Greek cultural. Culture of Ancient Greece: briefly. Features of the culture of Ancient Greece

The ancient Greeks created a unique type of civilization and culture, which became the starting point for the development of Western European society. In the East, under the pressure of civilization, man “turned into the wheel of a huge machine, in which he looked at himself as a speck of dust in front of the infinite. In Greece, he subjugated his institutions... used them to harmoniously develop his whole self; he could... combine in himself many heterogeneous talents so that none of them interfered with the other, be... a thinker and writer, without becoming a bookworm and an armchair recluse... worship his gods, without confining himself to dogmatic formulas, without bending under the tyranny of any superhuman force...” (I. Ten). Natural curiosity and the ability to capture the most subtle relationships and nuances have become the prerequisites for extraordinary creative productivity ancient Greeks.

The uniqueness of the culture and character of an unusually gifted people was not least due to the geographical uniqueness of the Mediterranean. The beautiful, fertile nature and temperate climate contributed to the formation of the ancient Greeks’ desire for balance, the creation of certain and clear images, the cult of measure and harmony. The diversity of the landscape and natural resources, the sea and the coast, convenient for navigation, favored the development of trade and intensive cultural exchange, and the geographical autonomy of individual regions facilitated the formation of the polis system.

The culture of Ancient Greece went through several periods in its development: Crete-Mycenaean, or Aegean (3rd millennium - 12th century BC); royal, or Homeric (XI-VIII centuries BC); archaic (VII-VI centuries BC); classical (V - first third of the 4th century BC), Hellenistic (last two thirds of the 4th-1st centuries BC).

Let's try to highlight the most characteristic features ancient greek culture and civilization as a whole.

General characteristics of ancient Greek culture and civilization

Ancient Greek culture was formed on the basis of a specific civilization that intricately combined freedom and slavery. Slavery was not an ancient invention. However, in its development ancient civilization increasingly moved away from the patriarchal form of slavery, and when it reached a mature form in the classical period, slaves became the main productive force of Greek society. But a free man and a slave in antiquity were not only economic and social subjects. It was among the Greeks that freedom first began to be understood as one of the highest values.

A distinctive feature of the Greek state system was that, despite close cultural and trade contacts, the policies (city-states) had economic and political independence. Economic basis of the ancient city-state was the exchange of agricultural products, many townspeople were land owners. Crafts and shipping also developed intensively. The ancient polis was a political, trade, economic, religious and artistic center. The main cultural buildings were located around the main city square - the agora.

Ancient Greece knew such forms of political government as the power of kings, the supremacy of the aristocracy and tyranny. However, it was democracy that became immortal creature Greek civilization, which determined its originality and to which progressive figures of new European culture later turned their attention. Ancient democracy was the first attempt in history to implement the ideal of equal participation of people in government, regardless of their social and property status. But it was limited in nature, since citizenship was a privilege, albeit quite broad, but still not for all layers of society. Ancient Greek democracy did not interfere with the establishment of the institution of slavery or the colonization of foreign lands, but softened the bonds of slavery.

The Greeks were convinced that man is a political being. “In the eyes of this people, only two activities distinguished a man from cattle and a Greek from a barbarian: interest in public grandfathers and the study of philosophy” (I. Ten). The life of a Greek had a value of 0 meaning, primarily in connection with his service to the polis. Despite the great importance of the personal principle, main value the “community” remained. The policy comprehensively regulated the lives of citizens and at the same time was completely controlled by them. Polis consciousness determined and moral ideals the Greeks, who, being on the rise, most valued such qualities as duty, honor, glory.

The opposition between sensuality and thinking was just emerging in antiquity, and we can talk about the dominance in Ancient Greece of a synthetic worldview, where feelings and reason were in harmonious unity. Such a balance led to the fact that the earthly, sensual things were distanced from revelry and depravity, but at the same time they were not destroyed in the name of purely spiritual ideals. The guarantor of maintaining the desired harmony was the will. The ability to control one's feelings and behavior became an important trait of the Greek character.

However, alongside the desire to subordinate feelings to the will, to order the world, coexisted the desire to go beyond the aesthetically complete structures of existence and achieve the emancipation necessary for the mental and creative restructuring of the personality. This side of ancient Greek culture is associated primarily with the cults of Demeter and Dionysus. The outlined contrasts in the worldview and life leadership of the ancient Greeks were characterized by the German philosopher F. Nietzsche as the Apollonian (rational) and Dionysian (sensual) principles of ancient culture.

Nature has endowed this enterprising people with an inquisitive mind. The Greeks were masters of precise formulation, clear construction, convincing argument, inventors of the art of speech and argument, geniuses of rhetoric and dialectics. They separated the intellectual sphere from both religion and Everyday life. They were interested in knowledge in itself, often regardless of its practical applicability. The Greeks have a special ability to extract maximum heuristic possibilities from reasoning and mental operations with minimal recourse to experience. It is no coincidence that Greek protoscience was theoretical in nature.

