment" (2nd half of the 15th century).

Novgorod icons are beautiful in their color contrasts. In them, each color plays on its own, and each enhances the other in mutual opposition. The compositions of Novgorod painting, no matter how complex they may be - one-, two-, three-figure or multi-plot, narrative nature - they are all simple, perfectly inscribed in the plane and consistent with their forms. All elements are distributed in them evenly and according to their importance. They have neither too busy nor empty seats. The background spaces between the individual images take on beautiful forms, playing a big role in the composition. Figures, mountains, trees are often arranged symmetrically. This composition closed, received a complete completion. At the same time, this symmetry was broken by the turns of the figures, the inclinations of their heads, various forms of mountains, breams, buildings, trees and other images.

Other Schools of Iconography.

Volga school.

The icons of the Volga region are characterized by the following features: energetic, clear construction, dark, deep-sounding tones. The Volga origin of the icon betrays a special predilection for water landscapes. There are four of them. Three show violent dark waters playing with steep waves. On the fourth - quiet waters, a sandy shore, where a miracle happens in broad daylight: a traveler with a white bag on his shoulder comes ashore from the gaping huge mouth of a fish. This icon of Nikola Zaraisky with life (16th century).

The icon “The Entombment” (end of the 15th century) is interesting. The figures of the characters are arranged in clear horizontal rows parallel to the tomb with the body of Christ. As if repeating these horizontal lines, ledges of hills rise in the background, diverging from the center to the sides. The figure of Mary Magdalene with her hands raised high, as it were, personifies hopelessness and despair.

In the Last Supper icon (end of the 15th century), the icon painter conveys the dramatic situation extremely expressively: the apostles, frozen in various poses, with different hand gestures, are depicted around a white oval table. On the left, at the head, sits Christ, to whom the extreme apostle crouched in an expressive movement.

Yaroslavl school.

The Yaroslavl icon-painting school arose at the beginning of the 16th century. during the period of rapid growth of the city's population, the formation of the merchant class. The works of the Yaroslavl masters of the early 13th century have come down to us, the works of the 14th century are known, and by the number of surviving monuments of painting of the 16th and 17th centuries. the Yaroslavl school is not inferior to other ancient Russian schools. In the work of the Yaroslavl masters, the traditions of the high art of Ancient Russia were carefully preserved until the very middle of the 18th century. At its core, their painting remained true to that great style, the principles of which were formed in ancient times, developed for a long time in miniature painting. Along with the "petty" images, Yaroslavl icons in the 18th century. they also wrote compositions in which love for large masses, for strict and laconic silhouettes, for a clear and clear order of scenes in stamps is palpable in the same way as in the works of masters of the 15th-16th centuries. Works of Yaroslavl masters of the second half of the 17th - early 18th centuries. for a long time they were recognized in Russia as samples of the old national art. They were collected by admirers of ancient icon painting - the Old Believers, carefully studied by the artists of Palekh and Mstera, who continued in the 19-20 centuries. to paint icons in the traditions of Russian medieval painting.

One of the oldest icons that have come down to us is “Our Lady of the Great Panagia”. In the decorative design of the icon, the use of gold plays an important role, giving the image an impression of majestic beauty and unearthly splendor. In the rhythmic construction of the icon, the activity of the white color, skillfully applied in the painting of faces, is also used.

The emotional richness of the image is typical for the icon of the Savior Not Made by Hands (13th century). It is enhanced by the juicy, major painting of the background - the board, sustained in bright yellow and red tones of several shades.

Nizhny Novgorod school.

One of the interesting icons of Nizhny Novgorod origin is "The Fiery Ascent of the Prophet Elijah with Life" (14th century). It is written broadly, freely. Scenes of life are full of movement, gestures are expressive. The richest variety of individual characteristics of the characters. The faces are written in dark sankir: free lettering in bright white marks the expressiveness of the face shapes, the sharpness of the gaze. The artist focuses on the main thing - the state of mind, impulse, expression of the spirit; tension reigns in the icon, some kind of concentrated state of comprehension of the truth and meditation.

The icon “The Miracle of Demetrius of Thessalonica with Life” (first half of the 16th century) was made in the same manner - the same characteristic graphic clarity of the silhouette and bright saturated tones that distinguish Nizhny Novgorod monuments of the 14th-16th centuries.

Tver school.

The Tver school of icon painting developed in the 13th century. Icons and miniatures of the Tver school are characterized by severe expressiveness of images, tension and expression of color relationships, and emphasized linearity of writing. In the 15th century the focus on the artistic traditions of the countries of the Balkan Peninsula, characteristic of her earlier, intensified.

Pskov scale.

The Pskov school took shape during the period of feudal fragmentation and reached its peak in the 14th-15th centuries. She is characterized by increased expression of images, sharpness of light reflections, pastosity of the stroke (the icons "Cathedral of Our Lady" and "Paraskeva, Barbara and Ulyana" - both 2nd half of the 14th century, Tretyakov Gallery). In painting, the collapse of the Pskov school began at the turn of the 15th and 16th centuries.

