The concept of racism

Definition 1

Racism is understood as a set of views that the human races are physically and mentally unequal. This point of view had a significant impact on the development of history and culture in many countries.

Some sources contain a broader concept of racism, considering it as an ideology that raises questions about the division of people into differentiated groups called races, about the possibility of inheriting racial characteristics, physical traits, character traits, intelligence, humor, morality, culture, and also about superiority of one race over another.

In practice, the ideology of racism is used to incite discrimination, limit the rights of any race, justify superiority over any race.

It should be noted that this term first appeared in 1932 in the French dictionary of Larousse, which was a guide to the main political and political science terms. In it, he was presented as a system that asserted the superiority of one racial group over others. At present, the meaning of this term is constantly being supplemented, expanded, and modified in some countries, which makes a significant contribution to the development of this concept in such a science as political science.

However, to date, quite stable multiracial and racial multicultural societies have developed in different countries, and therefore it was necessary to expand this concept. So, today the concept of racism is interpreted as the influence of race on the character of a person, his moral qualities, talents, and behavior.

This concept is also called the new racism. And it is seen as a changing personality that adapts to environment while being a member of certain ethnic and civilized communities. Often such a personality reflects the stereotypes of the behavior of a certain race.

Remark 1

To date, racism is prohibited by international legal instruments and is considered politically unacceptable. However, some individuals continue to express these views, albeit in a more veiled manner. Moreover, racism is gradually disappearing and is being replaced by the idea of ​​incompatibility of civilizations. This idea means that representatives of different races differ from each other and therefore should not mix.

History of racism

The history of the emergence of this concept is associated primarily with geographical discoveries Europeans. At first, there was a colonization policy, which was often accompanied by the fact that Europeans, staying in certain territories, destroyed local residents or enslave them. In addition, it was the Europeans who came up with the theory that some peoples were cursed in accordance with biblical provisions, which gave rise to their conversion into slavery. This provision was especially relevant negroid race. At the same time, individual representatives of this race occupied a very high position in European society and had a significant impact on the development of politics in general, enjoyed undeniable authority among their compatriots and Europeans.

Example 1

For example, a Swedish politician like Gustav Badin was originally a Swedish black slave. However, he was later elevated by the queen to the rank of a high-ranking official, for a long time was significant statesman, approximate queen.

And in the XII century, the so-called theory of polygenesis appeared, which substantiated the following point of view: different races had different ancestors. However, this theory was refuted by scientists, but formed the basis of racism.

In the 20th century, racism also took place and was characterized by the following features:

• the emergence of the Nazis;
• racist justification for the extermination of people during the Second World War;
• the emergence of ostracism;
• racism directed against immigrants.

By the end of the 20th century, the world community came to the conclusion that racism as a phenomenon must be exterminated, otherwise it will lead to the emergence of the Third World War and great loss of life. In addition, the concept of "discrimination" appeared, which meant, among other things, discrimination on the basis of race. There is currently a ban on discrimination in all areas, including labor law.

Causes of racism

Speaking about the causes of racism, the following features should be noted:

• the influence of the European race on the formation of the main points of view in this area;
• in some states, racism has existed since their inception (USA);
• one of the causes of racism is the existence of colonies and the need to justify the subordination of certain categories of peoples;
• the need to justify slavery.

The reason for racism for a long time was precisely the rationale for slavery and the existence of colonies. That is why in the 20th century such a thing as racism existed and flourished. This substantiates the difference between the strata of the population, the necessity of the existence of a category of slaves and categories of masters, feudal and estate differences.

The medieval system justified the possible existence of racism as such, otherwise it would be impossible to force slaves and workers to carry out labor activities for a penny. Accordingly, such a view was beneficial for states to develop their own economies. The 20th century differs from the rest in that there were revolutions in the social sphere, the sphere of government, in many states the republican form of government began to prevail, which had a significant impact on the subsequent abolition of slavery and the denial of any form of discrimination.

