The emergence of a culture of renaissance. Mariupol State University. Early Renaissance period

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RENAISSANCE, a period in the cultural history of Western and Central Europe of the 14th–16th centuries, the main content of which was the formation of a new, “earthly”, inherently secular picture of the world, radically different from the medieval one. New picture world found expression in humanism, the leading ideological current of the era, and natural philosophy, manifested itself in art and science, which underwent revolutionary changes. The building material for the original building of the new culture was antiquity, which was turned to through the head of the Middle Ages and which was, as it were, “reborn” to a new life - hence the name of the era - “Renaissance”, or “Renaissance” (in the French manner), given to it subsequently. Born in Italy, the new culture at the end of the 15th century. passes through the Alps, where, as a result of the synthesis of Italian and local national traditions, the culture of the Northern Renaissance is born. During the Renaissance, the new Renaissance culture coexisted with the culture of the late Middle Ages, which was especially typical for countries located north of Italy.

Art.

With the theocentrism and asceticism of the medieval picture of the world, art in the Middle Ages served primarily religion, conveying the world and man in their relationship to God, in conventional forms, and was concentrated in the space of the temple. Neither the visible world nor man could be valuable objects of art in their own right. In the 13th century New trends are observed in medieval culture (the cheerful teaching of St. Francis, the work of Dante, the forerunners of humanism). In the second half of the 13th century. marks the beginning of a transitional era in the development of Italian art - the Proto-Renaissance (lasted until the beginning of the 15th century), which prepared the way for the Renaissance. The work of some artists of this time (G. Fabriano, Cimabue, S. Martini, etc.), quite medieval in iconography, is imbued with a more cheerful and secular beginning, the figures acquire relative volume. In sculpture, the Gothic ethereality of figures is overcome, Gothic emotionality is reduced (N. Pisano). For the first time, a clear break with medieval traditions appeared at the end of the 13th - first third of the 14th century. in the frescoes of Giotto di Bondone, who introduced a sense of three-dimensional space into painting, painted more voluminous figures, paid more attention to the setting and, most importantly, showed a special realism, alien to the exalted Gothic, in depicting human experiences.

On the soil cultivated by the masters of the Proto-Renaissance, the Italian Renaissance arose, which passed through several phases in its evolution (Early, High, Late). Associated with a new, essentially secular worldview expressed by humanists, it loses its inextricable connection with religion; painting and statue spread beyond the temple. With the help of painting, the artist mastered the world and man as they appeared to the eye, using a new artistic method (transferring three-dimensional space using perspective (linear, aerial, color), creating the illusion of plastic volume, maintaining the proportionality of figures). Interest in personality and its individual traits was combined with the idealization of a person, the search for “perfect beauty.” The subjects of sacred history did not leave art, but from now on their depiction was inextricably linked with the task of mastering the world and embodying the earthly ideal (hence the similarities between Bacchus and John the Baptist by Leonardo, Venus and the Mother of God by Botticelli). Renaissance architecture loses its Gothic aspiration to the sky and gains “classical” balance and proportionality, proportionality to the human body. The ancient order system is being revived, but the elements of the order were not parts of the structure, but decoration that adorned both traditional (temple, palace of authorities) and new types of buildings (city palace, country villa).

The founder of the Early Renaissance is considered to be the Florentine painter Masaccio, who picked up the tradition of Giotto, achieved an almost sculptural tangibility of figures, used the principles of linear perspective, and moved away from the conventions of depicting the situation. Further development of painting in the 15th century. went to schools in Florence, Umbria, Padua, Venice (F. Lippi, D. Veneziano, P. della Francesco, A. Palaiolo, A. Mantegna, C. Crivelli, S. Botticelli and many others). In the 15th century Renaissance sculpture is born and develops (L. Ghiberti, Donatello, J. della Quercia, L. della Robbia, Verrocchio and others, Donatello was the first to create a self-standing round statue not related to architecture, the first to depict a naked body with an expression of sensuality) and architecture (F. Brunelleschi, L.B. Alberti, etc.). Masters of the 15th century (primarily L.B. Alberti, P. della Francesco) created the theory of fine arts and architecture.

The Northern Renaissance was prepared by the emergence in the 1420s - 1430s, on the basis of late Gothic (not without the indirect influence of the Giottian tradition), of a new style in painting, the so-called “ars nova” - “new art” (E. Panofsky’s term). Its spiritual basis, according to researchers, was, first of all, the so-called “New Piety” of the northern mystics of the 15th century, which presupposed specific individualism and pantheistic acceptance of the world. The origins of the new style were the Dutch painters Jan van Eyck, who also improved oil paints, and the Master from Flemalle, followed by G. van der Goes, R. van der Weyden, D. Bouts, G. tot Sint Jans, I. Bosch and others (middle - second half of the 15th century). New Netherlandish painting received a wide response in Europe: already in the 1430–1450s, the first examples of new painting appeared in Germany (L. Moser, G. Mulcher, especially K. Witz), in France (Master of the Annunciation from Aix and, of course, J .Fouquet). The new style was characterized by a special realism: the transfer of three-dimensional space through perspective (although, as a rule, approximately), the desire for volume. The “new art,” deeply religious, was interested in individual experiences, the character of a person, valuing in him, first of all, humility and piety. His aesthetics are alien to the Italian pathos of the perfect in man, the passion for classical forms (the faces of the characters are not perfectly proportional, they are gothically angular). Nature and everyday life were depicted with special love and detail; carefully painted things had, as a rule, a religious and symbolic meaning.

Actually, the art of the Northern Renaissance was born at the turn of the 15th–16th centuries. as a result of the interaction of the national artistic and spiritual traditions of the Trans-Alpine countries with the Renaissance art and humanism of Italy, with the development of northern humanism. The first artist of the Renaissance type can be considered the outstanding German master A. Durer, who involuntarily, however, retained Gothic spirituality. A complete break with the Gothic was achieved by G. Holbein the Younger with his “objectivity” of painting style. The painting of M. Grunewald, on the contrary, was imbued with religious exaltation. The German Renaissance was the work of one generation of artists and fizzled out in the 1540s. In the Netherlands in the first third of the 16th century. Currents oriented towards the High Renaissance and Mannerism of Italy began to spread (J. Gossaert, J. Scorel, B. van Orley, etc.). The most interesting thing in Dutch painting of the 16th century. - this is the development of genres of easel painting, everyday and landscape (K. Masseys, Patinir, Luke Leydensky). The most nationally original artist of the 1550s–1560s was P. Bruegel the Elder, who owned paintings of everyday life and landscape genres, as well as parable paintings, usually associated with folklore and a bitterly ironic view of the life of the artist himself. The Renaissance in the Netherlands ends in the 1560s. The French Renaissance, which was entirely courtly in nature (in the Netherlands and Germany, art was more associated with the burghers), was perhaps the most classical in the Northern Renaissance. New renaissance art, gradually gaining strength under the influence of Italy, reaches maturity in the middle - second half of the century in the work of architects P. Lesko, the creator of the Louvre, F. Delorme, sculptors J. Goujon and J. Pilon, painters F. Clouet, J. Cousin the Elder. The “Fontainebleau school”, founded in France by the Italian artists Rosso and Primaticcio, who worked in the mannerist style, had a great influence on the above-mentioned painters and sculptors, but the French masters did not become mannerists, having accepted the classical ideal hidden under the mannerist guise. The Renaissance in French art ends in the 1580s. In the second half of the 16th century. the art of the Renaissance of Italy and other European countries gradually gives way to mannerism and early baroque.

The science.

The most important condition for the scale and revolutionary achievements of Renaissance science was a humanistic worldview, in which the activity of exploring the world was understood as a component of man’s earthly destiny. To this we must add the revival of ancient science. The needs of navigation, the use of artillery, the creation of hydraulic structures, etc. played a significant role in the development. The dissemination of scientific knowledge and its exchange between scientists would have been impossible without the invention of printing ca. 1445.

The first achievements in the field of mathematics and astronomy date back to the mid-15th century. and are largely associated with the names of G. Peyerbach (Purbach) and I. Muller (Regiomontanus). Müller created new, more advanced astronomical tables (replacing the Alfonsian tables of the 13th century) - “Ephemerides” (published in 1492), which were used by Columbus, Vasco da Gama and other navigators in their travels. A significant contribution to the development of algebra and geometry was made by the Italian mathematician of the turn of the century L. Pacioli. In the 16th century The Italians N. Tartaglia and G. Cardano discovered new ways to solve equations of the third and fourth degree.

The most important scientific event of the 16th century. was the Copernican revolution in astronomy. Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus in his treatise On the revolution of the celestial spheres(1543) rejected the dominant geocentric Ptolemaic-Aristotelian picture of the world and not only postulated the rotation of celestial bodies around the Sun, and the Earth around its axis, but also showed in detail for the first time (geocentrism as a guess was born back in Ancient Greece), how, based on such a system, one can explain – much better than before – all the data of astronomical observations. In the 16th century the new world system, in general, did not receive support in the scientific community. Only Galileo provided convincing evidence of the truth of Copernicus' theory.