Iconography. Russian icon.

iconography- one of the recognized pinnacles of world art, the greatest spiritual heritage of our people. The interest in it is enormous, as are the difficulties of its perception for us.
The Russian icon has always attracted and still attracts the closest attention of art historians, artists and just lovers of painting with its unusualness and mystery. This is due to the fact that ancient Russian icon painting is a peculiar, unique phenomenon. It has great aesthetic and spiritual value. And, although a lot of special literature is currently being published, it is very difficult for an unprepared viewer to decipher the encoded meaning of the icon. To do this, some preparation is required.
We have icons in almost every house, but do the inhabitants know the history of the appearance of icons in the house, the meanings of colors, the names of the icons, the history of the icon of the Mother of God?
It turns out that the first image of Christ, according to legend, appeared in the 6th century. It is called the Image Not Made by Hands, because. arose from the contact of a cloth (towel, handkerchief) with the face of Christ. In the legends of the 6th c. It is said that Abgar, the king of the city of Edessa, who was ill with leprosy, sent his servant to Christ with a request either to come to Edessa and heal him, or to allow him to paint a portrait of Him. In response to this request, Christ washed His face, put a towel on it, and the face was miraculously imprinted on the canvas. Having received a miraculous portrait of Christ, Avgar recovered, after which he attached it to a board and placed it over the city gates of Edessa. In 944 the Icon Not Made by Hands was transferred to Constantinople. After the defeat of Constantinople by the Crusaders in 1204, the Image disappeared.
Main images Christian art were images of Christ, they were depicted on the walls of temples and icons. The icons of the Mother of God became the most numerous in terms of types.
Not every artist could paint icons. Above him, not only a blessing is required, a special prayer is read over the artist, calling for God's help in painting icons, spiritual paintings. When icons are painted, they are painted not with a cigarette in their mouths, but with a prayer on their lips. A person who wants to paint icons must be humble. On Athos, the monks painted icons with such humility and reverence that even without consecration, the icons immediately became miraculous. Only the person who is an Orthodox Christian, constantly goes to services, confesses, takes communion, and fasts has the right to paint icons. You can paint an icon only while fasting! It is necessary that the icon painter's soul be pure, and then the image on the icon will be pure. And if a person is dead in soul, then no matter what a master professional he is, he will paint a dead icon.
In the 16th-17th centuries, at the Stoglavy Cathedral (1551) and at the Councils of 1667-1674, an icon-painting canon was approved. In Russian "legalizations" it was strictly stipulated that only good people who believe in God can be allowed to paint icons. Icons by Andrei Rublev, Dionysius, Simon Ushakov were accepted as a model for the icon-painting canon in Russia.

Preparation of the board for the icon.

The basis of any icon, as a rule, is a wooden board. In Russia, linden, maple, spruce, and pine were most often used for these purposes. The choice of wood type in different regions of the country was dictated by local conditions. So, in the north (Pskov, Yaroslavl) they used pine boards, in Siberia pine and larch boards, and Moscow icon painters used lime or imported cypress boards. Of course, linden boards were most preferable. Linden is a soft, easy-to-work tree. It does not have a pronounced structure, which reduces the risk of cracking of the board prepared for processing. The basis of the icons was made of dry, seasoned wood. The gluing of individual parts of the board was carried out with wood glue. The knots that came across in the board, as a rule, were cut out, since when drying, the gesso cracked in these places. Inserts were glued in place of the cut knots.
Until the second half of the 17th century, a small depression was chosen on the front of the board, which was called the "ark" or "trough", and the ledge formed by the ark was called "husk". Already from the second half of the 17th century, boards, as a rule, were made without an ark, with a flat surface, but at the same time, the fields framing the image began to be painted over with some color. In the 17th century, the icon also lost its colored fields. They began to be inserted into metal frames, and in iconostases they were framed in a baroque style frame.
To prepare the board for the ground ("levkas"), the craftsmen used animal glue, gelatin or fish. The best fish glue was obtained from the bubbles of cartilaginous fish: beluga, sturgeon and sterlet. Good fish glue has great astringency and elasticity.
On a carefully processed and glued board, a layer of fabric (widows) was glued. For these purposes, there was a fabric made of linen, hemp fiber, as well as a durable variety of gauze. To prepare the fabric for gluing, it was first soaked in cold water, then boiled in boiling water. The canvas pre-impregnated with glue was applied to the glued surface of the board. Then, after thorough drying of the pavoloki, they began to apply gesso.

SOILS, THEIR COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES

It is known that as early as 4 thousand years BC. e. the ancient Egyptians, trying to ensure the life of the dead pharaohs and their close ones in the afterlife, embalmed the body and placed it in a wooden sarcophagus covered with cloth. The sarcophagus was primed with a composition similar to gesso and the face of the deceased was painted with tempera paints. Obviously, the skill and tradition of applying gesso to a tree came from there.
Levkas was prepared from well-sifted chalk mixed with fish glue. Although gypsum, alabaster, and whitewash were sometimes used to make gesso, chalk is preferable in this case, since it gives a very high quality ground, distinguished by whiteness and strength.
Nowadays, in restoration workshops, soil is used, the preparation of which begins with heating fish glue to a temperature of 60 ° C and adding finely ground dry chalk to it in small portions. The composition is thoroughly mixed with a metal spatula. A small amount of polymerized linseed oil or oil-resin varnish is added to the resulting composition (a few drops per 100 ml of mass).
To lay the soil on the board, they used a wooden or bone spatula - a "spatula", as well as bristle brushes. Levkas was applied to the board in a thin layer. Each layer was thoroughly dried. Sometimes masters applied up to 10 layers.
The layers of soil were applied very thinly, the thinner, the less the risk of cracking. After the final drying, the soil was leveled with various blades and smoothed with pumice stone, sawn into flat pieces. The surface of gesso was polished with stems of horsetail, which contains a large amount of silicon, which makes it possible to use it as a polishing material.
By the end of the 17th and the beginning of the 18th century, the soil began to be laid directly on the board. This was due to the fact that tempera began to be replaced with oil paints and oil and drying oil were added to the ground. Sometimes gesso was cooked on egg yolk with glue and plenty of oil. So they got a base prepared for painting.