Remark 2

At present, the situation in this area has more or less stabilized, although some outbreaks of racial hostility are observed. In general, relations between peoples today are based on mutual interest in each other's culture, history, interest in various historical monuments, thanks to which tourism is actively flourishing. In addition, the development of mutual friendly relations contributes to the spread of the Internet, in which representatives of different races communicate and find friends.

Racism is a psychology, ideology and social practice based on anti-scientific, misanthropic ideas and ideas about the physical and psychological inequality of human races, about the admissibility and necessity of the domination of “higher” races over “lower” ones. Racism and nationalism are intertwined. While absolutizing the secondary external hereditary characteristics of a particular race (color of skin, hair, head structure, etc.), the ideologists of racism ignore the main features of the biological and physiological structure of a person (functions of the brain, nervous system, psychological organization etc.), which are the same for all people.

Modern racism is a product of the capitalist era. It has its own background, going back to the past of mankind. The idea of ​​the inherent inferiority of individual human groups, which is the essence of modern racist ideas, arose already in the most ancient class societies, although it was expressed in a different form than in the 20th century. Yes, in Ancient Egypt the social inequality of slaves and their owners was explained by belonging to different breeds of people. IN Ancient Greece and ancient Rome, it was believed that slaves, as a rule, possess only brute physical strength, in contrast to masters endowed with a highly developed intellect. In the Middle Ages, the feudal lords cultivated the views of the "blood" superiority of the nobles over the mob, the concepts of "blue blood", "white" and "black bone" were widely used.

Already in the 16th century. The Spanish conquerors of America, in order to justify the barbaric cruelty towards the Indians, put forward a “theory” about the inferiority of the “Redskins”, who were declared an “inferior race”. Racist theories justified aggression, the seizure of foreign territories, the ruthless extermination of the peoples of the colonies and dependent countries. Racism acted as the most important ideological weapon in the struggle against the conquered peoples. The military-technical and organizational-political advantage of the European countries and the United States led to the appearance of a sense of superiority among the colonialists over the enslaved peoples, representatives of the Negroid or Mongoloid race, most often it took the form of racial superiority. As for the Africans, it was only at the end of the 18th century that - the beginning of the 19th century, when there was a struggle to ban the slave trade, a theory was created about their inferiority in comparison with Europeans. It was needed by the supporters of slavery and the slave trade in order to justify the legality of the continued existence of the slave trade. Prior to this, Africans as a whole were not treated as an inferior race.

In 1853, the French aristocrat Count Joseph Arthur Gobineau, a diplomat and publicist, published the book An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races. He tried to establish a kind of hierarchy of peoples inhabiting our planet. Gobineau considered the “black” race to be the lowest race, the “yellow” race to be somewhat more developed, and the “white” race, especially its elite, the Aryan, fair-haired and blue-eyed, to be the highest and only capable of progress. Among the Aryans, Gobineau put the Germans in first place. They, in his opinion, created the real glory of Rome, a number of states in new Europe, including Rus'. Gobineau's theory, where races and language groups, became the basis of many racist theories.

In the era of imperialism, a theory of opposition between West and East was formed: about the superiority of the peoples of Europe and North America and backwardness of the countries of Asia and Africa, about the historical inevitability for the latter to be under the leadership of the "civilized West". After the First World War in Germany, the "Nordic myth" about the superiority over all other races of the northern, or "Nordic", race, allegedly genetically related to peoples who speak Germanic languages, gained popularity. During the years of Hitler's dictatorship in Germany, racism became the official ideology of fascism. Fascist doctrine spread in Italy, Hungary, Spain, France, the Netherlands and other countries. Racism justified aggressive wars, mass destruction of people. During the Second World War, the Nazi racists planned and started the destruction (genocide) of certain nations, which, according to the racist theories of fascism, were considered inferior, for example, Jews, Poles.

The equality of peoples and races was proclaimed and enshrined in UN documents. This is primarily the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948). After the defeat of fascism, racism received a crushing blow. UNESCO has repeatedly adopted declarations on race and racial prejudice.