The Greeks, like no other people, had the desire to express even the most abstract idea in a visible, tactile image (“eidetic” property). Greek spiritual culture was plastic, bodily in nature, focused on identifying the form of existence of things. This can explain the flowering of ancient Greek plastic arts and stereometry, and the emergence of natural philosophy. The Greeks admired the human body, but it was a cult of a harmonious, healthy body, which was organically combined with the spiritual perfection and volitional activity of the individual citizen. The body is not only volumetric plasticity of muscles, but also proud posture, a majestic gesture. Physical culture, shaping the body, was the most important part of education. Numerous gymnasiums with halls and baths were considered as important public buildings. Admiring the human body inspired the creation of works of art and filled leisure time (sports shows).

Interest in form was clearly evident in ancient Greek art. For example, painters did not depict space itself, but figures in space. In architecture, the external appearance of the temple prevailed over the interior.

The cult of moderation and harmony permeated the entire Greek worldview. The Greeks considered the universe to be a purposeful whole, an internally ordered system that denies chaos. In their view, man fit harmoniously into the picture of the cosmos and was commensurate with nature. This attitude towards the surrounding world gave ancient Greek culture an important point of universal support: creative creative energy was directed towards the knowledge and increase of the harmony of the universe. It is no coincidence that the leading aesthetic categories among the Greeks were beauty, measure, and harmony. Hence - the proportionality of the parts of a work of art, the obligatory presence of a central point, the symmetrical arrangement and consistency of the main parts and additional details, visibility of dimensions, the organic unity of all elements, a sense of style.

The category of measure was important in ethics. According to the principle of the “golden mean” formulated by Aristotle, any behavior that violates the measure is deviant. The philosopher equally condemned cowardice and recklessness, stinginess and extravagance, timidity and shamelessness.

The equality and creative inclinations of the citizens of the policies, constantly fighting for influence, predetermined such a feature of Greek culture as agonism (competitiveness). Athletes competed during sports games, choirs and poets argued for victory, and orators achieved primacy in the art of eloquence. The dispute-competition was practiced in Plato’s philosophical dialogues. In art, one can trace the struggle for the palm of primacy between various schools and individual artists. Agonality contributed to the delimitation of personal opinion and the formation of an individual approach (B. R. Vipper). Greek culture paid much more attention to the individual than Eastern culture.

Listed above typological features ancient Greek culture and civilization were uniquely refracted in different periods its development, to the analysis of which we turn.

The culture of ancient Greece also has a second name - ancient culture. The period of ancient culture includes the beginning of the 18th century BC. and until the middle of the 2nd century BC. The culture of ancient Greece is considered a phenomenon in world culture, which was very original and unique in its own way.

We know a huge number of Greek thinkers who made a huge contribution to the development of such a science as philosophy. For example, the ancient Greek thinker Democritus denied the existence of gods and it is interesting that he was the first to create the ancient Greek calendar.

Everyone also knows the greatest ancient Greek philosopher and thinker - Socrates. He believed that truth is born during disputes, when each person expresses his point of view in a reasoned manner.

Socrates - ancient Greek philosopher

As for the development of architecture, the ancient Greeks paid special attention to the construction of temples. Initially, temples were built from wood, and later they began to be built from stone. They were not very pretentious, but, on the contrary, at first glance they looked like residential buildings, only more attractive.
During the period of antiquity, monumental sculpture actively developed. A huge number of sculptures are known to us today - these are Apollo Belvedere, Venus de Milo, Hermes with the baby Dionysus and many others.

In literature, the ancient Greeks also reached certain heights. Homeric poems, which were based on documentary sources, were especially popular in the literature of antiquity. The poems were written in a distinctly epic genre. There was also a development musical art. The so-called aeds performed various lyrical songs at various celebrations of rulers. And it should be noted that they were extremely popular, since their performance was so gentle and pleasant that it caused enormous pleasure in everyone who attended these events.
The Olympic Games, known throughout the world, were of great importance for all of Greece. The competitions were not only sporting, but also religious in nature. Before taking part in the competition, the participants had to prove to everyone that they had persistently and with great responsibility approached their preparation for the competition. The stadium where the competition took place was very massive and expressive. It was considered a great honor and a great achievement to take part in these competitions. Later, we know that the Olympic Games were banned, and due to natural disasters the buildings were destroyed.

The clothing of the ancient Greeks was unusual in its own way. Most often it was made from sheep wool, and fabrics such as silk and cotton were considered a luxury and not everyone could afford it. An interesting fact is that women in ancient Greece had to be able to weave and spin. Noble people dressed in light colors, while villagers wore clothes in natural colors, particularly green or brown. When working with the soil or cleaning pigsties, they wore leather gloves to protect their hands. Sandals were especially popular among footwear. Men's and women's shoes did not differ much. In general, we can say that the clothing of the ancient Greeks was quite unique, but at the same time very pretty.
It is worth noting that the culture of ancient Greece makes up a huge number of beautiful and unique things that are known to everyone today, and antiquity also made a significant contribution to the development of world culture.

This is exactly what the culture of ancient Greece was like in a nutshell.