DIFFERENCE ORTHODOX FROM CATHOLIC ICONS

Specialists in art history and religion find the difference between Orthodox and Catholic icons in the same difference that exists between icon painting and painting. The icon-painting traditions of Catholics and Orthodox have a huge gap, they developed independently for several centuries, so it is not difficult to distinguish icons from each other.
The school of Orthodox icon painting is based on the Byzantine tradition, which professes strict monumentality, smoothness and slowness of movement. Her icons are full of triumph and heavenly joy; they serve for prayer. This is the image behind which there is always the Prototype - God.
Catholic icons are not an image, but a picture, an illustration on a religious, biblical theme. It is very picturesque and often has an instructive, instructive character. The Orthodox icon does not teach and does not tell about anything, only pointing to another world, from it the believer himself draws a meaning that is understandable and visible only to him. Therefore, such an icon always requires decoding. Her writing is subject to a strict canon that does not allow deviations in color, the way individuals are depicted.
Another difference is the perspective, on the Catholic icon it is direct, and on the Orthodox one it is the opposite.

ICON LIGHTING

Nowadays, according to tradition, icons after being painted or made are consecrated in the temple. The priest reads special prayers and sprinkles the image with holy water. The icon is holy because it depicts the Lord, the Mother of God or saints.
For many centuries there was no special rite for the consecration of icons. The icon was created in the Church, was inseparable from the Church and was recognized as a saint by its correspondence to the icon-painting canon, that is, the set of rules according to which the authenticity of a sacred image is determined. Since ancient times, the icon was recognized as a holy image due to the inscription on the icon of the name of the depicted.
The modern rite of consecrating icons arose in the era of the impoverishment of Orthodox iconography, during the borrowing from secular and Western painting, which were introduced into the Orthodox icon. At this time, in order to confirm the holiness of the depicted, the icons began to be consecrated. Actually, this rite can be understood as evidence of the Church about the authenticity of the icon, that it is the one who is inscribed who is depicted.
Nowadays, embroidered icons are often brought to be consecrated, but those who have decided to do this seriously need to talk with the priest and take a blessing for the upcoming lesson, take an interest in icon-painting canons. The creation of icons is a serious work that requires spiritual preparation. You can not treat it as a fascinating hobby.
For a believer in medieval Russia, there was never a question whether he liked an icon or not, how and how artistically it was made. Its content was important to him. At that time, many could not read, but the language of symbols was instilled in any believer from childhood.

Symbolism of color, gestures, depicted objects- this is the language of the icon, without knowing which it is difficult to assess the meaning of the icons.
Clothing on icons is not a means to cover up bodily nudity, clothing is a symbol. She is a fabric from the exploits of a saint. Interesting information about the nature of the clothes and vestments in which the characters of the icons are dressed. Each image has clothes that are characteristic and inherent only to him. One of the important details is the folds. The nature of the location of the folds on the clothes of the saints testifies to the time of writing the icon. In the VIII-XIV centuries, folds were drawn frequent and small. They talk about strong spiritual experiences, about the lack of spiritual peace. In the 15th-16th centuries, folds were drawn straight, long, and sparse. Through them, as it were, all the elasticity of spiritual energy breaks through. They convey the fullness of ordered spiritual forces.
Around the head of the Savior, the Mother of God and the saints of God, the icons depict a radiance in the form of a circle, which is called a halo.
A halo is an image of the radiance of light and Divine glory, which also transforms a person who has united with God.
There are no shadows on the icons.
Each item in the icon is a symbol:

GESTURE SYMBOLS

The hand pressed to the chest is heartfelt empathy.
The hand raised up is a call to repentance.
A hand stretched forward with an open palm is a sign of obedience and humility.
Two hands raised up - a prayer for peace.
Hands raised forward - a prayer for help, a gesture of request.
Hands pressed to the cheeks - a sign of sadness, grief.

COLOR IN ICON:

Golden joy is proclaimed in the icon with color and light. Gold (assist) on the icon symbolizes Divine energy and grace, the beauty of the other world, God himself. Solar gold, as it were, absorbs the evil of the world and defeats it.
Yellow or ocher- the color closest in spectrum to gold, often just a substitute for it, is also the color of the highest power of angels.
Purple or crimson, the color was a very significant symbol in Byzantine culture. This is the color of the king, the lord - God in heaven, the emperor on earth. Only the emperor could sign decrees in purple ink and sit on a purple throne, only he wore purple clothes and boots (this was strictly forbidden to everyone). Leather or wooden bindings of the Gospels in temples were covered with purple cloth. This color was present in the icons on the clothes of the Mother of God - the Queen of Heaven.
Red- one of the most noticeable colors in the icon. It is the color of warmth, love, life, life-giving energy. But at the same time, it is the color of blood and torment, the color of Christ's sacrifice. Martyrs were depicted in red robes on the icons.
White color- a symbol of divine light. It is the color of purity, holiness and simplicity. On icons and frescoes, saints and righteous people were usually depicted in white. The righteous are people who are kind and honest, living "in truth."
Blue and cyan colors meant the infinity of the sky, a symbol of another, eternal world. The blue color was considered the color of the Mother of God, who combined both the earthly and the heavenly. The murals in many churches dedicated to the Mother of God are filled with heavenly blue.
Green color- natural, living. This is the color of grass and leaves, youth, flowering, hope, eternal renewal. They wrote the earth in green, he was present where life began - in the scenes of Christmas.
Brown is the color of bare earth, dust, everything temporary and perishable.
Gray is a color that has never been used in icon painting. Having mixed black and white, evil and good, it became the color of obscurity, emptiness, non-existence. There was no place for such a color in the radiant world of the icon.
Black color- the color of evil and death. In iconography, the caves - the symbols of the grave - and the gaping hellish abyss were painted over with black. In some plots, it could be the color of mystery. The black robes of monks who have left ordinary life are a symbol of the rejection of former pleasures and habits, a kind of death in life.
The basis of the color symbolism of the Orthodox icon, as well as all church art, is the image of the Savior and the Mother of God.
The image of the Blessed Virgin Mary is characterized by dark cherry omophorion- a robe worn on the shoulders, and a blue or dark blue chiton. Chiton- the Greek name for underwear, dresses, clothes in general among ancient peoples.
The image of the Savior is characterized by a dark brown-red chiton and dark blue himation(cloak, cape). And here, of course, there is a certain symbolism: blue is the color of Heaven (the symbol of Heaven).
The Savior has a blue himation - a symbol of His Divinity, and a dark red tunic - a symbol of His human nature.
Dark red the color of the clothes of the Virgin is a symbol of the Mother of God.
Saints on all icons are depicted in white or somewhat bluish robes.