There are two historical varieties of racism: pre-bourgeois and bourgeois. The main forms of the first were biological racism (different peoples were opposed by their origin, appearance and structure) and feudal-clerical (opposition went according to religious beliefs). Under capitalism, bourgeois racism arises. These include: Anglo-Saxon (Great Britain), anti-Saxonism, neo-Nazism, anti-white racism (“racism in reverse”, negritude), communal racism, etc. Each of the above forms of racism can apply to representatives of all other races or have a strict focus on a particular race. According to the degree and form of expression, racism can be open and rude, covered and refined.

Modern racism has many faces. Racists act under different signs and put forward various programs. Their views and beliefs have a wide range - from "liberal" to fascist. Specific manifestations of racism are also diverse - from lynchings of American blacks to the creation by racist ideologists of sophisticated doctrines that "justify" the division of mankind into "higher" and "lower" races. Segregation is one of the extreme forms of racial discrimination in bourgeois states; it restricts a person's rights based on race or nationality. Segregation is the policy of forcibly separating blacks, Africans, and "colored" populations from whites. It persists in the United States, despite a formal ban, in the Commonwealth of Australia, where Aborigines are forced to live on reservations. Elements of segregation are now appearing in some countries Western Europe in relation to immigrant workers - Arabs, Turks, Africans, etc.

One form of racism is apartheid (apartheid; in Afrikaans - apartheid - separate living). The policy of apartheid until recently was used in South Africa, was the official ideology, way of thinking, behavior and actions. The implementation of the apartheid policy began with the adoption of the law on population registration (1950), which periodically formalized the belonging of every citizen of the country who has reached 16 years of age to one or another racial category. Each resident received a certificate, which contained a description of his signs and indicated the so-called "ethnic" (more precisely, racial) group. An attempt was made to compile a register of the entire population of the country under the auspices of the social board for racial classification. By 1950, an act was adopted on resettlement in groups. In accordance with it, the government had the right to declare any territory the area of ​​\u200b\u200bsettlement of any one racial group. In 1959, an act was adopted to grant independence to the Bantu (the Bantustan Bill). which was the final legalization of apartheid. Bantustans, or "national fatherlands", are created for each of the ethnic groups of the indigenous population. Some of the Bantu stans were declared Pretoria " independent states”, although no country has officially recognized such independence.

The apartheid system deprived the black population of South Africa of all basic political rights and freedoms, including freedom of movement in their own country and the right to skilled labor, subjected all known species and forms of racial discrimination, practically deprived of access to education, culture, medical care.

In the second half of the 80s - early 90s. The South African government carried out a series of reforms aimed at weakening the apartheid regime. Laws that restricted freedom of movement around the country (passes, migration control) were abolished, a single South African passport was introduced, the activities of black trade unions, interracial marriages were allowed, moreover, the so-called small apartheid disappeared, that is, the manifestation of racism in everyday life and everyday life.

South Africa has been subjected to boycotts and sanctions recommended by the UN, both by third world countries and Western democracies. However, in 1989-1991. the situation has changed radically. In accordance with the reformist course of Frederick de Klerk, the dismantling of the apartheid system began. Over a hundred legislative acts that discriminated against people because of skin color have been repealed. The African National Congress (ANC), South Africa's oldest organization (since 1912), played a huge role in condemning apartheid by the international community. The ANC acts as the government's partner in preparing negotiations and a new constitution for the country.

However, the ideology of racism does not give up its positions and is now showing a tendency to become more active.

Race and racism

Until the middle of the 20th century, the concept of race was used as a Darwinian way of emphasizing that black people were lower in the evolutionary ladder and more primitive than white people. This has been accepted by the scientific community as a proven fact and thus legitimized in scientific biology. Racism comes in several forms, both at the individual and institutionalized levels.

The term "race" has three meanings: biological, common and political (Fuller & Toon, 1988).