Ancient culture of Ancient Greece

Characteristic features of ancient Greek culture

The term “ancient culture” refers to the culture of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome from the XIII-XII centuries. BC and until the IV-V centuries. n. e., associated with the origin, flourishing and decline of the slave system.

Hegel, characterizing Greek culture, noted that among the Greeks we feel at home “because we are in the sphere of the spirit, and if the national origin and the difference in languages ​​can be traced further, in India, then a true rise and a true revival of the spirit follows look first of all in Greece." (Hegel. Works. M.; L., 1935, vol.-8, p. 211). Hegel did not exaggerate the importance of the Greek world for subsequent history. The spiritual impulse with which the ancient Greeks influenced the entire world culture still exerts its influence today.

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For centuries, Greece did not represent a single geographical space. There was no unity in socio-political terms either: it existed within the framework of a special state system - city-policies. The differences between them were significant: in language dialects, their own calendars and coins, gods and heroes. (for example, Sparta and Athens). Despite regional differences, ancient culture allows us to speak of itself as a certain integrity. It appears

it is possible to highlight the following features of ancient Greek culture: - interactive nature (interaction - interaction), since it synthesized the achievements of the cultures of many peoples: Achaean, Cretan-Mycenaean, Egyptian, Phoenician, avoiding blind imitation;

Cosmologism, because Space acted as the absolute of culture. He is not only the World, the Universe, but also decoration, order, the world whole, opposing Chaos. Aesthetic categories were approved - beauty, measure. The measure is one and indivisible, it is a characteristic of perfection. “The beautiful is the proper measure in everything” - Democritus. The nature of Greece itself carries out the measure - there is nothing huge in it, everything is visible and understandable. Therefore, one of the main features of existence is harmony - unity in diversity.

The presence of a canon - a set of rules, determining the ideal proportions of the harmonious human figure. The theorist of proportion is the sculptor Polykleitos (2nd half of the 5th century BC), author of the work “Canon”.

The ideal that a person should strive for is kalokagathia(kalos) - beautiful, (agalhos) - good, kind. The ideal can be achieved through exercise, education and upbringing.

Thus, the cosmologism of Greek culture already presupposed anthropocentrism. The cosmos is constantly correlated with man, as Protagoras wrote about - “Man is the measure of all things.”

Anthropocentric culture suggested the cult of the human body.

Competitiveness characterized various areas life of Greek society - artistic, sports, etc. The first Olympics were held in 776 BC.

In ancient Greece, dialectics originated - the ability to conduct a conversation.

Greek culture is truly festive, outwardly colorful, and spectacular. Typically, holidays were associated with regular processions and competitions in honor of the gods.

Binding (?) the link between ancient eastern civilizations and antiquity was the Cretan-Mycenaean culture (2nd millennium BC). Its high level of development is evidenced by developed writing, technical inventions (plumbing and swimming pools), the presence of astronomical knowledge, and the flourishing of art (frescoes of the royal palaces in Knossos and Phaistos, painted stone vessels, elegant images of women, ceramics). Cretan-Mycenaean art was a wonderful prelude to Greek art. Written sources containing invaluable information about the culture of the Cretan-Mycenaean civilization are the Iliad and the Odyssey.

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Omerian era (X-VIII centuries BC) was characterized by a decline in culture, since in the 11th century. BC e. The Dorians invaded Greece and brought primitive forms of culture - the so-called geometric style of art, similar to Neolithic art. The society of that time was illiterate. Mythological ideas became widespread and served as the basis for the development of ancient science, literature and art.

From the VIII-VI centuries. BC e., period of the emergence of the polis system, quite distinct and integral stylistic features of the Greek archaic took shape. The formation and development of the culture of Greek city-states (city-states) was based on achievements in the development of mining and metallurgy, construction equipment and architecture, ceramic and textile production, and the development of the fleet.

During this era, almost all the main forms of ancient culture and art arose - materialistic and very rational philosophy, classical literature (lyric poetry), fine arts - architecture, sculpture, painting. Archaic culture is the starting point of the classical culture of Hellas.

Social basis of education and the development of ancient culture served the polis - a form of socio-economic and political organization society. The policies included the urban area and the surrounding agricultural settlements.

The policies had different governing bodies, but the supreme body in most policies was the people's assembly. Another feature of the policy was the coincidence of political and military organization. The citizen-owner was at the same time a warrior, ensuring the inviolability of the policy, and therefore his property. In accordance with the basic principles of the policy, a policy system of values ​​was developed: the belief that the policy is the highest good, that the existence of a person outside its framework is impossible, and the well-being of an individual depends on the well-being of the policy.

An indispensable attribute of the policy were theaters, museums, gymnasiums, stadiums, markets, etc. Polis also acted as centers for the formation and development of philosophy, science, literature, art, architecture, etc.

It was in the conditions of polis culture that the individual was born, since polis democracy provided such an opportunity, protecting her rights and freedom.

With the fall of the polis (IV century BC), the decline of Greek culture began, but the dignity of this culture was preserved, the most valuable achievement of which was the individual.