Icon painting played an important role in Ancient Russia, where it became one of the main forms of fine art. The earliest ancient Russian icons had traditions, as already mentioned, of Byzantine icon painting, but very soon their own distinctive centers and schools of icon painting arose in Russia: Moscow, Pskov, Novgorod, Tver, Central Russian principalities, "northern letters", etc. There were also their own Russian saints , and their own Russian holidays (Protection of the Virgin, etc.), which are vividly reflected in icon painting.

The artistic language of the icon has long been understood by any person in Russia, the icon was a book for the illiterate. The very word "icon" in Greek meant an image, an image. Most often they turned to the images of Christ, the Mother of God, saints, and also depicted events that were considered sacred.

And yet, even in such a state, the picturesque ensemble of St. Sophia of Kiev amazes with its grandeur and unity of design, embodying the world of ideas of a medieval person. The appearance of the saints in the mosaics of St. Sophia of Kiev is close to the canon developed in Byzantine painting: an elongated oval face, a straight long nose, a small mouth with a thin upper and plump lower lip, huge, wide-open eyes, a strict, often stern expression. However, some saints, and especially those in the apse, give the impression of portraiture. In general, despite the incomplete preservation, the hierarchical rank with echoes of Hellenistic portraiture in faces, with a clear constructiveness of forms and refinement of colors is one of the strongest parts of the decorative ensemble.

Many works of easel painting were created in the 11th century. The Kiev-Pechersk patericon even preserved the name of the famous Russian icon painter of the 11th - early 12th centuries. Caves monk Alimpiy, who studied with Greek masters. Contemporaries said about the monk-painter that he “painted icons cunningly [was] very good”, icon painting was the main means of his existence. But he spent what he earned in a very peculiar way: for one part he bought everything that was necessary for his craft, he gave the other to the poor, and donated the third to the Caves Monastery. Most of the works of this period have not reached us.

Icons of Vladimir-Suzdal masters of the XII century. became known in recent years after they were cleared by the Central State Restoration Workshops. Some icons are still very similar in style to the Kiev monuments of the 11th century. Among such icons is a horizontally elongated icon with a depiction of the “Deesis” on the shoulder from the Moscow Assumption Cathedral (Christ, the Mother of God and John the Baptist). The famous Yaroslavl oranta, which came to Yaroslavl from Rostov, is also associated with Kiev artistic traditions. The monumental majestic figure of the oranta is close in proportion to the figures of Kiev mosaics. The monumental, solemn icon of Demetrius of Thessalonica, (by the 12th century) brought from the city of Dmitrov, with perfect regularity, symmetry and “sculptural” modeling of a very bright face, resembles the Yaroslavl orant. Apparently, the icon of George of the end of the 12th century - the beginning of the 14th century also belongs to the Vladimir-Suzdal school. The artist also created here the image of a warrior, but younger, with a beautiful expressive face. For a more complete characterization of the pre-Mongolian Vladimir-Suzdal painting, it is necessary to dwell on one icon of the late 12th century, which differs sharply from all previous ones. This is an icon of the Belozerskaya Mother of God, which is a kind of processing of the type of the Vladimir Mother of God. The icon, created on the northern outskirts of the Vladimir-Suzdal land by a folk master, is distinguished by its monumentality and deeply emotional interpretation of the image of a mournful mother. Particularly expressive is the look of the huge eyes fixed on the viewer, and the painfully twisted mouth. In the depiction of Christ as a youth, with an ugly face, a large forehead, a thin neck and long, knee-deep legs, there are features of life observation, sharply grasped details. The whole image as a whole is distinguished by the flatness and angularity of the pattern. The icon is made on a silver background in a restrained and gloomy range. On its blue fields there are medallions with bust images of saints with Russian types of faces, painted in a broader pictorial manner on pink and blue backgrounds.

In connection with the fragmentation of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality into a number of small principalities, local schools began to take shape in the main cities of these principalities, partially continuing the traditions of Vladimir-Suzdal painting (Yaroslavl, Kostroma, Moscow, Rostov, Suzdal, etc.).

Speaking about the process of creating an icon, it should be noted the high complexity and subtlety of the work. To begin with, a board was skillfully selected (most often from linden), on the surface of which hot fish glue (prepared from sturgeon bubbles and cartilage) was applied, a new canvas-pillowcase was tightly glued. On the pillowcase, in several steps, gesso (the basis for painting) was applied, prepared from crushed chalk, water and fish glue. Levkas was dried and polished. Old Russian icon painters used natural dyes - local soft clays and hard precious stones brought from the Urals, from India, Byzantium and other places. For the preparation of paints, the stones were ground into powder, a binder was added, most often the yolk, as well as gum (water-soluble resin of acacia, plums, cherries, cherry plums). Icon painters boiled drying oil from linseed or poppy oil, which was used to cover the painting of icons.