In biology, "race" denotes the genetic isolation of various groups: each "racial" group has a common genetic design, which differs in some parameters from the genetic design of other groups. However, the genetic differences within each race are so wide that two individuals belonging to the same racial group can be more different from each other than the average differences between two different groups. The races are not strictly demarcated, and the boundaries between them are drawn conditionally. In medicine, the concept of race is often used as a category that allows specialists to associate certain diseases with other groups or other racial groups, such as cystic fibrosis, with certain groups of the white population. Such an understanding can legitimize a racist way of thinking.

In everyday terms, for non-specialists, race has become synonymous with the external signs of a person, while skin color has gained undeservedly great importance.

The use of this term for political purposes allows the majority of the population to consolidate power, and minority groups to consider their national characteristics political point of view.

The World Health Organization, in its Lexicon of Cross-Cultural Terms in Mental Health, the World Health Organization, 1997, has provided the following definitions for racism, racial prejudice, and ethnocentrism. Racism is the belief that there is an inherent connection between supposedly inherited and cultural traits and that some groups of people are biologically superior to others. Racial prejudice is a negative emotional attitude or negative attitude towards an individual or group, based on separately selected social or cultural characteristics. Ethnocentrism is an exaggeration of the value of one's culture in comparison with other cultures; while tendentious judgments about what is good, right, beautiful, moral, normal, healthy or reasonable are based on their own culture as a standard. Individual manifestations of racism differ from institutionalized racism, which is the collective beliefs of the employees of an organization, deeply rooted in the system of its activities. Although most specialists are opposed to the theory of (genetically) transmitted mental disability, it is generally accepted among the population that the qualities of the individual are "in the blood" (Thomas & Sillen1991).

The MacPherson Report (MacPherson, 1999) defines institutionalized racism as “the collective failure of an organization to provide appropriate professional care to people because of their color, culture, or ethnic origin. This can be noticed or revealed by observing activities, attitudes and behaviors with significant manifestations of discrimination in the form of prejudice, ignorance, frivolity and racist stereotypes of thinking, which puts the representatives of ethnic minorities at a disadvantage.”

The main problem caused by such a definition is that it argues for identifying deficiencies in the activities of the organization (as a living organism), but it is not always clear what kind of activities these are, who identifies deficiencies and who should eliminate them. Subjective experiences or interpretations of racism are even more difficult to define, as they are partly directly related to individual personality traits that precede life experience and support systems (social and economic).

In earlier work, Bhugra and Bhui (1999) argued that the subjugation of the minority by the majority through the use of historical, social, biological, and economic factors is a common phenomenon in human history. There is no doubt that racism and the ideas associated with it appeared even in Christian times. In 100 AD, Cicero advised Atticus not to buy slaves from Britain because they were stupid, lazy, and incapable of learning. However, the ideology underlying racism is based on the desire to maintain the status quo and on the belief in the superiority of one group over another, for reasons related only to race or with biological characteristics. Race is a taxonomic concept of limited usefulness, and over the past 30 years it has begun to give way to the much less specific terms "ethnicity" and "cultural groups". Racism can be seen as an ideology, as an established order, and as a social construct.

It is necessary to distinguish between racism and racial discrimination. The first is limited to reasoning about the attire of humanity as a race (which can lead to catnocentrism). The second concept, on the contrary, concerns the real forms of human behavior. Racism exists in many forms, some of which are outlined below.

Types of racism

Dominant. Hatred is embodied in actions.

Aversive. The individual is convinced of his superiority, but cannot act.

Regressive. The views of the individual naracism are manifested by regressive forms of behavior.

Subconscious instinctive racism. Fear of strangers.

Explained instinctive racism. Rationalization, justification of fear of strangers.

Cultural. Rejection, slander about the peculiarities of spending free time, observing customs in society and everyday life.

institutionalized. Relationships in the organization's team to some individuals as inferior.

paternalistic. The majority “knows” what is good for the minority.

Racism, "colorless". Recognition of differences is seen as divisive between cultures.

Neoracism. Hidden in "individualism": positive actions are frowned upon, the presence of racism is seen in terms of the group's existing achievements.