Based on experience, some 16th century scientists (among them Leonardo, B. Varchi) expressed doubts about the laws of Aristotelian mechanics, which reigned supreme until that time, but did not offer their own solution to the problems (later Galileo would do this). The practice of using artillery contributed to the formulation and solution of new scientific problems: Tartaglia in his treatise New science considered issues of ballistics. The theory of levers and weights was studied by Cardano. Leonardo da Vinci became the founder of hydraulics. His theoretical research was related to his construction of hydraulic structures, land reclamation work, construction of canals, and improvement of locks. The English doctor W. Gilbert initiated the study of electromagnetic phenomena by publishing an essay About the magnet(1600), where he described its properties.

A critical attitude towards authorities and reliance on experience were clearly manifested in medicine and anatomy. Flemish A. Vesalius in his famous work About the structure of the human body(1543) described the human body in detail, relying on his numerous observations when dissecting corpses, criticizing Galen and other authorities. At the beginning of the 16th century. Along with alchemy, iatrochemistry emerged - medicinal chemistry, which developed new medicinal drugs. One of its founders was F. von Hohenheim (Paracelsus). Rejecting the achievements of his predecessors, he, in fact, did not go far from them in theory, but as a practitioner he introduced a number of new drugs.

In the 16th century Mineralogy, botany, and zoology developed (Georg Bauer Agricola, K. Gesner, Cesalpino, Rondelet, Belona), which in the Renaissance were at the stage of collecting facts. A major role in the development of these sciences was played by reports from researchers of new countries, containing descriptions of flora and fauna.

In the 15th century Cartography and geography were actively developing, Ptolemy's mistakes were corrected, based on medieval and modern data. In 1490 M. Beheim creates the first globe. At the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries. Europeans' search for the sea route between India and China, advances in cartography and geography, astronomy and shipbuilding culminated in the discovery of the coast of Central America by Columbus, who believed that he had reached India (the continent called America first appeared on Waldseemüller's map in 1507). In 1498, the Portuguese Vasco da Gama reached India, circumnavigating Africa. The idea of reaching India and China by the western route was realized by the Spanish expedition of Magellan - El Cano (1519–1522), which circumnavigated South America and made the first trip around the world (the sphericity of the Earth was proven in practice!). In the 16th century Europeans were confident that “the world today is completely open and the entire human race is known.” Great discoveries transformed geography and stimulated the development of cartography.

The science of the Renaissance had little impact on the productive forces that developed along the path of gradual improvement of tradition. At the same time, the successes of astronomy, geography, and cartography served as the most important prerequisite for the Great Geographical Discoveries, which led to fundamental changes in world trade, colonial expansion and a price revolution in Europe. Achievements of science during the Renaissance a necessary condition for the genesis of classical science of the New Age.

Dmitry Samotovinsky

Test in the discipline: "Culturology"

on the topic: "Culture of the Renaissance (Renaissance)"

Completed:

Student

St. Petersburg 2008

Introduction

The Renaissance is a very important stage in the development of European culture. Chronologically included in medieval history European peoples, which arose in the depths of feudal culture, the Renaissance opens a fundamentally new cultural era, marking the beginning of the struggle of the bourgeoisie for dominance in society.

At this early stage of development, bourgeois ideology was a progressive ideology and reflected the interests not only of the bourgeoisie itself, but also of all other classes and estates that were subordinate to the obsolete feudal structure of relations.

The Renaissance is a period of rampant Inquisition, the split of the Catholic Church, brutal wars and popular uprisings that occurred against the backdrop of the formation of bourgeois individualism.

Renaissance culture arose in the second half of the 14th century. And it continued to develop throughout the 15th and 16th centuries, gradually covering all European countries one after another. The emergence of Renaissance culture was prepared by a number of pan-European and local historical conditions.

In the XIV - XV centuries. early capitalist, commodity-money relations arose. Italy was one of the first to embark on this path, which was greatly facilitated by: the high level of urbanization, the subordination of the countryside to the city, the wide scope craft production, financial affairs, oriented not only to the domestic, but also to the foreign market.

The formation of a new culture was also prepared by public consciousness, changes in the mood of various social strata of the early bourgeoisie. The asceticism of church morality in the era of active commercial, industrial and financial entrepreneurship was seriously at odds with the real life practice of these social strata with their desire for worldly goods, hoarding, and craving for wealth. In the psychology of the merchants and the craft elite, the features of rationalism, prudence, courage in business endeavors, awareness of personal abilities and wide possibilities clearly emerged. A morality developed that justified “honest enrichment” and the joys of worldly life, the crown of success of which was considered to be the prestige of the family, the respect of fellow citizens, and glory in the memory of posterity.

The term "Renaissance" (Renaissance) appeared in the 16th century. The term "Renaissance" originally meant not so much the name of the entire era, but the very moment of the emergence of a new art, which usually coincided with the beginning of the 16th century. Only later did this concept acquire a broader meaning and began to designate the era when a culture opposed to feudalism formed and flourished in Italy, and then in other countries. Engels described the Renaissance as “the greatest progressive revolution of all that humanity had experienced up to that time.”

1. Renaissance culture

The XIII - XVI centuries were a time of great changes in the economy, political and cultural life of European countries. The rapid growth of cities and the development of crafts, and later the emergence of manufacturing, the rise of world trade, drawing into its orbit more and more remote areas, the gradual placement of the main trade routes from the Mediterranean to the north, which ended after the fall of Byzantium and the great geographical discoveries of the late 15th and early 16th centuries , transformed the appearance of medieval Europe. Cities are now coming to the fore almost everywhere. The once most powerful forces of the medieval world - the empire and the papacy - were experiencing a deep crisis. In the 16th century, the disintegrating Holy Roman Empire of the German nation became the scene of the first two anti-feudal revolutions - the Great Peasant War in Germany and the Dutch Uprising. The transitional nature of the era, the process of liberation from medieval shackles taking place in all areas of life, and at the same time the underdevelopment of emerging capitalist relations could not but affect the characteristics of artistic culture and aesthetic thought of that time.

All changes in the life of society were accompanied by a broad renewal of culture - the flourishing of natural and exact sciences, literature on national languages and, in particular, the visual arts. Originating in the cities of Italy, this renewal then spread to other European countries. The advent of printing opened up unprecedented opportunities for the dissemination of literary and scientific works, and more regular and closer communication between countries contributed to the widespread penetration of new artistic movements.

This does not mean that the Middle Ages retreated to new trends: in the mass consciousness traditional performances were preserved. The church resisted new ideas using a medieval means - the Inquisition. The idea of human freedom continued to exist in a society divided into classes. The feudal form of peasant dependence did not completely disappear, and in some countries (Germany, Central Europe) there was a return to serfdom. The feudal system showed quite great resilience. Each European country lived it in its own way and within its own chronological framework. Capitalism existed as a way of life for a long time, covering only part of production in both the city and the countryside. However, patriarchal medieval slowness began to recede into the past.

The Greats played a huge role in this breakthrough geographical discoveries. In 1456, Portuguese ships reached Cape Verde, and in 1486, the expedition of B. Diaz circumnavigated the African continent from the south, passing the cape Good Hope. While exploring the coast of Africa, the Portuguese simultaneously sent ships to the open ocean, to the west and southwest. As a result, the previously unknown Azores and Madeira Islands appeared on the maps. In 1492, a great event happened - H. Columbus, an Italian who moved to Spain, in search of a way to India, crossed the Atlantic Ocean and landed near the Bahamas, discovering a new continent - America. In 1498, the Spanish traveler Vasco da Gama, having circumnavigated Africa, successfully brought his ships to the shores of India. From the 16th century Europeans penetrate into China and Japan, about which they previously had only the vaguest idea. In 1510 the conquest of America began. In the 17th century Australia was discovered. The idea of the shape of the earth has changed: the trip around the world of the Portuguese F. Magellan (1519-1522) confirmed the guess that it has the shape of a ball.

2. Revival art

The art of antiquity constitutes one of the foundations of the artistic culture of the Renaissance. Representatives of the Renaissance find in ancient culture something that is in tune with their own aspirations - commitment to reality, cheerfulness, admiration for the beauty of the earthly world, for the greatness of heroic deeds. At the same time, having developed in different historical conditions, having absorbed the traditions of the Romanesque style and Gothic, the art of the Renaissance bears the stamp of its time. Compared to the art of classical antiquity spiritual world man is becoming more complex and multifaceted.

At this time, Italian society began to take an active interest in the culture of Ancient Greece and Rome; manuscripts of ancient writers were being sought; this is how the works of Cicero and Titus Livy were found.

Painting the ideal of the human personality, Renaissance figures emphasized its kindness, strength, heroism, and ability to create and create a new world around itself. The high idea of a person was inextricably linked with the idea of his freedom of will: the individual chooses his own path in life and is responsible for his own destiny. The value of a person began to be determined by his personal merits, and not by his position in society: “Nobility is like a kind of radiance emanating from virtue and illuminating its owners, no matter what their origin.” (From the Book of Nobility by Poggio Bracciolini, an Italian humanist of the 15th century).

The Renaissance is a time of great discoveries, great masters and their outstanding works. It was marked by the appearance of a whole galaxy of artist-scientists, among whom the first place belongs to Leonardo da Vinci. It was a time of titanism, which manifested itself both in art and in life. It is enough to recall the heroic images created by Michelangelo, and their creator himself (poet, artist, sculptor). People like Michelangelo or Leonardo da Vinci were real examples of the limitless possibilities of man.