Unfortunately, the ancient icons have come down to us greatly altered. The original beautiful painting was hidden by a film of drying oil that had darkened with time, which was used to cover the finished icon in the Middle Ages, as well as several layers of later renovations of the icon.

Among the earliest Novgorod icons that have come down to us are masterpieces of world significance. Such, for example, is the “Angel of Golden Hair”, probably written at the end of the 12th century. In all likelihood, this is a fragment of the Deesis tier. The deep spirituality of the sad face with huge eyes makes the image of the icon charmingly beautiful. What a high, pure beauty in this unforgettable image! The seal of Byzantium is still clear and something truly Hellenic shines in the beautiful oval of the face with a gentle blush under the wavy hair trimmed with golden threads. But sadness in the eyes, so radiant and deep, all this sweet freshness, all this exciting beauty is not already a reflection of the Russian soul, ready to realize its special destiny with its tragic trials.

Features of the Kievan artistic tradition are still preserved in a number of icons of the 12th-early 13th centuries, originating mainly from Novgorod again. Such is the "Savior Not Made by Hands" (the face of Christ depicted on the board) from the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin (XII century). This icon had a special veneration in Novgorod and was a glorified icon. This is evidenced by one of the Novgorod manuscripts of the XIII century (Zakharyevsky Prologue). The stern face of Christ with huge eyes is painted in olive-yellow tones. Her restraint is enlivened by the red rouge of her cheeks, as well as the forehead and nose contour, the differently arched eyebrows give the face of Christ.

Special expressiveness, just as asymmetry, curvature of lines endow Novgorod churches with special plastic expressiveness.

The main, central image of all ancient Russian art is the image of Jesus Christ, the Savior, as he was called in Russia. Savior (Savior) - this word absolutely accurately expresses the idea of ​​​​the Christian religion about him. It teaches that Jesus Christ is a Man and at the same time God, and the Son of God, who endured the salvation of the human race.

Traditionally located on any of his images on both sides of the head IC XC - the word designation of his personality, the abbreviated designation of his name - Jesus Christ ("Christ" in Greek - the anointed one, the messenger of God). A nimbus also traditionally surrounds the heads of the Savior - a circle, most often golden, - a symbolic image of the light emanating from it, the eternal light, and therefore acquiring a round, beginningless shape. This halo, in memory of the sacrifice he made for people on the cross, is always lined with a cross.

A very important and widespread type of image of the Savior in ancient Russian art was the type that received the name "Savior Almighty". The concept of "Almighty" expresses the basic idea of ​​the Christian dogma about Jesus Christ. "The Almighty Saved" is a half-length image of Jesus Christ in his left hand with the Gospel - a sign of the teaching he brought into the world - and with his right hand, the right hand, raised in a gesture of blessing addressed to this world. But not only these important semantic attributes unite the images of the Almighty Savior. The artists who created them strove with special fullness to endow the image of Jesus Christ with divine power and majesty.

A mosaic image of the Almighty Savior in the dome of one of the oldest churches - the Hagia Sophia in Kyiv (1043-1046) has come down to us.

With the same attributes of the Master of the World as the Almighty Savior, with the Gospel in his left hand and his right hand raised in blessing, Jesus Christ was also depicted in the widespread compositions "The Savior on the Throne." Sitting on the throne (throne) itself indicated his royal power here. In these images, it was especially clear that the Lord of the world is also its judge, since "sitting on the throne", the Savior will do his last judgment on people and the world.

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NON-STATE EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION

HIGHER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION

Institute of Tourism Technology

Department of Humanitarian and Social Disciplines

ESSAY

By discipline:« Culturology»

On the topic: "The Development of Icon Painting in Ancient Russia"

Pushkino2014

1. iconography

Iconography - the writing of icons, a type of painting, common in the Middle Ages, dedicated to religious subjects and themes.

Russian icon painting is the fine art of Ancient Russia that developed in the depths of the Orthodox Church, the beginning of which was laid at the end of the 10th century by the baptism of Russia. Iconography remained the core of ancient Russian culture until the end of the 17th century, when in the era of Peter the Great it was supplanted by secular forms of fine art.

The icon as an object of religious worship is an indispensable accessory of every Orthodox church. In ancient Russia, for example, there was a cult of icons as sacred objects. They were worshiped, many legends were composed about them, superstitious people believed that the icons were endowed with a mysterious power. A miracle was expected from them, deliverance from diseases, help in overcoming the enemy. The icon was an indispensable accessory not only for church decoration, but also for every residential building. At the same time, the artistic quality of icons was sometimes given secondary importance. iconography icon ancient Russian painting

The oldest monuments of icon painting date back to the 6th century. Large collections of them are concentrated in monasteries in Sinai (Sinai Peninsula), Mount Athos (Greece) and Jerusalem. Icon painting arose on the basis of the traditions of late Hellenistic art. The original works - "portraits" of saints - were made using the technique of mosaic (made from pieces of colored stone), encaustic, then the icons were painted in tempera (from the Latin verb "temperare" - to mix), from the 18th century - with oil paints on wooden boards, less often - on metal.

In the X-XII centuries, Byzantium became the center of icon painting. At the beginning of the 12th century, a famous masterpiece was created - the icon of the Mother of God of Vladimir, which is now kept in the Tretyakov Gallery. The Byzantine style had a great influence on the painting of Western Europe, Ancient Russia, the South Slavic countries, Georgia, which was associated with the spread of Christianity.