It must be emphasized that racism is not a static phenomenon. In addition, it must be distinguished from racist behavior, in which one person's racial prejudice against another is manifested by actions. Racism uses beliefs and practices to justify and perpetuate inequality, to keep certain groups out of society and others to dominate. It is interesting to use the tactics of "not distinguishing colors" as a form of racism. When "colorless" deal with a group of people of a lower social level with a different skin color, they do not perceive them as having their own history, culture, spiritual and socio-economic essence. Racism can also exacerbate the impact of poverty on people's health.

Moore (2000) considers that the psychology of colonialism, the restriction of the use of information, means of communication and freedoms were important factors in the emergence of racism. The dominant type racist openly displays racial intolerance, while the aversive type racist displays hostility and seeks to avoid contact. The racist tendencies of some people may take the form of unconscious manifestations of mass behavior (Kovel, 1984). Hatred from others (“they-group”) (see definition below in the section “Race-Related Significant Life Events”) and authoritarianism also contribute to maintaining the status quo.

Psychiatry reflects the prevailing public values; it can be overwhelming and can be perceived as overwhelming if people isolate against their will. This situation creates a feeling of alienation, and as a result of experiencing this feeling for a certain time, members of ethnic minorities may experience even greater humiliation. The influence of racism on scientific research and the setting of recreational institutions is extremely difficult to characterize.

Significant life events associated with racism

For members of ethnic minorities, the roles of racially significant life events are many and varied (Bhugra & Ayonrinde, 2001). Individuals and groups of people can be greatly affected by migration (see Bhugra & Cochrane, 2001). It is difficult to obtain accurate data on the prevalence of attacks, violent acts and racially motivated crimes (harassment, attacks and insults). This is due to several reasons: sometimes people do not understand the racial background of these aggressive actions and therefore do not mention them in their statements; the offender's race is not always known; victims may mistakenly attribute racial motives to the conflict; they may not file a complaint due to ongoing prosecution or lack of sufficient evidence of wrongdoing.

The British Crime Survey (BCS) and police files use different data collection approaches. The study (BCS) records both committed (actual) offenses (eg vandalism, robbery, theft, bodily injury, assault and robbery), as well as threats of violence. Police officers record only committed offenses, although they also note any racial motives if they are reported or suspected by the investigating authorities. BCS data refers to persons over 16 years of age, the police registers offenders regardless of age. Fitzgerald and Hale (1996) cite BCS data showing that only 2% of all crimes were racially motivated by their victims, about a quarter of which were committed in urban ghettos.

Ethnic differences exist in reporting trends (Commission for Racial Equality, 1999). Speaking about the type of offense, the form of the report and the delay in filing a complaint, it must be admitted that these aspects remain insufficiently studied.

According to Chahal and Julienne (1999), 43-62% of racial conflicts are not reported. Reported offenses included bodily harm, harassment, insults and threats, and damage to property. It is unlikely to register statements about conflicts related to the inability to get a job, bail money to finance school or medical care etc. In a study of the subjective experiences of manifestations of racism, these authors, using qualitative methods, showed that victims described racial conflicts as a common practice in the society in which they live. The authors also used a variety of ways to identify such events, most of which were personal or social relations. Difficulties in identification were most often associated with feelings of shame, inadequacy, hopelessness, or mistrust. Only the increasing conflicts forced people to apply with statements to the instances provided for by law. Most often addressed to doctors general practice, however, in most cases the results were not entirely satisfactory (for example, a doctor could write a letter to the housing authorities asking for help with housing, but not more than that). Thus, even if conflicts are identified, they are usually not given appropriate weight. In this group of patients, complaints of anger, tension, depression, increased irritability and sleep disturbances were usually repeated.

Significant life events associated with racial affiliation are problems that are directly related to beauty behavior, and they arise in various areas of the life of the Sphere in which significant life events associated with racial affiliation occur:

Education.

Employment.

Healthcare.

Cases of abuse.

Causing material damage.

Law and social security.

Race-related difficulties can be defined as ongoing difficulties in an individual's life that may be racially related and last for more than one month. These include problems with housing, employment, social functioning and education.