Mythology

Mythology played a major role in the formation of ancient culture. The myths themselves are archaic narratives about the deeds of gods and heroes based on fantastic ideas about the world. At their core, myths contain descriptions of the creation of the world, the origin of people and animals.

Greek mythology developed in the 2nd millennium BC. At this time, the pantheon of gods living on Mount Olympus and subordinate to the power of one god, Zeus, “the father of men and gods,” finally took shape. Each Olympic deity was endowed with certain functions: Athena - the goddess of war, the highest kinds of art, crafts, guardian of cities and countries; Hermes – god of trade; Artemis – goddess of the hunt; Aphrodite – goddess of love and beauty, etc.

The pantheon of gods was reproduced in architectural structures (Temple of Artemis, etc.). Anthropomorphized images of gods became the main form of development of ancient art.

F philosophy. Philosophy occupies a special place in ancient Greek culture. We will not dwell in detail (this is the subject of the history of philosophy), but we will note a number of basic provisions.

Firstly, recognizing the enormous role of ancient Eastern cultures in further development humanity, it is Ancient Greece that should be recognized as the stage of social development at which philosophy is born. The birth of philosophy was accompanied by the disintegration of myth. From him philosophy inherited a holistic worldview perception of the world. But at the same time, in the process of its development, philosophy in
absorbed various previous scientific knowledge and everyday descriptions. As a result, a distinctive feature of philosophy took shape quite clearly - the desire for wisdom, for understanding the world and man’s place in it. It is not wisdom in itself, but the love of wisdom, the desire for it as a constant state of the human spirit.

Secondly, philosophy developed within the city limits as free associations, schools, for example, Milesian school(VI century BC), which laid the foundation for the materialistic direction in philosophy, the Eleatic school (VI-V centuries BC), etc.

A new period in its development began with Socrates (5th century BC), who recognized purely human problems as truly philosophical. The grandiose philosophical systems of Plato and Aristotle included the basic ideological principles, the doctrine of being and non-being, dialectics, the theory of knowledge, aesthetics, logic, the doctrine of the state, etc.

Ancient Greek philosophy was the initial basis for all subsequent development of Western European philosophy.

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Thirdly, it was ancient Greek philosophy that laid the foundation for the formation of a system of concepts and categories, which in their totality have remained to this day the focus of knowledge - developing, enriching in the course of practical and spiritual exploration of the world.

The science

The natural scientific views of the ancient Greeks developed in close interaction with philosophy. Their source is the same mythology, but that is why early Greek science differs in many ways from modern science. These were only the beginnings of one or another group of natural sciences. Greeks in the 6th century BC. They represented the world in the following way: it is closed and united, bounded from above by a heavenly dome, along which they made regular movements. Sun, Moon and other planets. They recorded the rhythm of natural processes, the cycle of day and night, the alternation of phases of the Moon, the change of seasons, etc.

There were 4 substances of nature that were vital for human daily activities: earth, water, fire and air. The harmony of the world and the cosmic order are disrupted by disasters and elements: earthquakes, hurricanes, floods, eclipses, which could not be explained then, and therefore they were characterized as manifestations of certain mystical forces.

Ancient Greek science was united, undivided, not divided into philosophy and natural science, and its individual disciplines. The world as a whole was understood as a single whole, sometimes even likened to a huge animal. Ancient science immortalized itself in the history of spiritual culture with the creation of atomism. The atomic teachings of Leucippus and Democritus served as the ideological and methodological basis for the development of science until the 19th century. Aristotle's Physics was devoted to the study of nature and laid the foundation for physical science.

Biological knowledge also began to develop in Ancient Greece. The initial scientific ideas about the origin of living organisms were developed by Anaxagoras, Empedocles and Democritus. The greatest physician of antiquity was Hippocrates. Aristotle wrote a number of biological treatises.

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at the turn of the 7th-6th centuries. BC e. History arose as an independent genre of literature. Ancient historians described mainly the history of individual cities and localities, i.e. it was a story about what happened in the past. The first historian of the ancient world is considered the “father of history” Herodotus, who, like his follower Thucydides, devoted his works to descriptions of wars. The author of the 40-volume History, Polybius considered the most important task of history to be the search and presentation of the causes of events and phenomena. But in general, history as a science focused on the description of specific, individual historical events.

Literature

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Roman Greek literature is the oldest of European literatures, the origins of which (8th century BC) are the Iliad and the Odyssey, attributed to the blind singer Homer. Literature is another sprout of spiritual culture that grew out of mythology. Ancient literature is full of various stories about the struggle of gods and heroes with evil, injustice, the desire to achieve harmony in life. It gives birth to the idea of ​​the unity of external and internal beauty, physical and spiritual perfection of the individual. Man is mortal, but the glory of heroes is immortal. Lyrics and tragedy appear in ancient Greek literature. The lyrical poets Hesiod, Anacreon, the poetess Sappho are well known. The founder of the classical form of tragedy was Aeschylus, the author of the trilogy "Oresteia", "Prometheus Bound", etc. The tragic poets of Greece Sophocles and Euripides are also known. Euripides in the tragedy "The Petitioner" is expressed through the mouth of the main character Theseus their social views.