Fine art during the Renaissance reaches unprecedented prosperity. This is due to the economic boom, with a huge shift that has occurred in the consciousness of people who have turned to the cult of earthly life and beauty. During the Renaissance, an objective image of the world was seen through human eyes, so one of the important problems facing artists was the problem of space.

Artists began to see the world differently: the flat, seemingly disembodied images of medieval art gave way to three-dimensional, relief, convex space. Raphael Santi (1483-1520), Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475-1564) glorified with their creativity a perfect personality, in which physical and spiritual beauty merge together in accordance with the requirements of ancient aesthetics. Renaissance artists rely on the principles of imitation of nature, use perspective, the rule of the “golden ratio” in constructing the human body. Leonardo da Vinci characterizes painting as “the greatest of sciences.” The principle of “conformity to nature,” the desire to reproduce the depicted object as accurately as possible, as well as the interest in individuality inherent in this period impart a subtle psychologism to the works of the Renaissance masters.

Artists' works become signatures, i.e. emphasized by the author. More and more self-portraits are appearing. An undoubted sign of a new self-awareness is that artists are increasingly shying away from direct orders, devoting themselves to work out of inner motivation. By the end of the 14th century, the external position of the artist in society also changed significantly. Artists begin to receive all kinds of public recognition, positions, honorary and monetary sinecures. And Michelangelo, for example, is elevated to such a height that, without fear of offending the crowned princes, he refuses the high honors offered to him. The nickname “divine” is enough for him. He insists that in letters to him any titles should be omitted, and they should simply be written “Michelangelo Buonarotti.” A genius has a name. The title is a burden for him, because it is associated with inevitable circumstances and, therefore, with at least a partial loss of that very freedom from everything that interferes with his creativity. But the logical limit to which the Renaissance artist gravitated was the acquisition of complete personal independence, implying, of course, first of all creative freedom.

If Michelangelo can be called the most brilliant artist of the Renaissance, then Leonardo is the greatest artist of the Renaissance. Michelangelo materialized the spirit, and Leonardo spiritualized nature. If Leonardo and Michelangelo can be imagined as the 2 poles of the Renaissance, then Raphael can be called its middle. It was his work that most fully expressed all the principles of the Renaissance; it fit within the Renaissance. For all times, Raphael's art has become a symbol of harmony and embodied it.

In the art of the Renaissance, man became a real and independent value. In architecture, this manifests itself not only in humanizing the proportions of buildings, but also in creating floor ideas. In architecture, an especially important role was played by the appeal to the classical tradition. It manifested itself not only in the rejection of Gothic forms and the revival of the ancient order system, but also in the classical proportionality of proportions, in the development in temple architecture of a centric type of building with an easily visible interior space. Especially a lot of new things were created in the field of civil architecture. During the Renaissance, multi-story city buildings (town halls, houses of merchant guilds, universities, warehouses, markets, etc.) received a more elegant appearance; a type of city palace (palazzo) emerged - the home of a wealthy burgher, as well as a type of country villa. Issues related to city planning are being resolved in a new way, and city centers are being reconstructed. An attitude towards architecture is being formed as a manifestation of individual skill.

In music, the development of vocal and instrumental polyphony continues. Particularly noticeable was the Dutch polyphonic school that emerged in the 15th century, playing a significant role in professional European music for two centuries, until the advent of opera (composers J. Depres, O. Lasso). New genres appear in secular music: frottole - song folk origin in Italy; villanisco - a song on any topic, from lyrical and pastoral to historical and moralizing - in Spain; madrigal is a type of song lyric performed in the native language. At the same time, some musical figures justify the advantages of monadic music, as opposed to the passion for polyphony. Genres appear that promote homophony (one-voice) - solo song, cantata, oratorio. Music theory is also developing.

3. Renaissance Poetry

Speaking about the Renaissance as a great historical revolution, F. Engels in the preface to “Dialectics of Nature” emphasized that during this revolution nations were formed in Europe, national literatures were born, and new type person. This era “needed titans” - and “gave birth to titans in strength of thought, passion and character, but also in versatility and learning.”

It is difficult to find a major cultural figure of the Renaissance who did not write poetry. Talented poets were Raphael, Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci; poems were written by Giordano Bruno, Thomas More, Ulrich von Hutten, and Erasmus of Rotterdam. The art of writing poetry was taught by Ronsard to the princes of France. Poems were composed by popes and Italian princes. Even the extravagant adventurer Maria Stuart dropped graceful lines of poetry as she said goodbye to France, where she spent her cheerful youth. Outstanding prose writers and playwrights were lyrical poets. Obviously, the great revolution had its own rhythm, clearly captured by talented people, and their pulse beat. In the visible chaos of historical events that befell Europe - in wars, uprisings, great campaigns to distant lands, in new and new discoveries - that “music of the spheres” sounded, that voice of history, which is always audible in revolutionary eras to people who are able to hear it . These new rhythms of life with enormous power sounded in poetry born in new European languages, which in many cases acquired swap laws precisely in connection with the activities of poets.

An important and common point for all European poetry of the Renaissance was that it broke away from the art of singing, and soon from musical accompaniment, without which the folk poetry of the Middle Ages was unthinkable, as well as the art of knightly poets - troubadours and minnesingers. At the cost of the efforts of brave reformers, poetry became an area of strictly individual creativity, in which a new personality, born in the storms of the Renaissance, revealed his relationships with other people, with society, with nature. Collections of Italian poets of the 14th-15th centuries are still called in the old way: “Songbooks” - “Canzoniere”, but poems are already printed to be spoken aloud or read to oneself, for the sake of the growing tribe of poetry lovers who forgot the whole world over a book of poetry, like young heroes " Divine Comedy" by Paolo and Francesca.

However, the poetry of modern times helped to completely break the connection with song, especially folk song. Moreover, it was during the early Renaissance that a powerful wave of folk poetry, mainly song, swept across all European countries. We can say that the flowering of lyric poetry at this time began precisely with the poetry of the masses - peasants and urban people, who everywhere in Europe felt their strength growing, their influence on the life of society. The Renaissance was an era of great popular movements that undermined the foundations of the Middle Ages and heralded the coming of a new time.

The deep connections between popular rebellion and criticism of feudal ideology are revealed in “The Vision of Peter the Plowman,” a poem of the 1470s attributed to the obscure loser William Langland and replete with echoes of oral folk art. Here the worker, the plowman, is chosen as the bearer of moral truth. In the 14th century, obviously, the main plot of the ballads about the rebel and people's intercessor Robin Hood took shape, which became a favorite popular reading, as soon as printing presses started working in England.

The numerous archipelagos of the North Atlantic with their mixed population of predominantly Danish origin have become a kind of reserve for the ballad, where it still exists today as a living poetic genre. A Danish ballad from the Renaissance, examples of which are included in this volume, has become classical genre folk poetry of Northern Europe.

Since the mid-15th century, book printing presses have churned out many publications designed to wide circles readers, samples of folk poetry - songs, romances, riddles, as well as "folk books" (among them - a book about Till Eulenspiegel and a book about Doctor Faust). They are processed and used by humanist writers, even those who are very far from the movement of the masses, but who feel a pull towards popular sources. Let's look through the plays of Shakespeare, his contemporaries and predecessors. How many folk ballads we will find in the very heart of their plans; in Desdemona's song about the willow tree, in Ophelia's song about Valentine's Day, in the atmosphere of the Ardennes forest ("Much Ado About Nothing"), where Jacques wanders, so reminiscent of another forest - Sherwood, the hangout of the shooter Robin Hood and his cheerful green brethren . But before they found their way into the inkwells of writers, these motifs walked through the squares of English cities, at country fairs and roadside taverns, performed by wandering singers, and frightened devout Puritans.

The poet of that era had another source of inspiration: classical antiquity. A passionate love of knowledge drove the poet on long journeys to anatomical theaters, forges and laboratories, but also to libraries. Until the 15th century, an educated European knew some works Latin literature, survivors of ancient Rome, which in turn learned a lot from the culture of Ancient Greece. But Greek culture itself became widely known later, especially after the 15th century, when Byzantium, the last support of medieval Greek civilization in the Middle East, collapsed in the fight against the Turks. Thousands of Greek refugees who poured from the lands conquered by the Turks into the Christian countries of Europe carried with them knowledge native language and art, many became translators at European courts, teachers of Greek at European universities, advisers at large printing houses that published ancient classics in the original and translations.

Antiquity became, as it were, a second world in which the poets of the Renaissance lived. They rarely realized that the culture of antiquity was built on the sweat and blood of slaves; They imagined the people of antiquity as an analogy to the people of their time and portrayed them that way. An example of this is the rebellious mob in Shakespeare's tragedies, the "ancient" peasants and artisans in the paintings of Renaissance artists, or the shepherds and shepherdesses in their poems and poems.

Gradually in the flow literary development In that era, two trends emerged: one, in the struggle for the formation of a new national literature, was guided by ancient models, preferred their experience to folk tradition, and taught young people to write “according to Horace” or “according to Aristotle.” Sometimes, in their desire to be closer to ancient models, these “learned” poets even discarded rhyme, which was an indisputable achievement of European medieval poetry. Representatives of another movement - among them Shakespeare and Lone de Vega - highly appreciating ancient literature and often extracting plots and images for their works from its treasuries, they nevertheless defended the writer’s right, but also the duty, first of all, to study and reproduce living life in poetry. Hamlet talks about this with the actors, in relation to stagecraft, and Lone de Vega repeats the same thing in his treatise “On the New Art of Writing Comedies.” It is Lipe who directly expresses the idea of the need to take into account folk tradition in art. But Shakespeare, in his sonnets, talking about a certain fellow writer who challenged his poetic fame, contrasts his “scholarly”, “ornate” manner with his own “simple” and “modest” style. Both movements as a whole constituted a single stream of humanistic poetry, and although there were internal contradictions in it, caused by different social reasons in different countries, humanist poets opposed those writers of their time who tried to defend the old feudal world, outdated aesthetic norms and old poetic techniques.