Members of ethnic minorities may not only be exposed to stressors common to the entire population, but also experience stress due to their minority status. These specific causes include traumatic factors (eg, racial prejudice, hostility, and discrimination), as well as external mediators (social support systems) and internal (cognitive factors) that influence an individual's perception of significant life events. Smith (1985) proposed the terms “they-group” (the out-group) and “we-group” (the in-group) to characterize the situation of national minority groups (“they-group”) living in a majority culture (“we -group"). The "they-group" status leads to social exclusion, social marginalization, and precariousness, which increases people's anxiety. Incomplete or partial assimilation of representatives of national minorities under conditions new culture the majority (of the host country) and the complete or partial rejection of their own culture may be additional psychotraumatic factors.

Racism and mental disorders

Racism, both individual and institutionalized, can create many problems, some of which are outlined below. A sense of insecurity in one's own position may develop when a person has two or more different and incompatible social statuses (for example, the social status of a certain person is in conflict with this status arising from ethnic origin). This tension between role and status is likely to lead to adjustment difficulties or mental disorders (Smith, 1985). Since representatives of national minorities are more "visible" among the majority population, their actions acquire symbolic meaning stereotypical ideas are assimilated by society. Smith (1985) argues that conspicuousness, increased attention, lack of anonymity, polarization, and role infringement are factors that exacerbate stress and make life difficult for a long time. Issues related to racism

Institutionalized racism

stereotypes of perception.

Rejection.

Prejudice.

The devaluation of culture.

individual racism

stereotypes of perception.

Rejection.

Prejudice.

The devaluation of culture.

Aggressive actions.

Racism is a multi-dimensional phenomenon, and many methods have been developed to measure the impact of significant life events in a multi-axial way.

Jackson and colleagues (1996) showed that the combined impact of racism and racial discrimination on an individual worsens mental health more than physical. It is necessary to investigate more deeply the role of the "locus of control" as an intervening variable in assessing the psychological functioning of representatives of ethnic minorities.

Depression

The limited evidence available suggests that significant events social life, like significant life events in general, are highly correlated with depression. Several studies have shown a higher incidence of depressive disorders in ethnic minority groups (Nazroo, 1997; Shaw etal, 1999) and it has been suggested that this is due to separation from the familiar environment, unemployment, poverty and racism. In a study of intentional self-harm among Asian women, Bhugra et al (1999) found that about one quarter of the sample experienced significant life events linked to race, although causality could not be established from this study.

Anxiety

Stress models suggest an increase in anxiety levels in anticipation of possible threatening life events. In a New Zealand study, Pernice and Brook (1996) found a significant correlation between racial discrimination and high levels of anxiety in immigrant people of color. These authors also found that anxiety levels were unexpectedly high for immigrants who spent much of their leisure time with members of their own ethnic group. Perhaps they were anxious individuals who sought solace in the society of representatives of their ethnic group. Anxiety symptoms have been shown to occur following racist threats (Thompson, 1996; Jones etal, 1996).

Post Traumatic Stress Disorder

There is evidence of teaching cases of psychogenic disorders with symptoms resembling post-traumatic stress disorder that developed after experiencing manifestations of racial discrimination (Ritsner etal, 1977). Increased alertness, restlessness, attention disturbances, high level frustrations, negativism, social isolation, anxiety, and flashbacks of traumatic events have also been described as a consequence of significant racially related life events.

Psychoses

Anecdotal evidence suggests an association between psychosis and racially significant life events, with institutionalized racism being central to relationships that include treatment adherence and doctor return visits. However, empirical evidence does not support these findings.

Relationships between race-related significant life events and development mental disorders complex. Only recently have researchers begun to uncover them.