IN Architecture and sculpture reached a high level of development, and theater arose. Already in the archaic era, an order system for the construction of temples arose (identifying load-bearing and weighty parts), which were built in honor of the gods - the temple of Apollo and Artemis. This tradition continues in the classical era - the Temple of Zeus, the Acropolis of Athens, etc.

In the 8th century sculpture arose, the main objects and images of which were gods and goddesses, legendary heroes personifying the image of an ideal person. These are the ones produced by Phidias - the statue of Zeus, Polykleitos - the statue of Doryphoros, Myron "Discobolus", etc. But gradually there is a departure from the idealized image of man. This is how the art of Praxiteles arises and his most famous work, Aphrodite of Cnidus, which combines elements of rigor, purity, and lyricism. In the works of Skopas ("The Bacchae"), psychologism and expression deepen.

In the Hellenistic era, the role of aesthetic effect and drama increased (Venus de Milo, Laocoon, etc.)

In general, the significance of ancient Greek art is in the universal content of ideals, harmony of the rational and emotional, logic and feeling, absolute and relative. Priority was given to sublime beauty.

WITH about the second half of the 4th century. BC e. a new period begins in ancient times Greek history and culture - the Hellenistic period.

In a broad sense, the concept of Hellenism means a stage in the history of the countries of the Eastern Mediterranean from the time of the campaigns of Alexander the Great (334-323 BC) until the conquest of these countries by Rome. In 86 BC. e. The Romans conquered Athens in 30 BC. e. - Egypt. 27 BC e. – date of birth of the Roman Empire.

Hellenistic culture was not uniform throughout the Hellenistic world. The cultural life of various centers differed depending on the level of the economy, the development of social relations, and the ratio of ethnic groups. What was common was that classical samples social economy and political development were made by ancient Greek literature, philosophy, science, and architecture. In Hellenistic culture, there was a transition from grandiose philosophical systems (Plato, Aristotle) ​​to individualistic teachings (Epicureanism, Stoicism, skepticism), and a narrowing of social themes in fiction. Hellenistic literature is characterized by complete apolitism or understands politics as the glorification of the monarchy.

Scientific literature associated with the names of Euclid, Archimedes, and Ptolemy has become widespread. Outstanding discoveries were made in the field of astronomy. So, in the 3rd century. BC e. Aristarchus of Samos was the first in the history of science to create a heliocentric system of the world, which he reproduced in the 16th century. N. Copernicus.

In the 3rd century. BC e. literature has developed in new cultural centers, mainly in Alexandria, where there was one of the best libraries - the Alexandrian library. This is the heyday of epigrams, the style of hymns, and the unprecedented universalism of Hellenistic culture.

Thus, Ancient Greece is truly the cradle of European civilization, because almost all the achievements of this civilization can be reduced to the ideas and images of ancient Greek culture. It contained the origins of all subsequent achievements of European culture (philosophy, natural sciences, literature, art). Many branches of modern science grew out of the works of ancient Greek scientists and philosophers.

Z A significant part of scientific terminology, the names of many sciences, most names, numerous proverbs and sayings were born in the ancient Greek language.

The concept of “antiquity” appeared during the Renaissance, when Italian humanists introduced the term “antique” (Latin antiguus - ancient) to define Greco-Roman culture, the oldest known at that time. Without diminishing the importance of other ancient civilizations, it should be recognized that the Hellenistic states and Ancient Rome had a special influence on the history of the peoples of Europe.

In the evolution of the culture of Ancient Greece, five periods are usually distinguished:

1. Aegean period (2800-1100 BC) - Cretan-Mycenaean culture.
2. Homeric period (XI-IX centuries BC) - the collapse of tribal society.
3. The period of archaic culture (VIII-VI centuries BC) - the formation of slave states - policies.
4. The classical period (V-IV centuries BC) - the heyday of policies.
5. The Age of Hellenism (323-146 BC) - the decline of city-states, the Macedonian Empire, Hellenistic states.

Creto-Mycenaean culture

The island of Crete and the city of Mycenae were considered the centers of Crete-Mycenaean culture. All life in Crete was centered around palaces, perceived as a single architectural ensemble. The wonderful Wall art indoors, corridors and porticos. Among the monuments of the crafts and arts of the Cretan civilization that have come down to us are beautiful frescoes, wonderful bronze figurines, weapons and magnificent polychrome (multi-color) ceramics. Religion played an important role in the life of Crete; there was a special form there royal power- a theocracy in which secular and spiritual power belonged to one person.

Heyday Mycenaean(or Achaean) civilization falls on the XV-XIII centuries. BC. As in Crete, the main embodiment of culture is palaces. The most significant of them were found in Mycenae, Tiryns, Pylos, Athens, Iolka.