The fifteenth century brought a lot of new things to Italian poetry. By this time, patrician families began to gradually seize power in the cities, which were transformed from merchant commune states into duchies and principalities. The sons of the Florentine rich, for example, the famous banking house of the Medici, flaunted humanistic education, patronized the arts and were not alien to them themselves. Humanist poets created Latin poetry with educated readers in mind. Under the pen of such talents as Angelo Poliziano, the cult of gallant knights and beautiful ladies was revived for the needs of the city nobility. The city-commune, defending its rights from the heavy grip of the house of Medici, responded to the emergence of a new aristocratic culture with the rapid development of folk satirical and everyday songs; Pulci mocked the romantic infatuation with the feudal past in the heroic poem "Great Morgant." However, in Florence and, especially, in Ferrara - the fortress capital of the Dukes of Este, the love-adventure knightly poem was revived in an updated version. Count Matteo Boiardo, and later, already in the 16th century, the Ferrara poet Ludovico Ariosto narrate in elegant octaves about the unheard-of exploits and adventures of the knight Roland (Orlando), who turned from the stern hero of a medieval epic into an ardent lover maddened by jealousy. different centuries and peoples, Ariosto created a work in which many things foreshadow Don Quixote.

The most recent contribution to European Renaissance poetry comes from the poets of the Iberian Peninsula; a decisive turn to a new worldview and a new culture occurred here only at the turn of the 15th and 16th centuries, for which there were reasons. First of all, the protracted reconquista, which required the exertion of all the forces of the separated and often warring fraternal peoples inhabiting the peninsula. The historical development of Spain proceeded in a unique way. Royal power did not have a strong foothold in Spanish cities, and although it one by one crushed the rebellious aristocracy and urban communes, there was no real state and national unification: the Spanish kings ruled, relying only on the force of arms and the church inquisition. The discovery of America at the end of the 15th century and the seizure of its vast areas with gold and silver mines for a short period led to the unprecedented enrichment of Spain, and then to a drop in gold in price and the catastrophic impoverishment of the country, where the pursuit of easy money displaced concern for the development of crafts and farming. The Spanish power also began to lose its political power; at the end of the 16th century, the Netherlands fell away from it, and in 1588 the “Invincible Armada” - the Spanish fleet sent to conquer England - was defeated. Reaction reigned. Crowds of beggars and vagabonds stretched across the sun-scorched fields and roads of the country, which, having become a kingdom of adventurers and marauders, remained in many ways a feudal country.

And yet, a brilliant Renaissance culture flourished in Spain. Already literature late Middle Ages was rich and varied here. Aragonese, Castilian, Andalusian traditions merged into something new, which absorbed the influences of Galicia with its school of troubadours, and Catalonia, and especially Portugal, which already in the 15th century began to fight for new sea routes and generally overtook Spain in the field of cultural development. Close cultural ties with Spain were strengthened by half a century (1580 - 1640) of Portugal's subordination to the Spanish crown. Very important for the literature of the Iberian Peninsula was their centuries-long proximity to the literature of the Arab world. Through this neighborhood, Spanish poets received many motifs and images, especially noticeable in the romances of the 15th - 16th centuries. On the other hand, Spain at that time was closely connected with the Kingdom of Sicily, with Venice, and kept garrisons and fleets in many cities and harbors of Italy. During its formation, Spanish Renaissance poetry experienced the strongest and lasting influence of Italian poetry. (The same applies to the literature of Portugal)

Romantics in any literature of Western Europe were successors and students of the masters of the Renaissance. Her full-blooded, humane art served as a model for numerous progressive poets of the 20th century. An artist of socialist realism, Johannes R. Becher found it necessary to include in his studies of modern literature "The Lesser Doctrine of the Sonnet" - a study containing a careful analysis of the six linguistic aspects of the sonnet: French, German, English, Italian, Portuguese and Spanish.

Dante, Shakespeare, Lope de Vega, Cervantes, published in many languages of the peoples of the USSR, became not just our contemporaries, but also our comrades-in-arms. Like the paintings of Renaissance artists, drama, songs and poems of Renaissance poets entered into cultural use Soviet man.

One of the titans of the Renaissance, Giordano Bruno, called his book: “Dialogue on Heroic Enthusiasm.” This name very accurately defines the spiritual atmosphere of the Renaissance, captured in the poetry of the 14th - 16th centuries. This poetry revealed the beauty of man, the richness of his inner life and the innumerable variety of his sensations, showed the splendor of the earthly world, and proclaimed man's right to earthly happiness. Renaissance literature elevated the poet's calling to a high mission of service to humanity.

4. Renaissance Theater

Theater is the art of presenting dramatic works on stage. This definition of this concept is given by Ozhegov’s explanatory dictionary.

The Renaissance theater is one of the most striking and significant phenomena in the history of all world culture; this is a powerful source of European theatrical art - for all times. The new theater was born out of the need to pour young energy into action. And if you ask yourself the question into what sphere of art this action, this sea of fun, should have resulted, then the answer is clear: of course, into the sphere of theater. The carnival game could no longer remain at its previous stage of spontaneous amateur activity and entered the shores of art, becoming creativity, enriched by the experience of ancient and new literatures.

In Italy - for the first time in Europe - professional actors took the stage and amazed the world with a bright, strong performance, born right before the eyes of the viewer, and enchanting with its freedom, excitement, brilliance and wit.

This is how the beginning was made in Italy theater arts new time. This happened in the middle of the 16th century.

The Renaissance theater reached its peak in England. Now he has truly absorbed all spheres of life, penetrated into the depths of existence. A mighty cohort of talents rose as if from underground. And the main miracle of the century was a man from Stratford who came to London to write plays for the Globe Theatre. The theater's loud name was justified - the world really opened up in Shakespeare's works: one could see historical distances lived, the main truths of the present century were clarified and miraculously, through the veil of time, the contours of the future were visible.

In the majestic era of the Renaissance, in the era of Dante, Leonardo and Michelangelo, a small flag fluttering over the Globe announced a grandiose accomplishment. Shakespeare's genius merged everything previously achieved in drama and on stage. Now, in two to three hours, on six to eight square meters one could see worlds and eras.

A truly great theater arose. A new theater was born in Italy. This birth cannot be attributed to a strictly defined date, name or work. There was a long, multilateral process going on - both at the “top” and at the “bottom” of society. It gave a historically complete result only after the necessary the trinity of drama, stage and large audience.

One can say with all certainty about the first experiments in Renaissance drama that they were creations of the pen, but not of the stage. Having emerged from the mother's womb of literature, humanistic drama, even if it left bookshelves, then only occasionally and without much hope of stage success. And simple folk farces and improvisations of carnival masks attracted crowds of spectators, although they did not have even a tenth of the literary merits of written plays. It was at the carnival that the source of the commedia dell'arte began to flow - this true ancestor of the new European theater. I must say that at the early stage of the development of the new theater, the mutual estrangement of stage and drama benefited both. Drama turned out to be free from the primitives of the farcical stage, and the stage, that is, the performing arts, devoid of drama and left to its own devices, was given the opportunity to intensively develop its own creative resources.

Pomponio's scientific studio became the first gathering of amateurs who played the comedies of Plautus. Characters who have been in a position for many centuries literary heroes, walked across the stage again (although, probably, not very confidently yet).

The news of the discovery of the Roman scientist soon spread throughout Italy. Among other spectacles, it became fashionable at courts to show the comedies of Plautus. The fashion was so great that Plautus was played in Latin in the Vatican. However, not everyone understood Latin, so in the late 70s the humanist Batista Guarini translated the works of Plautus and Terence into Italian.

The successful development of comedy was determined by the fact that the traditional ancient scheme - the struggle of a young man to possess his beloved, guarded by strict parents, and the tricks of evasive and energetic servants - turned out to be convenient for lively sketches of modern life.

During the 1508 carnival in the Ferrara palace, the poet Ludovico Ariosto showed his "Comedy of the Chest".

And it was as if the floodgates had broken through, holding back the life-giving flow for a long time. The following year, Ariosto's second comedy, The Changelings, appeared, and in 1513, Cardinal Bibbiena demonstrated his Calandria in Urbino. In 1514, the former secretary of the Florentine republic, the most insightful Niccolo Machiavelli, wrote the best play of the era - Mandrake.

Italian comedyThe 16th century developed a certain standard of dynamic plots: the same situations were constantly repeated here with substitute children, girls in disguise, servants' tricks, comic fiascoes of old men in love.

Italian humanists were intensively studying the heritage of Seneca; then the Greek tragedians Sophocles and Euripides came into the orbit of their interests. Under the influence of these ancient authors, the Italian tragedy of the Renaissance was born, the first example of which was “Sofonisba” by Giangiorgio Trissino (1515).