Racism and mental stress

Manifestations of racism, both individual and institutionalized, are likely to cause chronic stress or long-term difficulties that prevent people from successfully functioning. They understand that they can achieve more, but other people or the system interfere with their progress. The obstacles placed on the individual allow him to realize that his interests are being infringed, lead him to confusion, hurt his self-esteem, lower his self-esteem. These predicaments can also contribute to the further separation of members of national minorities from their ethnic groups, especially in cases where their methods of overcoming constant difficulties differ from those used in these groups, which further exacerbates the state of mental stress.

CONCLUSION

An individual, whatever his ethnic origin, interacts differently with the social and cultural environment in which he lives, and reacts to the least difficulties or acute mental trauma. Significant life events experienced by a person associated with racial affiliation, their comprehension, as well as permanent manifestations of racism, apparently accelerate the development of mental disorders. However scientific research there is still insufficient work done in this area, and in some of the work done data collection methods were questionable, making any interpretation and generalization difficult to a large extent.

Today in the world there is a huge amount of diversity. In the last century, the problem caused by the appearance on the world stage of such a movement as racism was relevant. This direction has caused the most controversial reviews. However, what is racism?

The word itself was first recorded in Larousse's French dictionary in 1932. There, the answer to the question “what is racism” sounded as follows: it is a system that asserts the superiority of one race over others. Is it legal?

According to the large legal dictionary, edited by Sukharev and Krutsky, racism is one of the main international offenses. and attitudes of discrimination based on racial misconceptions and prejudices.

What is racism and what are its manifestations? The structural organization and institutionalized practice of this direction leads to the problem of inequality, as well as to the idea that similar relationship between different groups people are fully justified both from the moral and ethical, and from the political and even scientific points of view. This ideology is based on the movement towards manifestation at the level of legislation and in practice.

What is a theory according to which any racial or unreasonable right to dominate other people (however, it has some pseudo-justifications from the point of view of the ideology itself). In practice, this is expressed in the oppression of a group of people on any grounds (skin color, family, national or ethnic origin). At the International Convention on the Elimination of Forms of Discrimination in 1966, racism was declared a crime. Any manifestation of it is punishable by law.

According to this convention, racism can be considered any restriction, preference or exclusion based on skin color, race or origin, which is aimed at destroying or diminishing the rights to recognition, as well as limiting the opportunities and freedoms of a person in his political, economic, cultural or social life.

The term in question appeared back in the nineteenth century, when the Frenchman Gobingo put forward the concept of superiority over the rest. Moreover, pseudoscientific evidence of its truth was also brought under this idea. Particularly acute was the problem of such a movement as racism in the United States (United States of America). A large number of African Americans, indigenous people, immigrants gave rise to large-scale actions based on discrimination of various kinds. And now racism in America is associated with the activities of the infamous Ku Klux Klan group.

In the middle of the last century, it was precisely the sentiments of the superiority of some people over others, developed with the inclusion of Darwinism, eugenics, Malthusianism, the philosophy of cynicism and misanthropy, elitism by such philosophers as Highcraft, Kidd, Lapuge, Voltham, Chamberlain, Ammon, Nietzsche, Schoppenhauer, that became the basis for ideology of fascism. They formed the foundation of this doctrine, which justifies and encourages segregation, apartheid, the idea of ​​the superiority of the "pure Aryan race" over all others.

Racism and its social roots

Psychological reasons for the manifestation of racism

The presence of objective sociological reasons for the emergence of hatred, enmity towards other ethnic groups, still does not explain the fact that within one society different people differently prone to racist sentiments. Thus, we can talk about the presence in the psyche of an individual of a number of reasons that explain his tendency to racism and cause xenophobic sentiments.

The psyche is arranged in such a way that in order to respect themselves, feel calm and dignified, most people are forced to ignore some part of their properties that they actually possess (or, better to say, that they possess). Everything that a person does not accept in himself, in the Jungian tradition of analytical psychology, is usually called a “shadow”.

Without noticing their own unacceptable qualities, people often transfer their external objects around them: to “people in general”, saying, for example, that “people are evil”, or to some specific people, being, for example, sure that “he hates me."