The Aegean period is most clearly represented by two monuments - the Mycenaean and Knossos palaces. The latter is better known today as the Labyrinth from the myth of Theseus and the Minotaur. After archaeological excavations scientists have confirmed the veracity of this legend. Only the first floor has survived, but there are more than three hundred rooms in it! In addition to palaces, the Cretan-Mycenaean period is famous for the masks of Achaean leaders and Cretan sculptures small form. The figurines found in the palace's hiding places amaze with their filigree.

Thus, the culture of Ancient Greece arose from the symbiosis of the ancient island civilization of Crete and the arriving Achaean and Dorian tribes who settled on the Balkan Peninsula.

At the end of the 13th century. BC. a huge mass of Northern Balkan barbarian tribes, not affected by the Cretan-Mycenaean civilization, rushed south. The leading role in this migration of peoples was played by the Greek tribe of the Dorians. They had a great advantage over the Achaeans - iron weapons were more effective than bronze. It was with the arrival of the Dorians in the XII-XI centuries. BC. The Iron Age begins in Greece, and it was at this time that the Cretan-Mycenaean civilization ceased to exist.

Homeric culture

The next period of Greek history is usually called Homeric, named after the great Homer. His beautiful poems “Iliad” and “Odyssey”, created in the 8th century. BC. -the most important source of information about this time. During this period, there is a kind of accumulation of strength before a new rapid rise. A radical renewal was of great importance technical base- widespread use of iron and its introduction into production. It prepared the way historical development, having entered into which, the Greeks were able to reach heights of cultural and social progress unprecedented in the history of mankind over the course of 3-4 centuries, leaving far behind their neighbors both in the East and in the West.

Archaic period culture

The archaic period of Greek history covers the VIII-VI centuries. BC. At this time, the Great Colonization took place - the development by the Greeks of the coasts of the Mediterranean, Black and Marmara Seas. As a result Greek world emerged from the state of isolation in which he found himself after the collapse of the Cretan-Mycenaean culture. The Greeks learned a lot from other peoples: from the Lydians - coinage, from the Phoenicians - alphabetic writing, which they improved. The development of science and art was also influenced by the achievements Ancient Babylon and Egypt. These and other elements of foreign cultures organically entered Greek culture.

In the VIII-VI centuries. BC e. in Greece, socio-economic and political development reached a level that gave ancient society a special specificity in comparison with other civilizations of antiquity. These phenomena include: classical slavery, the system of monetary circulation and market, policy the basic form of political organization, the ideas of popular sovereignty and the democratic form of government. The largest policies are Athens, Sparta, Corinth, Argos, Thebes. Important centers of economic, political, cultural relations between policies become panhellenic sanctuaries, the emergence of which was facilitated by the creation of a single pantheon of gods as a result of the merger of local cults.

An important component of spiritual life was mythology, extremely rich and fascinating. For more than two thousand years it has remained a source of inspiration for many poets and artists. The work of Hesiod (VIII-VII centuries BC), who wrote the poems “Theogony” (about the origin of the gods) and “Works and Days,” is remarkable. The Theogony attempts to systematize not only the genealogy of the gods, but also the history of the origin of the world.

In the archaic era the first philosophical system antiquity - natural philosophy. Its representatives (Thales, Anaximenes, Anaximander) tried to comprehend nature and its laws, to identify the fundamental principle of all things, while they perceived the world as a single material whole. Pythagoras (VI century BC) and his followers followed the same line of research into the root cause of the world; they considered numbers and numerical relations to be the basis of all things, and made a significant contribution to the development of mathematics, astronomy and music theory.

In the VIII-VI centuries. BC. emerges Greek historiography. The emergence also dates back to this time.

Despite the fact that the archaic period Greece did not represent a single country, regular trade relations between individual policies led to the formation of ethnic identity - the Greeks gradually began to understand themselves united people, different from others. One of the manifestations of such self-awareness was the famous Olympic Games (the first - in 776 BC), to which only Hellenes were allowed.

Culture of the classical period

The classical period of the history of Ancient Greece lasted from the turn of the VI-V centuries. BC e. to 339 BC This is the heyday of the polis organization of society. Freedom in all areas public life- a special pride of the citizens of the Greek polis. Athens became the center of Greek culture. In just one century (5th century BC), the Athenian state gave humanity such names as Socrates and Plato, Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides and Aristophanes, Phidias and Thucydides, Themistocles, Pericles, Xenophon.