Trissino was a deep expert ancient Greek theater. When composing his own tragedy, he was guided by the works of Sophocles and Euripides. In "Sofonisba" all the components of ancient tragedy were used - the chorus, confidants, messengers, there was no division into acts, laws of three unities and three actors. But the tragedy lacked the main thing - a significant social theme, the dynamics of passions, and holistic action.

The modern audience was interested in the tragic genre either in a purely academic sense, or with the expectation of finding food for “shocks” here.

The Italian tragedy provided such food in abundance.

New tragedy sought to “capture the spirit” of the audience. The father killed his daughter's children, born from a secret marriage, and presented their heads and hands to her on a platter; the shocked daughter killed her father and stabbed herself to death ("Orbecca" by J. Cintio, 1541). A wife abandoned by her husband forced her rival to kill his children, after which she killed her and sent the death's heads to her husband; the husband, in turn, beheaded his wife's lover. Towards the end, the cruel spouses poisoned each other ("Dalida" by L. Groto, 1572).

“Horror tragedies” stunned with their bloody scenes, without awakening thoughts, without raising questions about the meaning of life and human responsibilities.

In an age when comedy was declining and tragedy did not take the high road of art, the winner The pastoral appeared on the dramaturgical arena.

At first, the pastoral direction received its most vivid expression in poetry - in the works of Boccaccio ("Ameto", "The Fiesolan Nymphs") and in the lyrics of the Petrarchists. But soon a new dramatic genre was born.

If in tragedy fatal passion predominated, and in comedy sensual attraction prevailed, then in pastoral “pure love” reigned, which appeared outside of specific life connections as a kind of poetic ideal.

The theater of the English Renaissance is Shakespeare and his brilliant entourage: Marlowe, Greene, Beaumont, Fletcher, Champion, Nash, Ben Jonson. But all these last names belong to their age and their nation; Shakespeare, who most deeply expressed the spirit of his time and the life of his people, belongs to all centuries and all peoples.

Shakespeare Theater - This is a kind of synthesis of Renaissance culture. Having defined the most mature stage of this culture, Shakespeare spoke to his age and to future centuries as if on behalf of the entire era of the “greatest progressive revolution.”

Shakespeare's works was the result of the development of the national English theater. At the same time, it to a certain extent summarized the achievements of all previous poetic, dramatic and stage culture of ancient and modern times. Therefore, in Shakespeare’s dramas one can feel the epic scope of the Homeric plot, the titanic sculpting of the monotragedies of the ancient Greeks, and the whirlwind play of the plots of the Roman comedy. Shakespeare's theater is rich in the high lyricism of the Petrarchist poets. In Shakespeare's works, the voices of modern humanists are clearly heard, from Erasmus of Rotterdam to Montaigne.

The in-depth development of what was inherited was the most important prerequisite for the birth of a new and most advanced type of Renaissance drama, Shakespeare's drama.

Conclusion

The ideas of humanism are the spiritual basis for the flourishing of Renaissance art. The art of the Renaissance is imbued with the ideals of humanism; it created the image of a beautiful, harmoniously developed person. Italian humanists demanded freedom for man. “But freedom in the understanding of the Italian Renaissance,” wrote its expert A.K. Dzhivelegov, “meant an individual person. Humanism proved that a person in his feelings, in his thoughts, in his beliefs is not subject to any guardianship, that he should not be be a force of will, preventing him from feeling and thinking as he wants.” IN modern science there is no unambiguous understanding of the nature, structure and chronological framework of Renaissance humanism. But, of course, humanism should be considered as the main ideological content of the culture of the Renaissance, inseparable from the entire course historical development Italy in the era of the beginning of the decomposition of feudal and the emergence of capitalist relations. Humanism was a progressive ideological movement that contributed to the establishment of a means of culture, relying primarily on the ancient heritage. Italian humanism went through a number of stages: formation in the 14th century, the bright flourishing of the next century, internal restructuring and gradual decline in the 16th century. The evolution of the Italian Renaissance was closely connected with the development of philosophy, political ideology, science, and other forms of social consciousness and, in turn, had a powerful impact on artistic culture Renaissance.

Revived on an ancient basis humanitarian knowledge, which included ethics, rhetoric, philology, history, turned out to be the main sphere in the formation and development of humanism, the ideological core of which was the doctrine of man, his place and role in nature and society. This teaching developed primarily in ethics and was enriched in various areas of Renaissance culture. Humanistic ethics brought to the fore the problem of man's earthly destiny, the achievement of happiness through his own efforts. Humanists took a new approach to issues of social ethics, in solving which they relied on ideas about the power of human creativity and will, about his wide possibilities for building happiness on earth. They considered the harmony of the interests of the individual and society to be an important prerequisite for success; they put forward the ideal of the free development of the individual and the inextricably linked improvement of the social organism and political order. This gave many of the ethical ideas and teachings of the Italian humanists a pronounced character.

Many problems developed in humanistic ethics take on new meaning and special relevance in our era, when the moral incentives of human activity are increasingly important. social function.

The humanistic worldview became one of the largest progressive achievements of the Renaissance, which had a strong influence on the subsequent development of European culture.

The Reformation played an important role in the formation of world civilization. Without proclaiming any specific socio-political ideal, without demanding a remake of society in one direction or another, without making any scientific discoveries or achievements in the artistic and aesthetic field, the Reformation changed the consciousness of man and opened up new spiritual horizons for him. Man received the freedom to think independently, freed himself from the tutelage of the church, received the highest sanction for him - religious, so that only his own reason and conscience dictated to him how he should live. The Reformation contributed to the emergence of the man of bourgeois society - an independent, autonomous individual with freedom of moral choice, independent and responsible in his judgments and actions.

List of used literature

1. L.M. Bragina "Social and ethical views of Italian humanists" (II half of the 15th century) Moscow State University Publishing House, 1983

2. From the cultural history of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Publishing house "Science", M 1976

3. 5 0 biographies of masters of Western European art. Publishing house " Soviet artist", Leningrad 1965

4. Garay E. Problems of the Italian Renaissance. - M., 1996.

5. History of art of foreign countries. - M., 1998.

6. Culturology. History of world culture: Tutorial for universities / Ed. prof. A.N. Markova. - M, 1995.

7. Culturology. Theory and history of culture: Textbook. - M.: Society "Knowledge" of Russia, CINO, 1996.

8. Losev L.F. Renaissance aesthetics. - M., 1993.

9. Polikarpov V.S. Lectures on cultural studies. - M.: "Gardarika", "Expert Bureau", 1997.

The epoch-making period in the history of world culture, which preceded the Modern Age and was given the name Renaissance, or Revival. The history of the era begins at the dawn of Italy. Several centuries can be characterized as the time of formation of a new, human and earthly picture of the world, which is essentially secular in nature. Progressive ideas found their embodiment in humanism.

Renaissance years and concept

It is quite difficult to set a specific time frame for this phenomenon in the history of world culture. This is explained by the fact that all European countries entered the Renaissance at different times. Some earlier, others later, due to the lag in socio-economic development. Approximate dates include the beginning of the 14th and the end of the 16th century. The years of the Renaissance are characterized by the manifestation of the secular nature of culture, its humanization, and the flourishing of interest in antiquity. By the way, the name of this period is connected with the latter. There is a revival of its introduction into the European world.

General characteristics of the Renaissance

This revolution in the development of human culture occurred as a result of changes in European society and relations in it. An important role is played by the fall of Byzantium, when its citizens fled en masse to Europe, bringing with them libraries and various ancient sources, previously unknown. The increase in the number of cities led to an increase in the influence of the simple classes of artisans, merchants, and bankers. Various centers of art and science began to actively appear, the activities of which the church no longer controlled.

The first years of the Renaissance are usually counted with its onset in Italy; it was in this country that this movement began. Its initial signs became noticeable in the 13-14th centuries, but it took a strong position in the 15th century (20s), reaching its maximum flourishing towards its end. The Renaissance (or Renaissance) era is divided into four periods. Let's look at them in more detail.

Proto-Renaissance

This period dates back to approximately the second half of the 13th-14th century. It is worth noting that all dates refer to Italy. In fact, this period represents the preparatory stage of the Renaissance. It is conventionally divided into two stages: before and after the death (1137) of Giotto di Bondone (sculpture in the photo), a key figure in history Western art, architect and artist.

The last years of the Renaissance of this period are associated with the plague epidemic that struck Italy and the whole of Europe as a whole. The Proto-Renaissance is closely connected with the Middle Ages, Gothic, Romanesque, and Byzantine traditions. Giotto is considered to be the central figure, who outlined the main trends in painting and pointed out the path along which its development would follow.

Early Renaissance period

In time it took eighty years. The early years of which are characterized in very two ways, fell on 1420-1500. Art has not yet completely renounced medieval traditions, but is actively adding elements borrowed from classical antiquity. As if incrementally, year after year, under the influence of changing conditions of the social environment, there is a complete rejection by artists of the old and a transition to ancient art as the main concept.

High Renaissance period

This is the peak, the peak of the Renaissance. At this stage, the Renaissance (1500-1527) reached its apogee, and the center of influence of all Italian art moved to Rome from Florence. This happened in connection with the accession to the papal throne of Julius II, who had very progressive, bold views, was an enterprising and ambitious man. He attracted to the eternal City the most best artists and sculptors from all over Italy. It was at this time that the real titans of the Renaissance created their masterpieces, which the whole world admires to this day.