The mental mechanism here is as follows: the psyche, as a rule, extends itself and its properties beyond its limits. And feeling somehow, for example, greedy, a person “naturally” assumes that everyone else is like that. The evaluation mechanism that comes into action further allows a person to consider that “I am not like that”, if the consciousness is not ready to accept this phenomenon. This is followed by repression - in relation to itself. But assuming that “I am not like that”, a person continues to see others “like that”. The shadow seems to fall on the people around.

“A primitive person (and in every nation, as is known, a mass person reacts like a primitive person) is not able to recognize evil as “his own personal evil”, since his consciousness is still so poorly developed that he is not able to resolve the conflicts that have arisen. Therefore, the mass personality invariably perceives evil as something alien and, as a result of such perception, everywhere and always strangers become victims of shadow projection.

National minorities are becoming objects of shadow projection in the country. Obviously, thanks to racial and ethnic characteristics, and even more so in the presence of a different skin color, national minorities are most suitable for shadow projection. Exist various options psychological problem national minorities: religious, national, racial and social. However, all variants have one common feature - a split in the structure of the collective psyche.

The role of strangers, which in the past was performed by prisoners of war and shipwrecked sailors, is now performed by the Chinese, Negroes and Jews. The same principle determines the attitude towards religious minorities in all religions” (Erich Neumann).

“The stranger as an object of shadow projection plays an extremely important role in psychic energy. The shadow - the ego-alien part of our personality, our conscious, opposite point of view, which has a detrimental effect on our conscious attitude and sense of security - can be exteriorized and then destroyed. The fight against heretics, political opponents and enemies of the people is essentially a fight against our religious doubts, our vulnerability political position and the one-sidedness of our national outlook" (Neumann).

The actions of such a person are unconscious. Until now, the Shadow problem manifests itself and affects the objectivity of judgments, incorrect, distorted assessments, which are influenced by racial characteristics. In a report by the American Goldwater Institute entitled "Race and Disabilities. Racial Prejudice in Arizona Special Education, 2003, noted that "60% of fourth-grade graduates from low-income and African-American backgrounds, when tested, scored "below the required" score on the latest state exam to measure learning progress." Black students are 3 times more likely than white students to be labeled "mentally retarded." Although black students make up only 16% of the total number of students in the United States, among children who are enrolled in programs for the mentally retarded, they are 32%.

From the point of view of analytical psychology, “The Collective will seek its liberation with the help of a “scapegoat” as long as there is a feeling of guilt that arises in the process of forming a shadow as a splitting factor in consciousness.”

For example, as an electoral argument, Hitler announced that Germany would finally be able to restore its former greatness, which was lost as a result of losing the First World War. Recall that on January 18, 1919, a peace conference of 27 allied and affiliated states opened in Paris, which considered that the end of the First World War should be formalized. The winners decided the future fate of Germany without her participation. In general, Germany lost 13.5% of the territory (73.5 thousand square kilometers) with a population of 7.3 million people, of which 3.5 million people were Germans. These losses deprived Germany of 10% of its production capacity, 20% of coal production, 75% of its reserves iron ore and 26% of iron smelting. Germany was obliged to transfer to the winners almost the entire military and merchant marine, 800 steam locomotives and 232 thousand railway cars. The total amount of reparations was later to be determined by a special commission, but for now Germany was obliged to pay an indemnity to the Entente countries in the amount of 20 billion gold marks.

But for all the severity of the economic consequences of the Treaty of Versailles, they did not affect further fate Weimar Republic, but the fact that in Germany a sense of humiliation prevailed, which contributed to the emergence of nationalist and revanchist moods. At Versailles, British Prime Minister D. Lloyd George prophetically stated that the main danger of the treaty being concluded is that "we are pushing the masses into the arms of extremists."

“Any war can take place only if the enemy turns into a carrier of a shadow projection. Therefore, the passion and joy of participating in a military conflict, without which it is impossible to force a single person to participate in a war, stems from the satisfaction of the needs of the unconscious shadow side. Wars serve as a correlate of the old ethics, since they visibly manifest the activation of the unconscious, shadow side of the collective ”(Neumann).

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