Literary genres. Their classification. Memory of the genre. Topic: What is the music genre about? “Memory of the genre What does the expression memory of the genre mean?

In days of doubt, in days of painful thoughts about a not very successful theater season, about the crisis “ new wave”, about the sacred and the profane in the theater, you inevitably have to change “optics” and “twist” a professional lens in order to see something meaningful. So we came to the need to understand the nature of the genre modern theater. The lack of genre of modern performance is obvious, but not understood by theater scholars. Is there a genre at all? What is a stage genre in its relation to the classical genre? How do classical genres relate to the author's theater and the developed artistic consciousness of the creator? Or is the creator undeveloped and his genre memory is asleep? Doesn't the viewer dictate the genre?

In order to “stretch out” the problem in the most general terms, and then look at the performances through the prism of the genre, we once gathered in the editorial office. We are Doctor of Philosophy Lev Zaks (on behalf of aesthetics), candidate of art criticism Nikolai Pesochinsky (on behalf of theater studies and theater history), Marina Dmitrevskaya, Olga Skorochkina and Elena Tretyakova (all candidates of art criticism, from the editorial board of "PTZ" and on behalf of theater criticism ) and Maria Smirnova-Nevsvitskaya (from humanitarian thought in general). If you, dear readers and colleagues, think that we have come to any conclusions, you are mistaken. Our conversation is only an approach to a topic that, nevertheless, seems important to us.

Lev Zaks. I see our task as trying to comprehend the genre situation in modern theatrical art. For several centuries (and the peak here, of course, was the 17th century, although this also applies to the 18th and, to a lesser extent, the 19th century), the genre was perceived as the supporting structure of both artistic consciousness and artistic practice: not to mention the strict genre system of the French theater of the era of classicism, We can also recall Diderot, who significantly expanded this system by developing the theory of bourgeois drama.

But if we take the genre practice of the twentieth century, the picture turns out to be completely different. And what is interesting here is the deep discrepancy between theory and practice.

Theorists have come to realize the fundamental role of the genre (here one can recall researchers of historical poetics and name many, from Academician Veselovsky to Bakhtin). M.M. Bakhtin wonderfully formulated the theory of genre as an integral type of artistic expression that has its own original, genetic content and (which is very interesting) has memory. That is, according to Bakhtin, there is a tradition and the genre remembers this tradition regardless of the artist. He showed that regardless of whether the artist wants it or not, there is an objective memory of the genre. When the artist turns to specific material on the basis of a certain modernity, this memory is triggered and today’s creativity turns out to be an expression of some layers of old experience. Bakhtin asserted this in his younger years - in a book published under the name of P.N. Medvedev on the formal method in literary criticism, and in his mature works on Rabelais and Dostoevsky, and in later notes. And one more of Bakhtin’s key ideas, which rhymes with the interests of the humanities of the twentieth century, is an interest in the archaic. Any developed, established genre has archaic origins.

While theory realized the importance of genres, exactly the opposite began to happen in artistic practice. This was also due to the peculiarities of twentieth-century realism, modernism, and, of course, postmodernism. There is a blurring of genre consciousness, the strictness of the boundaries between genres, their clear, fixed and to some extent canonized contours are lost, the differentiation of genres is replaced by active mutual influence, merging - and the peak becomes the formation of genre symbioses, “mixes”: tragicomedy, tragic farce, etc. .d. But precisely because everything is mixed up, according to my observations, the genre component is absent in the minds of practitioners today; they work as if bypassing the genre, it is unimportant for them. And it may seem: if today everything is mixed up and all genres are equal and all are compatible, then the genre is unimportant and there is no genre problem. It is impossible to agree with this, even when “mixed marriages” flourish in the art world. After all, when a child is born from a mixed marriage in life, this does not mean that he is neither Russian nor Jewish. He carries genetic traits of both.