Late Renaissance

Covers the time period from 1530 to 1590-1620. The development of culture and art in this period is so heterogeneous and diverse that even historians do not reduce it to one denominator. According to British scholars, the Renaissance finally died out at the moment when the fall of Rome occurred, namely in 1527. plunged into the Counter-Reformation, which put an end to all free-thinking, including the resurrection of ancient traditions.

The crisis of ideas and contradictions in worldview eventually resulted in mannerism in Florence. A style that is characterized by disharmony and artificiality, a loss of balance between the spiritual and physical components, characteristic of the Renaissance era. For example, Venice had its own development path; masters such as Titian and Palladio worked there until the end of the 1570s. Their work remained aloof from the crisis phenomena characteristic of the art of Rome and Florence. The photo shows Titian's painting "Isabella of Portugal".

Great Masters of the Renaissance

Three great Italians are the titans of the Renaissance, its worthy crown:

All their works are the best, selected pearls of world art that the Renaissance collected. Years go by, centuries change, but the creations of great masters are timeless.

Mariupol State University

Essay

On the topic: The personality of the new Renaissance man

Performed: 2nd year student

Part-time study

Specialties

« Language and Literature (English)

Shchukina Anna

Plan

Introduction

1 Background of the Renaissance. Three stages of cultural development in the era

Renaissance…………………………………………………………………………………………

2 Features of the Renaissance……………………………………………

2.1 Periods of the Renaissance………………………………………………………

2.2 The dawn of literature……………………………………………………….

2.3 General features of the Renaissance in Europe……………………………

3.Renaissance architecture……………………………………………………………………

3.1 Music………………………………………………………………………………..

Conclusion……………………………………………………………………

Bibliography…………………………………………………………..

Introduction

Renaissance, or Renaissance (French Renaissance, Italian Rinascimento; from “ri” - “again” or “born again”) is an era in the cultural history of Europe, which replaced the culture of the Middle Ages and preceded the culture of modern times. The approximate chronological framework of the era is the beginning of the 14th - the last quarter of the 16th centuries and in some cases - the first decades of the 17th century (for example, in England and, especially, in Spain). A distinctive feature of the Renaissance is the secular nature of culture and its anthropocentrism (that is, interest, first of all, in man and his activities). Interest in ancient culture appears, its “revival,” as it were, occurs - and this is how the term appeared.

The term Renaissance is already found among Italian humanists, for example, Giorgio Vasari. In its modern meaning, the term was introduced into use by the 19th century French historian Jules Michelet. Nowadays, the term Renaissance has become a metaphor for cultural flourishing: for example, the Carolingian Renaissance of the 9th century. Contents [remove]

general characteristics

"Vitruvian Man" by Leonardo da Vinci

A new cultural paradigm arose as a result of fundamental changes in social relations in Europe.

The growth of city-republics led to an increase in the influence of classes that did not participate in feudal relations: artisans and craftsmen, merchants, bankers.

The hierarchical system of values created by the medieval, largely church culture, and its ascetic, humble spirit were alien to all of them. This led to the emergence of humanism - a socio-philosophical movement that considered a person, his personality, his freedom, his active, creative activity as the highest value and criterion for evaluating public institutions.

Secular centers of science and art began to emerge in cities, the activities of which were outside the control of the church. The new worldview turned to antiquity, seeing in it an example of humanistic, non-ascetic relations. The invention of printing in the mid-15th century played a huge role in the spread of ancient heritage and new views throughout Europe.

The Renaissance arose in Italy, where its first signs were noticeable back in the 13th and XIV centuries(in the activities of the Pisano, Giotto, Orcagna and others families), but it was firmly established only in the 20s of the 15th century. In France, Germany and other countries this movement began much later. By the end of the 15th century it reached its peak. In the 16th century, a crisis of Renaissance ideas was brewing, resulting in the emergence of Mannerism and Baroque.

Background of the Renaissance. Three stages of cultural development during the Renaissance

1. XIV - beginning XV centuries characterized by the stratification and collapse of the medieval common cultural zone: this means that, for example, in Spain and France the iron regime of a powerful feudal state is created, and in Italy capital is rapidly growing. In Italy itself, along with Petrarch and Boccaccio, coexists the most archaic, as if he came out of some tenth century, Franco Sacchetti. Yes, the same Petrarch, the creator new poetry, bows before the obsolete pillars of scholasticism at the University of Paris.

Moreover, if we take Europe as a whole, we can see how economic relations are reviving, while cultural relations, on the contrary, are freezing. Outside of Italy, there is still no awareness of one’s time as a turning point in history, and the very idea of reviving the ancient classics is also absent, although interest in antiquity is increasing. Interest in one’s own creativity is also increasing and national traditions, folklore, language finally.

Stage 2 begins in the mid-15th century. Three important events take place here: the fall of Byzantium with all the ensuing consequences for Europe; the end of the Hundred Years' War with a complete reorientation of European politics and the invention of printing.

With the latest development, the authority of Italian culture is rapidly becoming universal. The ideas of humanism and revival, created by the titanic efforts of Dante, Petrarch and Boccaccio, are picked up by representatives of other European countries. Latin penetrates into the darkest corners of the Old World, for example, Scandinavia. The old impregnable fortress of feudal-church ideology is being destroyed, giving way to the ideology of humanism, confirmed not only by literature and art, but also by the abundance of all kinds of scientific discoveries and the expansion of geographical horizons. And not just a man, but a free man forever is glorified by the humanistic harmony of Botticelli, Leonardo, Raphael, Dürer, Ariosto, Early Michelangelo, Rabelais, and the Pleiades poets. T. More creates his famous humanistic “utopia”. Political writers Machiavelli and Guicciardini reveal to the era the laws of historical development. Philosophers Ficino, Mirandolla, la Rama are returning interest in Plato. Lorenzo Valla, Deperrier, Luther reconsider religious dogmas. Finally, Europe was shaken by the peasant war in Germany and the Dutch revolution. Here we begin the construction of the state by annexing Novgorod (1478), Tver (1485) to Moscow, the famous “Domostroy” is being created, Joseph Volotsky, Maxim Grek, Skaryna are working.

During this period, a new system of literary genres emerged, developing to the exemplary ones that appeared at the turn of the 13th century. In Sicily, the sonnet is transformed and takes on its final form, the ancient odes, elegies, and epigrams.

As for completely new, original genres, this is, first of all, dramaturgy, in which, apparently, except for the stage area and the idea itself, nothing remains from antiquity (yet!!), then journalism is a completely new genre, if, of course, do not take into account the publicists and conversationalists of antiquity: Socrates and subsequent sophists. Journalism, by the way, was mastered primarily by the Frenchman Montaigne and called by him “essay,” which means “experience,” as little else will have to do with the court in Russia, in Russian literature: from Radishchev to Solzhenitsyn.

During this period, prose came to the fore in literature, the real birth of the novel, relatively speaking, realistic: Rabelais, Nash, Cervantes, Aleman, the short story reached its peak: Boccaccio, Masuccio, Margarita of Navarre, and finally memoirs appeared. Not a confession, but the everyday notes of a private person about himself, devoid of any ecstatic confession: Cellini, Brantôme.

It was during this period that qualitative features inherent only to them were consolidated in national literatures: for example, a certain rationalism and sense of proportion combined with subtle humor, typical of French literature.

The writer begins to realize himself not only as a person, but also as a creator. He places a high purpose on his mission. It was during this period that the pan-European authority of an individual became possible, as enjoyed, for example, by Erasmus of Rotterdam.

Stage 3 takes place in an aggravated and complicated political and ideological situation: from the middle of the 16th century. A wave of Counter-Reformation is sweeping across Europe. Spain becomes a stronghold of Catholicism and feudalism, in Italy free cities turn into small monarchies, the power of princes in Germany is strengthened, the “Index of Forbidden Books” is introduced, the Jesuits expand their activities, the Inquisition is established, France is torn apart by the struggle of rival feudal groups during the period of religious wars.

Skepticism and even stoicism are returning from the depths of centuries to replace the opened horizons and prospects, hopes and dreams. The works of Montaigne, Camões, Tasso, the late Michelangelo, Cervantes, and Shakespeare are colored with deep tragic tones.

Writers, artists and philosophers synthesize what they have experienced, not only personally, but throughout the era as a whole, summarize the results, and describe the decline. The classical Renaissance is being replaced by a bizarre, minor, broken mannerism.

Renaissance is... Renaissance

Dramaturgy is receiving great development. The most prominent playwrights of the Renaissance are Lope de Vega in Spain and Shakespeare in England.

Journalism and philosophical prose are widespread. In Italy, Giordano Bruno denounces the church in his works and creates his own new philosophical concepts. In England, Thomas More expresses the ideas of utopian communism in his book Utopia. Such authors as Michel de Montaigne ("Experiments") and Erasmus of Rotterdam ("In Praise of Stupidity") are also widely known.

Among the writers of that time were crowned heads. Duke Lorenzo de' Medici writes poetry, and Margaret of Navarre, sister of King Francis I of France, is known as the author of the collection Heptameron.

In the fine arts of the Renaissance, man appeared as the most beautiful creation of nature, strong and perfect, angry and gentle, thoughtful and cheerful.