The external manifestation of the internal freedom of the Greeks is their democracy. The formation of Greek democracy begins with the “military democracy” of Homeric times, then the reforms of Solon and Cleisthenes (6th century BC), and, finally, its development in the “golden age” of Pericles (reign 490-429). BC.). Citizens of the polis, imitating nature and the gods, served by slaves, fully enjoyed the benefits of life in well-maintained, in their opinion, small states, feeling truly independent and powerful. A polis system of values ​​was developed: a firm belief that the polis is the highest good, that human existence outside its framework is impossible, and the well-being of an individual depends on the well-being of the polis. His values ​​included recognition of the superiority of agricultural labor over all other activities (the only exception was Sparta) and condemnation of the desire for profit.

special distinctive feature from other civilizations is ancient anthropocentrism. It was in Athens that the philosopher Protagoras of Abdera (c. 490 - c. 420 BC) proclaimed the famous saying “man is the measure of all things.” For the Greeks, man is the personification of all that exists, the prototype of everything created and being created; it became not only the predominant, but almost the only topic classical art. This feeling of the Greeks was reflected in the art of the archaic and classical periods, which knows no examples of not only spiritual, but also physical suffering. Myron, Polykleitos, Phidias - greatest sculptors of this time - they depicted gods and heroes. Their “Olympic” calm, majesty, state of mind, devoid of doubts and worries, express the perfection that a person, if he has not achieved, can and should achieve.

Only in the 4th century. BC. — late classic,- when the Greeks discovered new facets in life beyond their control, human experiences, passions, and impulses gradually began to take the place of greatness. These processes are manifested both in sculpture and in literature. Tragedies Aeschylus(late archaic) express the ideas (ideal obligation) of human feat, patriotic duty in general. Sophocles(classics) already glorifies man, and he himself says that he portrays people as they should be. Euripides(late classics) strives to show people as they really are, with all their weaknesses and vices.

In the 5th century BC. Greek industry is actively developing historiography. The ancients called him “the father of history” Herodotus(454-430 BC). He wrote a complete, beautifully presented work - “History”, based on the plots of the Greco-Persian wars.

The main task of art of the 5th century. BC. its basis is a true depiction of a person, strong, energetic, full of dignity and balance mental strength- winner in the Persian wars, free citizen of the polis. At this time, realistic sculpture in marble and bronze reached its peak. Great work Fidia(“Athena the Warrior”, “Athena-Parthenos” for the Parthenon in Athens, “Zeus” for the temple in Olympia), Mirona("Discus thrower"), Polykleitos(statue of Hera, made of gold and ivory, “Doriphoros”, “Wounded Amazon”).

Harmony, proportionality, classical proportions - this is what fascinates us in ancient art and determined the European canons of beauty and perfection for centuries. The senses of order and measure were the most important for antiquity: evil was understood as immensity, and good as moderation. “Observe moderation in everything!” taught by the ancient Greek poet Hesiod. “Nothing too much!” - read the inscription above the entrance to the sanctuary of Apollo at Delphi.

Hellenistic culture

In the last decades of the 4th century. BC. the end of the classical culture of ancient Hellas came. This began with the Eastern Campaign of Alexander the Great (356-323 BC) and the massive colonization flow of Hellenes into the newly conquered lands. This led to the destruction of polis democracy. As a result, a new stage in the development of material and spiritual culture, forms of political organization and social relations peoples of the Mediterranean, Western Asia and adjacent areas. The spread and influence of the Hellenistic civilization was extremely wide: Western and Eastern Europe, Western and Central Asia, North Africa. Has arrived Hellenistic era- synthesis of Hellenic and Eastern cultures. Thanks to this synthesis, a common cultural language emerged, which laid the foundation for the entire subsequent history of European culture.

The culture of the Hellenistic civilization combined local stable traditions with the traditions of culture introduced by conquerors and settlers, Greeks and non-Greeks.

These changes determined the need for the Hellenes to understand their inner world. To meet this need, new philosophical movements: Cynics, Epicureanism, Stoicism (philosophy in Greece was always considered not so much a subject of study, but a guide to life). The main question was: where do evil and injustice come from in the world and how to live in order to maintain at least moral, internal independence and freedom?

Even a cursory listing of the achievements of Hellenistic culture shows its enduring significance in the history of mankind. Hellenism enriched world civilization with new discoveries in the field scientific knowledge and invention. It is enough to name in this regard the names Euclid(III century BC) and Archimedes(c. 287-212 BC)

Within the framework of philosophy, social utopias were born and developed, describing an ideal social structure.

The treasury of world art has been replenished with such masterpieces as the altar of Zeus in Pergamum, the statues of Venus de Milo and Nike of Samothrace, sculptural group Laocoon. A new type of public building appeared: a library, a museum, which served as a center for work and the application of scientific knowledge. These and other cultural achievements, later inherited by the Byzantine Empire and the Arabs, entered the golden fund of universal human culture.

The dignity of Greek culture in that she discovered the human citizen, proclaiming the supremacy of his reason and freedom, the ideals of democracy and humanism. History knows of no more outstanding discoveries, for there is nothing more valuable to a person than the person himself.

It took a long period of formation before it was able to reach its full flowering, thanks to which its legacy is felt even today. Development began from the Aegean civilization, went through a turbulent stage classical period, after which the clear influence of Rome and neighboring countries began to be felt. Significant changes took place during Ottoman rule; the culture acquired its modern form during the Greek War of Independence at the beginning of the 19th century.

Greek culture establishes the supremacy of man over nature, which is expressed in architecture, literature, poetry and other areas of life. It is impossible to consider Greek philosophy separately without the listed components - they have had and continue to influence the life of modern man.