Icons were written on boards, which were fastened with transverse wooden bars - dowels. A canvas was usually glued onto the board - pavoloka. Pavoloka was covered gesso- a mixture of chalk and glue. Levkas was polished to a shine and painted with egg tempera - mineral and vegetable paints diluted with yolk. Artists of ancient times used saturated blue, green, cherry colors, which seemed even deeper next to pink and blue hues, bright red and white. And thanks to the combination of these colors with a gold and silver background, the colorful range acquired a special solemnity and sonority. The finished icon was covered with drying oil. Drying oil darkened over time, the icon was covered with dirt and soot, and then it was recorded with new painting. Some icons were updated three or more times. It is this later painting that the restorers have to clear in order to find an ancient letter.

2. The development of icon painting in Russia

The most famous ensemble of the pre-Mongolian period in Kyiv are the mosaics and frescoes of St. Sophia Cathedral, built in the 11th century by Yaroslav the Wise. The church painting program corresponded to the Byzantine tradition, but contained a number of features. The main dome and the altar were decorated with mosaics, of which the image of Christ Pantokrator in the zenith of the dome and Our Lady Oranta in the vault of the altar are well preserved. The rest of the interior was frescoed. The style of mosaics, as well as frescoes, exactly corresponds to the features of Byzantine art of the 1st half of the 11th century, that is, to the ascetic style.

For ancient Russian art, the construction and painting of the Assumption Cathedral in the Kiev-Pechersky Monastery played an important role. The works were made by Constantinople masters in 1073-89. The ancient painting, and then the temple building itself, perished. However, a description made in the 17th century has been preserved, from which the main content of the painting is clear. The icon painters who did the painting remained in the monastery, where they founded an icon painting school. From it came the first famous Russian icon painters - the Monks Alipiy and Gregory. Throughout the pre-Mongolian period, Greek icon painters continued to be actively invited. It is still very difficult to distinguish between their works and the works of the first domestic masters. Murals and icons are basically similar to contemporary trends in Byzantine icon painting. The works of the Greeks are the murals of the Cathedral of St. Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery, St. Sophia Cathedral and other early churches of Veliky Novgorod, the frescoes of the Cathedral of the Mirozhsky Monastery in Pskov and the Gergiev Church in Staraya Ladoga. The services of the best Byzantine icon painters were used by the Vladimir-Suzdal principality.

The oldest icons in Russia have been preserved in Veliky Novgorod. Several huge icons come from St. Sophia Cathedral, which were part of the oldest decoration of the temple. The iconic “Golden Robe of the Savior”, depicting Christ on a throne in golden robes, is currently in the Assumption Cathedral in Moscow, but only paintings of the 17th century have been preserved on it. Much better preserved is the icon of the apostles Peter and Paul, which is kept in the Novgorod Museum along with its ancient setting.

The iconography of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality stands apart. The heyday of his culture is associated with Andrei Bogolyubsky. In 1155, Andrei Bogolyubsky left Vyshgorod, taking with him the revered icon of the Mother of God, and settled in Vladimir on the Klyazma. The icon brought by him, called Vladimirskaya, became the palladium of the principality, and later of all of Russia. The Byzantine image, beautiful in its penetration and classicism, served as a kind of measure of artistic quality for working icon painters.

Luxurious white-stone churches of Andrei Bogolyubsky and his brother Vsevolod, who ruled after him, were painted by the best masters. It is possible that artists were invited from Thessalonica, where Vsevolod spent his youth, who painted the Assumption Cathedral, consecrated in honor of the heavenly patron - the Great Martyr Demetrius of Thessalonica. Here was kept the brought tomb of St. Demetrius, on which his icon was painted.

The most ancient Russian icons belong to the end of the 11th - the beginning of the 13th centuries. They are full of calm grandeur, depict courageous, strong, intelligent people, ready for a feat. Such are the warriors - Dmitry Solunsky on the icon stored in the Tretyakov Gallery, and George on the icon located in the Moscow Kremlin Museum. They are brave warriors, in full armor, in strong hands they have swords and shields.

A large icon of the Great Martyr Demetrius of Thessalonica from the city of Dmitrov, was commissioned by Prince Vsevolod the Big Nest, who bore this name in baptism. The iconography of the icon is rare - the saint solemnly sits on the throne, sheathing his sword. Here there is both a moment of glorification of the saint himself, as if resting after the battle, and the theme of investiture: the saint patronizes the prince, handing him his sword as a sign of power.

DiMitrius of Thessalonica

In the form of an intercessor for the people, the Mother of God is depicted on the icon of the Great Panagia (Panagia in Greek means “perfect holiness”). The Mother of God stands with her hands raised up, as if shielding people from all troubles.

3. The heyday of ancient Russian icon painting. Theophan's workGrek, Andrey Rublev, Dionysius

The heyday of ancient Russian painting falls on the end of the 14th - the middle of the 16th centuries. What is this period of our history? Having gone through the trials of the Mongol-Tatar yoke, the Russian people began to unite in order to fight the enemy and realize their unity. In art, he embodied his aspirations and aspirations, social, moral, religious ideals. Among the icons of this time, remarkable works by the Byzantine artist stand out. Theophan the Greek. His art, passionate, dramatic, wise, severe, sometimes tragically tense, made a strong impression on Russian masters. The frescoes he created in the Novgorod Church of the Savior on Ilyin Street (1378) are built on a subtle combination of various brown, blue, blue and lilac shades. Dark faces, on which energetic white strokes are applied, are full of extraordinary inner strength and expression.