The world of Renaissance man is most clearly represented in the Sistine Chapel of the Vatican, painted by Michelangelo. Bible stories form the vault of the chapel. Their main motive is the creation of the world and man. These frescoes are full of grandeur and tenderness. On the altar wall there is a fresco " Last Judgment", which was created in 1537–1541. Here Michelangelo sees in man not the "crown of creation", but Christ is represented as angry and punishing. The ceiling and altar wall Sistine Chapel represent a clash of possibility and reality, the sublimity of the plan and the tragedy of its implementation. “The Last Judgment” is considered the work that completed the Renaissance era in art.

Features of Renaissance culture

The Renaissance is a transitional era from the Middle Ages to the New Age from the 14th to the 16th centuries. The Renaissance, or Renaissance, got its name because of the revival of the most important principles of the spiritual culture of antiquity that began during this period.

Renaissance, or Renaissance (from the French. renaissance - Renaissance) is a cultural and historical era that marks the transition from the Middle Ages to the Modern Age.

This period in the history of Western European civilization is exceptional in terms of the unprecedented rise and scale of cultural phenomena in the life of all European countries. Along with a truly cultural revolution, and often on the basis of the cultural achievements of the Renaissance, deep socio-economic processes took place that determined the forms of new economic and social relations within the framework of the emerging market system. The philosophy of humanism, opposed to the scholastic worldview of the Middle Ages, the cult of freedom of mind, egocentrism - as opposed to the feudal class order, a largely secular, materialistic understanding of the surrounding reality - these and other most important achievements of the culture of the Renaissance formed the foundation of the culture of modern Western civilization.

It was full of extraordinary events and presented by brilliant creators. The term “Renaissance” was introduced by G. Vasari, a famous painter, architect and art historian, to designate the period of Italian art as a time of revival of antiquity. The culture of the Renaissance had a distinctly artistic character and was generally oriented towards art, where the cult of the artist-creator occupied a central place. The artist imitates not just God's creations, but divine creativity itself. A person begins to look for a fulcrum in himself - in his soul, body, physicality (the cult of beauty - Botticelli, Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael). In this era, the versatility of development and talent was especially revered, and the special significance of man and his creative activity was revealed.

New economic relations contributed to the emergence of spiritual opposition to feudalism as a way of life and the dominant way of thinking.

Renaissance

Technical inventions and scientific discoveries enriched labor with new, more effective methods of action (the spinning wheel appeared, the weaving machine was improved, blast furnace metallurgy was invented, etc.). The use of gunpowder and the creation of firearms revolutionized military affairs, which negated the importance of knighthood as a branch of the military and as a feudal class. The birth of printing contributed to the development of humanitarian culture in Europe. The use of a compass significantly increased the possibilities of navigation, and the network of water trade connections rapidly expanded. They were especially intense in the Mediterranean - it is not surprising that it was in Italian cities The first manufactories arose as a step in the transition from crafts to the capitalist mode of production. Thus, the main prerequisites for cultural development during the Renaissance were the crisis of feudalism, the improvement of tools and production relations, the development of crafts and trade, an increase in the level of education, the crisis of the church, geographical and scientific and technical discoveries.

New worldview

A powerful surge in the cultural life of many European countries, which occurred mainly in the 14th - 16th centuries, and in Italy began in the 13th century, is commonly called the era of the Renaissance (Renaissance). Initially, a new phenomenon in European cultural life looked like a return to the forgotten achievements of ancient culture in the field of science, philosophy, literature, art, a return to classical “golden Latin”. Thus, in Italy, manuscripts of ancient writers were sought, works of ancient sculpture and architecture were retrieved from oblivion .

But it would be wrong to interpret the Renaissance as a simple return to antiquity, because its representatives did not discard the achievements at all medieval culture and were critical of the ancient heritage. The phenomenon of the Renaissance is a very multifaceted phenomenon in the cultural development of Europe, the core of which was a new worldview, a new self-awareness of man. In contrast to the ancient view of the world around us, in which man is called upon to learn from nature, Renaissance thinkers believed that man, endowed by God with free will, is the creator of himself and thereby stands out from nature. This understanding of the essence of man not only differs from the ancient one, but also conflicts with the postulates of medieval theology. The focus of Renaissance thinkers was on man, and not on God, as the highest measure of all things, which is why this system of views is called "humanism"(from Latin humanus - humane).

Humanism (from Latin homo - man) - an ideological movement that affirms the value of man and human life.

In the Renaissance, humanism manifested itself in a worldview that placed the focus of world existence no longer on God, but on man. A unique manifestation of humanism was the assertion of the primacy of reason over faith. A person can independently explore the mysteries of existence by studying the foundations of the existence of nature. During the Renaissance, speculative principles of knowledge were rejected, and experimental, natural scientific knowledge was resumed. Fundamentally new, anti-scholastic pictures of the world were created: the heliocentric picture Nicolaus Copernicus and a picture of an infinite Universe Giordano Bruno. The most significant thing was that religion was separated from science, politics and morality. The era of the formation of experimental sciences began, their role as providing true knowledge about nature was recognized.

What was the basis of the new worldview? This question cannot be answered unambiguously. The Renaissance phenomenon was caused by a number of factors, among which are the most common for most countries of Western Europe. During the period under review, the process of formation of new (bourgeois or market) relations was quite clearly observed, which required the destruction of the system of medieval regulation of economic life that restrained their development. New forms of management assumed the liberation and separation of the economic entity into an independent free unit. This process was accompanied by corresponding changes in the spiritual life of society and, above all, those layers of it that were at the epicenter of the changes.

An indispensable condition for personal success is knowledge knowledge and skill, great energy and persistence in achieving goals. Awareness of this truth forced many contemporaries of the Renaissance to turn their attention to science and art, caused an increase in the need for knowledge in society, and raised the social prestige of educated people.

This is how the famous French philosopher and art critic, a deep expert on the Renaissance, spoke about it Hippolyte Taine(1828-1893):

... the art of the Renaissance cannot be looked at as the result of a happy accident; there can be no question of a successful game of fate that led to world stage a few more talented heads, which accidentally produced some extraordinary crop of geniuses...; It can hardly be denied that the reason for such a wonderful prosperity of art lay in the general disposition of minds towards it, in the amazing ability for it located in all parts of the people. This ability was instantaneous, and the art itself was the same.

The ideas of humanism that what is important in a person are his personal qualities, such as intelligence, creative energy, enterprise, self-esteem, will and education, and not his social status and origin, lay on fertile soil. As a result of more than two centuries of the Renaissance, world culture has been enriched with spiritual treasures, the value of which is eternal.

Two trends in the culture of the Renaissance determined its inconsistency - these are:

Rethinking Antiquity;

Combination with the cultural values of the Christian (Catholic) tradition.

On the one hand, the Renaissance can be safely characterized as an era of joyful self-affirmation of man, and on the other hand, as an era of man’s comprehension of the whole tragedy of his existence. The Russian philosopher N. Berdyaev considered this era to be a time of collision between ancient and Christian principles, which caused a deep division of man. The great artists of the Renaissance, he believed, were obsessed with a breakthrough into another transcendental world, the dream of which was given to them by Christ. They were focused on with building of a different existence, felt in themselves forces similar to the forces of the creator. However, these tasks were obviously impossible to accomplish in earthly life. This leads to a tragic worldview, to “revival melancholy.”

Thus, with all the diversity of contradictions, with all the cruelty and rudeness of morals, the Renaissance raised society to a qualitatively new level of awareness of itself, its activities and its goals.

You should also pay attention to the inconsistency of the concept of unlimited will and human ability for self-improvement. Its humanistic orientation did not guarantee the replacement of the concept of individual freedom with the concept of permissiveness - in fact, the antipodes of humanism. An example of this can be the views of the Italian thinker Niccolo Machiavelli(1469-1527), who justified any means to achieve power, as well as the English humanist Thomas More(1478-1535) and Italian philosopher Tommaso Campanella(1568-1639), who saw the ideal of social harmony in a society built according to a rigid hierarchical system regulating all spheres of life. Subsequently, this model would be called “barracks communism.” This metamorphosis is based on a fairly deep feeling among Renaissance thinkers of the dual nature of freedom. The point of view of the largest Western psychologist and sociologist seems very appropriate in this regard Erich Fromm(1900-1980):

“The individual is freed from economic and political fetters. He also gains positive freedom - along with the active and independent role that he has to play in the new system - but at the same time he is freed from the ties that gave him a sense of confidence and belonging to some community. He can no longer live his life in a small world, the center of which was himself; the world has become limitless and threatening. Having lost his specific place in this world, a person also lost the answer to the question about the meaning of life, and doubts fell upon him: who is he, why does he live? Paradise is lost forever; the individual stands alone, face to face with his world, limitless and threatening.”

The end of the Renaissance

In the 40s of the 16th century. The church in Italy began to widely repress dissidents. In 1542, the Inquisition was reorganized and its tribunal was created in Rome.

Many advanced scientists and thinkers who continued to adhere to the traditions of the Renaissance were repressed and died at the stake of the Inquisition (among them the great Italian astronomer Giordano Bruno, 1548-1600). In 1540 it was approved Jesuit order, which essentially turned into a repressive organ of the Vatican. In 1559, Pope Paul IV first published "List of Banned Books"(Index librorum prohibitorum), subsequently supplemented several times. The works of literature named in the “List” were forbidden to be read by believers under pain of excommunication. Among the books to be destroyed were many works of humanistic literature of the Renaissance (for example, the works of Boccaccio). Thus, the Renaissance by the early 40s of the 17th century. ended in Italy.