The same thing happens in art. Mixing and influencing each other, these genres retain their original content base, and if for some reason a genre falls out of artistic practice or moves to the periphery, then this means that something happens to its original semantics. Today traditional genre system is enriched with many new genres, genres from other types of art come to the theater that were not previously in theatrical practice, and on the other hand, life itself, its genres create new genre variants of theatrical art. "Mass" genres - thriller, detective, fantasy. What is O. Menshikov’s “Kitchen”? Of course, this is a “mix”, which, without hiding, is based on mass cult fantasy.

Separately, we need to talk about the vital feeding of new genres, which occurs due to the inclusion in old genres of new forms of communication, communications, language, new spaces, when old genre it seems to retain its features, but becomes completely different. Because a genre is a way of seeing and understanding the world in a certain way, it is a view of reality crystallized in the centuries-old practice of art.

Marina Dmitrevskaya. You said that the genre remembers its past. Now say that the artist’s consciousness is genre-based. If the genre remembers itself, then the artist’s consciousness has nothing to do with it... Who remembers what?

L.Z. Now I am emphasizing the objective logic of the genre, but this logic lives in the minds of artists. If an artist undertakes, say, to stage a tragedy, then by doing so he falls into the field of action of forces that are concentrated in the genre of tragedy. If he undertakes to stage a comedy, he works with a certain worldview captured in this genre. If you walk on two legs, this is one gait system; if you walk on four legs, it is another. I am a traditionalist, and it is the topic of memory of genres that worries me. And, in this regard, how, along with the enrichment of modern theater, important, traditional, meaningful genres are being pushed to the periphery. Devaluation of the genre. And here my favorite example is tragedy. What do we see today?

Elena Tretyakova. We see how there is no place for her in a tragic world...

L.Z. There are no modern tragedies, but when they take on the classic ones - ancient, Shakespearean (and here for me an example is the remarkably interesting, emotionally touching performance of N. Kolyada's play "Romeo and Juliet", about which "PTZ" wrote in No. 24 and 26) - the fundamental features of the genre are eliminated: the ideological scale of tragedy, depth, penetration into the tragic patterns of life, the theater loses the ability to see a personality who opposes the tragedy of the world, and so on. After all, what made ancient, Shakespearean, Racine tragedy a tragedy? A person who is part of a tragic conflict and catastrophe, but, on the other hand, rises to take the whole weight of the world on his shoulders and assert himself - even at the cost of death, etc.

M.D. But tragedy has been absent from the theater for a very long time; for the 20th century it is a deeply peripheral genre!

L.Z. Okhlopkov tried, for example, to instill it in the Soviet theater...

M.D. And he didn’t.

L.Z. Now look. We live (objectively) in a tragic era. One world is being replaced by another. Personality is lost, value systems are collapsing, irreparable losses, forks in the road... Life has everything that makes up the ideological and emotional meaning of tragedy, but art, which seemed to be supposed to capture it all, moves away from it. And the main genre today is bourgeois drama. But the bourgeois drama is not in the “Diderot” high sense, but in the most vulgar, “post-Gorky” sense. Melodrama, everyday comedy, and anecdote dominate. That is private life in its private, self-sufficient sense, it has filled everything, and the tragic scale of reality fades into the background.

E.T. Perhaps this is due to the fact that the concept of death has been devalued. Death is not recognized as an existential category. When in American cinema they kill every minute and no one feels anything, and when on September 11 we all sat and saw the deaths of thousands of people on TV, but it felt like we were watching a movie. Culture and life have vaccinated us against the tragedy genre.

M.D. In the 17th century, they did not see death on television from morning to night...

L.Z. The 17th century is the century of the bloodiest and longest wars. Hundred Years' War!

M.D. But this was not alienated by mass culture and video footage.

L.Z. Man lived in a small world and thought about the universe (the storm in King Lear). And we live in a huge world, but we experience a small space.