Fundamental principles of ancient Greek culture

In general, Greek and Hellenistic culture is based on the observance of four basic principles. The first one is Active participation and the interest of the majority of citizens of the policy in the political structure and principles of governing the country. The emergence and active development of democracy laid the foundations for equality between people and the supremacy of morality.

The second principle is that all culture and art are intended solely to glorify the achievements of man and compare him with the gods.

The third principle is to constantly emphasize the importance of human aspirations through expression through the prism of literature, drama and comedy. The daily actions of people are placed on the same level as the work of the gods, and the gods, in turn, are depicted with the same characteristics and shortcomings as ordinary citizens of the country.

The fourth principle is the comparison of all phenomena with the picture of the surrounding world. Due to some naivety of their views, the ancient Greeks prescribed everything incomprehensible and unknown in nature to the actions of the gods, their disputes, civil strife and love relationships.

The combination of these factors led to the emergence of a unique culture, the center of whose philosophy was a person with all his shortcomings and weaknesses. The harmonious development of the human body, soul and mind are the main components of real happiness from the point of view of ancient philosophers. This idea had a constant and strong influence on all spheres of life - literature, architecture, theater, sports, science. Even today one can clearly feel the hand of antiquity on the pulse of events.

Influence on European culture

Greece, as a country that became a leader in the scientific, intellectual and philosophical development of the continent, had a significant influence not only on its own metropolises, but also on rather distant states.

The architectural style, which was characteristic of Hellas, found its continuation in the Roman and Byzantine Empires. Under the impression of ancient masters, monuments and monuments of Renaissance architecture were created. Renaissance and Baroque grew from the cradle of Ancient Greece, architectural elements which personified the majesty of man and made him equal before the gods. Throughout the Dark Middle Ages, Catholic Church fiercely fought against the slightest manifestations of such freedom and dissent. One cannot help but admire the courage of the people who at that time allowed themselves to put man and God on the same level.

It is difficult to overestimate or not notice the imprint of antiquity in literary works European masters - poets, writers, playwrights.

It is impossible to imagine modern Europe without another Greek invention - democracy. Although in its current manifestation it differs significantly from the political structure of antiquity, the basic principles remain the same - equality of people before power, the possibility of collective government and complete transparency of political decisions.

Politics is something to which the respected residents of the ancient Greek city-states devoted themselves completely. They not only lived it, but also introduced their own changes, which contributed to the rapid spread of reforms.

Ancient Greek economy: reflection in modern times

The ancient Hellenes were distinguished not only by high moral values, but also by financial efficiency. Their system of government administration, the distribution of income and expenses is difficult to comprehend, especially considering that the level of development of mathematics and economics was then at a low level. initial stage. The correct tax policy made it possible not only to keep a single policy in a prosperous state, but also to invest huge amounts of money in construction, cultural development, and the opening of libraries, theaters and other institutions to educate their own citizens. Not last role The army also played, because the policies were in a state of permanent war with their neighbors, which often exhausted the resources of the state.

In relations between Greek policies, a clear model of labor distribution was observed - this contributed to a more efficient use of human resources, and brought trade relations to a qualitatively new level. Something similar, only on an enlarged scale, is now observed in European countries.

Antiquity was the period during which the formation of tribal unions took place, which soon became the basis for the creation of separate European nations. While Latin language in a modified form spread throughout Western Europe Having turned into English, French, Italian and other well-known scripts, the Greek language formed the basis of the alphabets of the Slavic group.

Greek culture, philosophy, politics, economics did not dissolve into oblivion over time, as often happened with the heritage of more early cultures. The influence of Hellas is still felt even after more than two millennia, once again proving that the ancient Greeks were significantly ahead of their time.

Greek snacks (part two)

So, let's continue our guide to salads. In addition to salads made from fresh vegetables and cheese, Greeks are very fond of pasta salads, which go well with main dishes. Sometimes they are simply spread on bread or dipped into pieces of food. Even in many large supermarkets located in other countries, you can find Tzatziki salad. It is a mixture of yogurt, grated cucumbers, herbs and garlic. The yogurt must have a special consistency. This yogurt is called “Strangisto” in Greece. In each region of Hellas, Tzatziki is prepared differently, and you can enjoy the unique taste of this pasta salad.

Aigi is the capital of ancient Macedonia. Archaeological sites in Greece

The most popular souvenirs from Greece

From every trip to a new place, any person always wants to bring some souvenirs for family and friends. The easiest way, of course, is to get rid of it with refrigerator magnets, which large quantities and a wide range are sold in all corners of the world, but in our article we will look at more significant souvenirs. And we will go after them to sunny Greece.

Mount Olympus in Greece. Where the destinies of people and the gods themselves were decided!

Pella - Macedonian capital

Not in the sources exact date transfer of the capital of Ancient Macedonia from Aig to Pella, as well as there is no name of the one who did it. However, most likely this happened in the 5th century. BC e. during the reign of King Archelaus. The name of the new Macedonian capital is traditionally traced to the word πέλλα (Ancient Macedonian “stone”).