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Legacy of Ancient Egypt

Italy is a country with an interesting and rich history. On its territory it was formed from the most powerful military empires in the world - Ancient Rome. There were also cities of ancient Greeks and Etruscans here. It is not for nothing that they say that Italy is the birthplace of the Renaissance, since only in terms of the number of architectural monuments it ranks first in Europe. Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Titian, Raphael, Petrarch, Dante - this is only the tiniest and far from complete list of all the names of people who worked and lived in this beautiful country.

General prerequisites

The features of the ideas of humanism in Italian culture are already evident in Dante Alighieri, the predecessor of the Renaissance, who lived at the turn of the 13th and 14th centuries. The new movement manifested itself most fully in the middle of the 14th century. Italy is the birthplace of the entire European Renaissance, since the socio-economic prerequisites for this were ripe here first of all. In Italy, capitalist relations began to form early, and people who were interested in their development had to leave the yoke of feudalism and the tutelage of the church. These were bourgeois, but they were not bourgeois-limited people, as in subsequent centuries. These were broad-minded people who traveled, spoke several languages and were active participants in any political events.

Aurora (1614) - Renaissance painting

Cultural figures of that time fought against scholasticism, asceticism, mysticism, and the subordination of literature and art to religion; they called themselves humanists. Writers of the Middle Ages took the “letter” from ancient authors, that is, individual information, passages, maxims taken out of context.

Renaissance

Renaissance writers read and studied entire works, paying attention to the essence of the works. They also turned to folklore, folk art, and folk wisdom. The first humanists are considered to be Francesco Petrarca, the author of a series of sonnets in honor of Laura, and Giovanni Boccaccio, the author of The Decameron, a collection of short stories.

Flying machine - Leonardo da Vinci

The characteristic features of the culture of that new time are as follows:

The main subject of depiction in literature is a person.
He is endowed with a strong character.
Renaissance realism broadly shows life with a full reproduction of its contradictions.
Authors begin to perceive nature differently. If for Dante it still symbolizes the psychological range of moods, then for later authors nature brings joy with its real charm.

3 reasons why Italy became the birthplace of the Renaissance?

Italy by the time of the Renaissance turned out to be one of the most fragmented countries in Europe; a single political and national center never emerged here. The formation of a single state was hampered by the struggle between popes and emperors for their dominance throughout the Middle Ages. Therefore, the economic and political development of different regions of Italy was uneven. The areas of the central and northern parts of the peninsula were part of the papal possessions; in the south was the Kingdom of Naples; middle Italy (Tuscany), which included cities such as Florence, Pisa, Siena, and individual cities of the north (Genoa, Milan, Venice) were independent and wealthy centers of the country. In fact, Italy was a conglomerate of disunited, constantly competing and warring territories.
It was in Italy that truly unique conditions arose to support the sprouts of a new culture. Lack of centralized power, as well as beneficial geographical position on the routes of European trade with the East contributed to the further development of independent cities, the development of a capitalist and new political structure in them. In the leading cities of Tuscany and Lombardy already in the 12th – 13th centuries. Communal revolutions took place, and a republican system emerged, within which a fierce party struggle was constantly taking place. The main political forces here were financiers, wealthy merchants and artisans.

Under these conditions, the public activity of citizens who sought to support politicians who contributed to the enrichment and prosperity of the city was very high. Thus, public support in various city republics contributed to the promotion and strengthening of power of several wealthy families: the Visconti and Sforza in Milan and all of Lombardy, the Medici bankers in Florence and all of Tuscany, the Great Council of the Doges in Venice. And although the republics gradually turned into tyrannies with obvious features monarchy, they still relied heavily on popularity and authority. Therefore, the new Italian rulers sought to secure the consent of public opinion and in every possible way demonstrated their commitment to the growing social movement - humanism. They attracted the most outstanding people of the time - scientists, writers, artists - and themselves tried to develop their education and taste.

In the conditions of the emergence and growth of national self-awareness, it was the Italians who felt themselves to be direct descendants of the great ancient Rome. Interest in the ancient past, which did not fade throughout the Middle Ages, now simultaneously meant interest in one’s national past, or more precisely, the past of one’s people, the traditions of their native antiquity. In no other country in Europe have so many traces of the great ancient civilization remained as in Italy. And although these were most often just ruins (for example, the Colosseum was used as a quarry during almost the entire Middle Ages), now it was they who gave the impression of greatness and glory. Thus, ancient antiquity was interpreted as the great national past of the native country.

The revival is divided into 4 stages:

Proto-Renaissance (2nd half of the 13th century - 14th century)

Early Renaissance (beginning of the 15th century - end of the 15th century)

High Renaissance (late 15th - first 20 years of the 16th century)

Late Renaissance (mid-16th - 90s of the 16th century)

Proto-Renaissance

The Proto-Renaissance is closely connected with the Middle Ages, with Romanesque, Gothic traditions, this period was the preparation for the Renaissance. This period is divided into two sub-periods: before the death of Giotto di Bondone and after (1337). The most important discoveries, the brightest masters live and work in the first period. The second segment is associated with the plague epidemic that struck Italy. All discoveries were made on an intuitive level. The earliest art of the proto-Renaissance manifested itself in sculpture (Niccolò and Giovanni Pisano, Arnolfo di Cambio, Andrea Pisano). Painting is represented by two art schools: Florence ( Cimabue, Giotto) and Siena ( Duccio, Simone Martini).

Early Renaissance

The period of the so-called “Early Renaissance” covers in Italy the time from 1420 to 00 of the year"1500 HYPERLINK "year%221500%A0year"of the year. During these eighty years, art has not yet completely abandoned the traditions of the recent past, but has tried to mix into them elements borrowed from classical antiquity. Only later, and only little by little, under the influence of increasingly changing conditions of life and culture, do artists completely abandon medieval foundations and boldly use examples of ancient art, both in the general concept of their works and in their details.

While art in Italy was already resolutely following the path of imitation of classical antiquity, in other countries it long adhered to the traditions of the Gothic style. North of Alps, as well as in Spain, The Renaissance comes only at the end of the 15th century, and its early period lasts approximately until the middle of the next century.

High Renaissance

The third period of the Renaissance - the time of the most magnificent development of his style - is usually called the “High Renaissance”. It extends in Italy for approximately 1500 By %% 20year"1527 HYPERLINK "20year%221527%20year"year. At this time, the center of influence of Italian art moved from Florence to Rome, thanks to the accession to the papal throne Julia II- an ambitious, courageous and enterprising man, who attracted the best artists of Italy to his court, occupied them with numerous and important works and gave others an example of love for art. Under this Pope and under his immediate successors, Rome becomes, as it were, new Athens times Pericles: many monumental buildings are built here, magnificent works of sculpture are created, frescoes and paintings are painted, which are still considered the pearls of painting; at the same time, all three branches of art harmoniously go hand in hand, helping one another and mutually influencing each other. Antiquity is now studied more thoroughly, reproduced with greater rigor and consistency; calm and dignity replace the playful beauty that was the aspiration of the previous period; memories of the medieval completely disappear, and a completely classical imprint falls on all creations of art. But imitation of the ancients does not drown out their independence in artists, and they, with great resourcefulness and vividness of imagination, freely rework and apply to their work what they consider appropriate to borrow for themselves from ancient Greco-Roman art.

The work of three great Italian masters marks the pinnacle of the Renaissance, this is Leonardo da Vinci (1452 - 1519), Michelangelo Buonarotti(1475 - 1564) and Rafael Santi (1483 - 1520).

Late Renaissance

The late Renaissance in Italy spans the period from the 1530s to the 1590s to the 1620s. Some researchers also consider the 1630s to be part of the Late Renaissance, but this position is controversial among art critics and historians. The art and culture of this time are so diverse in their manifestations that it is possible to reduce them to one denominator only with a large degree of convention. For example, Encyclopedia Britannica writes that “The Renaissance as an integral historical period ended with % fall of Rome in 1527." Triumphant in Southern Europe Counter-Reformation, which viewed with caution any free thought, including the glorification of the human body and the resurrection of the ideals of antiquity as the cornerstones of Renaissance ideology. Worldview contradictions and a general feeling of crisis resulted in Florence in the “nervous” art of contrived colors and broken lines - mannerism. IN Parma where he worked Correggio, mannerism arrived only after the artist’s death in 1534. In artistic traditions Venice had its own logic of development; until the end of the 1570s. worked there Titian And Palladio, whose work had little in common with the crisis in the art of Florence and Rome.

Northern Renaissance

The Italian Renaissance had virtually no influence on other countries until 1450 d. After 1500 The style spread across the continent, but many late Gothic influences persisted even into the era baroque.

The Renaissance period in the Netherlands, Germany and France is usually identified as a separate style movement, which has some differences with the Renaissance in Italy, and is called "Northern Renaissance". The most noticeable stylistic differences are in painting: unlike Italy, traditions and skills have been preserved in painting for a long time 00108000 Gothic art, less attention was paid to the study of ancient heritage and knowledge of human anatomy.

Outstanding representatives -% Albrecht Durer, Hans Holbein the Younger, Lucas Cranach the Elder, Pieter Bruegel the Elder. Some works of late Gothic masters, such as Jan van Eyck And Hans Memling.

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