In its own way, the era was reflected in creativity Andrey Rublev who worked in Moscow. The date of Rublev's birth is not precisely established, it is assumed that he was born between 1360 and 1370. He was probably a monk of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery - one of the major centers of Russia at that time, and towards the end of his life - the Andronikov Monastery in Moscow. Chronicles report about him twice: in 1405, when he, with Prokhor from Gorodets and Theophan the Greek, painted the Annunciation Cathedral in the Moscow Kremlin and painted icons for it, and in 1408, when he and his elder friend, the icon painter Daniil Cherny, worked on restoring the painting and the iconostasis of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir (the old painting of the cathedral was almost completely destroyed during the Mongol-Tatar invasion in 1237). The frescoes made by Rublev for this cathedral on the theme of the Last Judgment have survived (according to religious legends, the Last Judgment is supposedly God’s judgment, which should take place on a certain day, the “end of the world”, in which all people will be rewarded according to their merits: sinners will receive punishment, but the righteous - eternal bliss). Far from the entire grandiose composition that once occupied the western part of the cathedral has come down to us, but only fragments. Painting has lost its former brightness of colors, its surface is badly worn. But her images still captivate us with their beauty and smoothness of movements. And most importantly - this painting is deeply humane: the soft and gentle faces of the saints are the faces of ordinary Russian people.

Rublev also worked on the painting of the Trinity Cathedral of the Trinity-Sergius Lavra and in the Andronikov Monastery, where he was apparently buried around 1430.

Rublev never signed his works, so the question of his authorship in each case has repeatedly caused controversy among scientists.

"Trinity" is one of the most reliable works of Rublev. It was written in the 1st quarter of the 15th century for the Trinity Cathedral of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery in honor of its founder, Sergius of Radonezh. The icon depicts three angels sitting at a table around an iron bowl. There seems to be a quiet conversation going on between them. They came to the house of the prophet Abraham and predicted the birth of a son to him - such is the theological meaning of the icon. But the Trinity was also a special holiday - on this day, according to custom, quarreling people reconciled. And this second content is the main one in the Trinity. Peace, harmony, unanimity - this is what the artist calls for the Russian people. And this real content of the icon reflected the desire of the Russian people for the unification of Russia and for a unanimous rebuff to the enemies. Therefore, it is no coincidence that the icon was dedicated to Sergius of Radonezh - a fierce champion of the unification of Russia, an opponent of feudal wars and strife.

In the icon, everything is harmonious, according to. Pure colors: bright cornflower blue, soft green, golden yellow, blue - remind us of the colors of Russian nature on a clear June day.

"Trinity"

Andrei Rublev painted three more icons: the Savior (Jesus Christ), the Archangel Michael and the Apostle Paul, found near the Zvenigorod Cathedral of the Assumption "on Gorodok". In these icons, the artist's humanism manifested itself with particular force. Spas is especially remarkable. His kind face embodied the ideal of a man of that time. All three icons are in the State Tretyakov Gallery.

At the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries, another remarkable artist lived and worked - Dionysius. He worked in Borovsk, Moscow, Volokolamsk, the Ferapontov monastery near Kirillov (not far from Vologda), in the Pavlovo-Obnorsky monastery. He painted frescoes, icons, possibly miniatures for books. Especially significant is his work in the Ferapontov Monastery, where he created frescoes, musical in lines and rhythms, infinitely rich in color. Two of his icons are famous, telling about the life of the Moscow metropolitans of the XIV century Peter and Alexy - "Metropolitan Peter in life" and "Metropolitan Alexy in life". Very interesting hallmarks these icons, which tell about real historical events (in icon painting, hallmarks are small finished compositions located around a large image). For example, about the trip of Alexy with a diplomatic mission to the Tatar Khan, about the healing of the wife of Khan Taidula.

Along with the Moscow school, icon painting flourished in Novgorod, Pskov, Tver, Suzdal and other cities in the 14th-15th centuries.

4. Iconography - historical and artistic value

A turn in the development of icon painting took place in the middle of the 16th century, when church control over the work of icon painters sharply increased. The decisions of the Stoglavy Sobor referred to Andrei Rublev as a model, but essentially cut off the precious thread running from him.

The historical consideration of iconography helps to understand its essence. Icon painters usually did not invent, did not compose their subjects, like painters. They followed the iconographic type developed and approved by the custom and church authorities. This explains the fact that icons on the same plot, even separated by centuries, they are similar to each other. It was believed that the masters were obliged to follow the samples collected in the original icon-paintings, and could only express themselves in color. Otherwise, they were dominated by traditional canons. But even within the framework of constant gospel stories, with all due respect for tradition, the masters always managed to add something of themselves, enrich, rethink the old model.

Until the 17th century, painters usually did not sign their works. Chronicles and other literary sources mention the most revered icon painters: Theophan the Greek, Andrei Rublev, Daniil Cherny, Dionysius. Of course, there were much more talented craftsmen, but their names remained unknown to us.

Modern man cannot but be surprised by the sharp contradictions between the cruelty and rudeness of the mores of feudal Russia and the nobility and sublimity of ancient Russian art. This does not mean at all that it turned away from the drama of life. The Russian people of that era delved into the course of life, but sought to put into art what they lacked in reality and what they were drawn to by the aspirations of the people.

For example, the images of the martyrs Boris and Gleb then looked like an exhortation to the princes to abandon civil strife. The icon "Battle of Novgorodians with Suzdalians" manifested the local patriotism of those years when the regiments of Moscow princes threatened the freedom of Novgorod.