Maria Smirnova-Nesvitskaya. I don’t know whether the media or the extreme narrowness of the world is to blame, but it seems to me that the tragic reality that surrounds a person from all sides directs him to deny the tragedy. He doesn't want her. The children read “Vanka Zhukov” and laugh, the teacher is amazed - why, they always cried? But they don’t want to worry, they’ve seen enough of this house. A person craves a psychotherapeutic effect.

M.D. It is clear that the theater is becoming a place of emigration. But it’s important: when you left tragedy and drama, where did you end up?

L.Z. The genre of the era is melodrama.

M.D. Maybe a small space is salvation for a private person in the huge world he is aware of, and therefore he chooses melodrama and soap opera that are commensurate with himself? He is afraid of infinity, he needs foreseeable limits where he feels complete.

M.S.-N. But it seems to me that they have arrived at the genre of “complicity” (television helped with this). A person longs to participate, but in something comfortable.

L.Z. But the soap opera is the direct descendant of melodrama. Loss of memory and mother followed by acquisition of mother and memory. Losing a grandmother and then finding a grandmother...

M.D. In melodrama, I have to cry and believe something. Melodrama is a reduced tragedy. And here is a simulation of the genre. Or imitation.

Olga Skorochkina. Humanity in the twentieth century was tired of cultural tragedy. But tragedy as a genre never gets tired?

L.Z. The consciousness gets tired, and the genre goes into cultural lethargy, waiting in the wings. Sooner or later, it will arise again.

Nikolai Pesochinsky. There is no tragedy in the 20th century, because there is no “classical” integrity of worldview; a person loses the traditional hierarchy of values. “God is dead,” according to Nietzsche, and in art, indeed, there is no vertical line on which the mentality of tragedy is built.

L.Z. Tragedy has always arisen from fractures in consciousness. An integral consciousness did not give birth to it. In this sense, presumably, the consciousness of the twentieth century should have generated tragedy and did generate it. Take Sartre or the theater of the absurd.

N.P. All absurdism is tragic, but at the same time it does not live in the structure of a complete tragedy. This is precisely the tragedy of an incomplete consciousness. But I have a more radical idea. When the history of director's theater began at the beginning of the twentieth century (not the interpretation of plays by actors, but the performance constructed as a whole), it became difficult to designate program performances as genres. Which genre should we include? The Cherry Orchard» Stanislavsky (hence the scandals with Chekhov)? And Meyerhold’s “Balaganchik”? Yes, in literary criticism Blok’s drama is called “lyrical”. But what does this explain about the genre of Meyerhold's performance and its structure? Maeterlinck's "The Death of Tentagille" is designated as a "Puppet Theater Play", but this is not a genre. And Meyerhold's The Inspector General? Vakhtangov's performances? And Tairov’s “Phaedra” is not a tragedy in its purest form.

E.T. What about Shakespearean performances of the 1930s? What about “Optimistic Tragedy”?

N.P. And there, of course, the laws of “classical” genres are violated. No landmark performances for the theater are subject to genre designations.

M.D. In addition to the actual dramatic ones. “Woe from Wit” by Tovstonogov had a genre.

N.P. Yes, Tovstonogov is a genre director, this is an exception. But Efros is not.

M.D. He's absolutely dramatic. Both “Marriage” and “Don Juan” (originally both comedies), and the tragedy “Romeo and Juliet” became dramas.