Old Russian masters were deeply convinced that art makes it possible to touch the secrets of being, the secrets of the universe. The hierarchical ladder, pyramidality, integrity, subordination of parts - this is what was recognized as the basis of the world order, in which they saw a means of overcoming chaos and darkness. This idea found expression in the structure of each icon. The Christian temple was conceived as a semblance of the world, space, and the dome - the firmament. Accordingly, almost every icon was understood as a kind of temple and at the same time as a model of the cosmos. Modern man does not understand the ancient Russian cosmos. But even he cannot but be captivated by the fruits of poetic creativity generated by this view: the bright cosmic order triumphing over the forces of gloomy chaos.

Old Russian icon painting paid great attention to images of gospel scenes from the life of Christ, the Mother of God (Virgin Mary) and saints. Among the numerous diverse motives, she chose the most permanent, stable, and universally significant.

Of particular note is a group of such icons, in which folk ideals were manifested, agricultural Russia had its say. First of all, these are icons dedicated to Florus and Laurus, the patrons of cattle, George, Blasius and Elijah the Prophet, who was depicted against a bright, fiery background as the successor of the pagan god of thunder and lightning Perun.

Among the plots and motifs that especially appealed to the people of Ancient Russia, the Rublev type of the Trinity should be mentioned: three figures full of friendly disposition, constituting a closed group. Andrei Rublev expressed this state with the greatest clarity and captivating elegance. Rehashings of his compositions, free variations on this theme are constantly found in Russian icons.

In the world of ancient Russian icons, the human principle is of great importance. The main subject of icon painting is a deity, but it appears in the form of a beautiful, exalted person. The deep humanism of the Russian icon is also in the fact that everything depicted has passed through the crucible of the human soul, colored by its empathy. In his impulse to the high, a person does not lose the ability to affectionately look at the world, to admire either the frisky run of horses, or the shepherds with their sheep - in a word, all the "earthly creatures", as it was pleasant to say then.

Iconography is a symbolic art. It is based on the notion that absolutely everything in the world is just a shell, behind which lies, like a core, the highest meaning. The work of art acquires several meanings from here, which makes it difficult to perceive the icon. Both the plot and the art form are symbolic here. Each icon, in addition to depicting a legendary event or character, also has a subtext that reveals its true content.

Icons in their content are addressed not to one person, but to a community of people. They formed a row in the temple - an iconostasis, benefiting from the neighborhood with each other. The ancient Russian iconostasis was a holistic harmonious unity. The first large iconostases with human-sized figures date back to the beginning of the 15th century, and since then not a single temple has been complete without such a majestic structure. Its literal meaning is the prayer of the saints, addressed to Christ, the Almighty, seated on the throne (the deesis rank is a row). But since there was also a local row with icons on various topics, and a festive row with scenes from the life of Christ and Mary, and a prophetic row (images of the apostles, prophets), the iconostasis acquired the significance of a kind of encyclopedia. At the same time, the iconostasis is a remarkable artistic creation of ancient Russian culture. Its importance in the development of the ancient Russian icon can hardly be overestimated. Many icons cannot be explained and understood outside the combination in which they are in the iconostasis.

Icon painting developed the highest artistic skill, a special understanding of drawing, composition, space, color and light.

The drawing conveyed the outlines of objects so that they could be recognized. But the purpose of the drawing was not limited to identification meaning. Graphic metaphor - the poetic likening of a person to a mountain, a tower, a tree, a flower, a slender vase - is a common occurrence in Russian icon painting.

Composition is a particularly strong point of ancient Russian icons. Almost every icon was conceived as a semblance of the world, and accordingly, the middle axis is always present in the composition. In the upper part, the sky rises (the higher tiers of being), and below it is usually designated the earth ("pozyom"), sometimes under it - the underworld. This fundamental structure of the ion, regardless of the plot, influenced its entire composition.

In ancient texts, the favorite colors of our icon painters are listed: ocher, cinnabar, cormorant, hook, stuffed cabbage, emerald. But in reality, the range of colors of ancient Russian painting is more extensive. Along with pure, open colors, there were many in-betweens. They are different in luminosity and saturation; among them there are sometimes nameless shades that cannot be described in a word, they can only be caught by the human eye. The colors glow, shine, ring, sing, and all this brings great joy. Sometimes only by light alone, for example, by a red cloak fluttering in the wind in the icon “The Miracle of George about the Serpent,” a warrior is given a deep characterization.

Old Russian icon painting is one of the largest phenomena in world art, a peculiar, inimitable phenomenon of great artistic value. It is generated by the historical conditions of the development of our country. But the values ​​it created are public property. For us, ancient Russian icon painting is of great value, in particular, because many of its artistic features were used in a rethought form by the largest contemporary artists (for example, K.S. Petrov-Vodkin, V.A. Favorsky, P.D. Korin and others. ).

In our country, the collection and disclosure of works of ancient Russian icon painting has acquired a nationwide scale. Lenin's decrees on the nationalization of art monuments laid the foundation for the creation of the largest repositories of ancient Russian painting in the Tretyakov Gallery and the Russian Museum.

In the year of the 600th anniversary of the birth of Andrei Rublev, the Museum of Old Russian Art named after him was opened in the former Andronikov Monastery in Moscow.

Bibliography

Main literature

1. Children's encyclopedia in 12 volumes. Volume 12 - Art. Third edition. Scientific editors of the volume: M.P. Sysoev, O.I. Sopotsinsky, D.B. Kabalevsky, V.M. Blok, M.I. Tsarev, S.A. Gerasimov, V.E. Baskakov. - M., Pedagogy, 2009. - 576 p., ill.

2. Encyclopedic dictionary of a young artist. Comp. N.I. Platonov, V.D. Sinyukov. - M., Pedagogy, 2010. - 416 p., ill.

Internet sources

3. Russian icon painting.