N.P. In general, I am beginning to doubt that when we talk about the art of theater, we can talk about the same genres that we mean in drama. Brecht's epic theater or Strehler's Campiello - do they have a genre? There is a problem of interaction between creative method and genre. And it turns out that the method that determines the stage structure suppresses the genre as a structure. We were taught that tragedy is built on one type of conflict, and comedy on another (the conflict of comic incongruity), and drama on the resolution of the conflict. But in different theater systems this is suppressed, and what is called the same genre turns out to be completely different. Different directors have different systems for performances in the same genre. The method of associative editing, for example, will determine here more than the genre. Second. Film scholars have long clearly divided cinema into auteur and genre. Auteur cinema is a statement that does not obey the genre structure and affects the viewer in a different way. And genre cinema is one that adheres to a rigid structure and knows by what mechanism it influences typical general processes in the unconscious perception of the public. Then psychoanalysts got involved and, within the framework of genre cinema, established the nature of each genre, for example, the difference between an action film and a thriller. In an action film, there is a hero who wins; this is a fairy tale where, by identifying ourselves with the hero and “trying to help him,” we achieve success and overcome the complexes of everyday life. In a thriller, the hero is a victim, we identify ourselves with him and, dodging all dangers, we try to save ourselves from our own deep-seated irrational fears. Melodrama compensates for the lack of a life poor in emotions. Maybe this can also be applied to theater, which is divided into author and genre? Entreprise theater is clearly genre-based. There are also directors whose thinking does not violate traditional genre boundaries. V. Pazi, no matter what he stages, stages melodrama (even when he stages “Taibele and Her Demon,” a play with various other psychological, mystical, comic motives).

M.D. But there is Nyakrosius with his tragedies. I just like the idea that the artist’s consciousness is genre-based. No matter what Nyakroshyus stages - “Pirosmani” or “Macbeth” - he stages a tragedy, with him everything is always unsolvable. And whatever Sturua directs will be a tragicomedy.

O.S. Film experts won't help us here. Nyakrosius is such a combination of author’s theater and memory of tragedy!

N.P. It would be good to understand what we generally call a stage genre. Here we should talk about the laws of stage structure, about the specific typology of theatrical action. This may be a completely different system of genres, compared not only to cinema, but also to drama as a form of literature.

L.Z. Regardless of whether a large symphony orchestra is playing or a small one, vocal elements are introduced, not inherent to the genre initially, or not, whether the choir is involved or not, the symphony will remain a symphony. Does the theater retain its essence?

N.P. Let’s take absolutely all the performances of our “new wave”. In A. Galibin’s play “La Funf in der Luft” there was tragic, comic, and absurdity, but the genre cannot be defined. The same with his “City Romance”. How to determine the genre of A. Proudin’s “The Late Demon”? Tumanov’s “Moon Wolves” had elements of the tragic (as an aesthetic category), but it was not a tragedy in the sense of the genre. We either have to abandon the concept altogether or understand what we mean by genre. We do not have a theory of the genre of the performance. By the way, isn’t the same destruction of the category of genre happening in other arts? We talked about cinema. And in painting? Modern painting does not know portraits, landscapes, still lifes...

M.S.-N. Yes, and the very classification of genres in different types of art today looks incorrect - indeed, in fine arts the genre is usually defined by the subject of the image: landscape, portrait, still life, which leaves behind the scenes the largest and most significant layer of art of the late 19th and entire 20th centuries - impressionism, abstract art, suprematism, non-figurative art, etc. If we take the history of art of the 20th century, we will see: it is precisely with the rigidity of the genre structure that absurdism, abstractionism, etc. that arose and exists outside of genres, does not “grow together.” The dramaturgy of the absurd, Andre Gide, who writes the first novel about how he writes a novel. Bataille, who says that there is no literature, but only writing, a process. And - “Black Square” by Malevich, where perception is semantically transferred to the space between the viewer and the work. What is the genre of "Black Square"? What a person sees is what he gets. An appeal to the consciousness of the perceiver, to the viewer, to the reader. And it seems to me that, following painting, literature, and in the theater, the concept of genre today is being taken into the space between the viewer and the work. The move away from the frozen structure of genre classification, it seems to me, has been accomplished long ago and firmly. Genre classification can only be revived after the death and rebirth of our civilization.

L.Z. But the traditional understanding of the genre rests on two pillars: on the one hand, it is a certain view of the world, but also a certain way of communication of this form with the perceiver.

M.D. The traditional understanding of the genre is generally a complex issue for me. How can a modern person deal with an ancient tragedy today, whose concept of “fate” is completely different from the Greek understanding of “fate”? Angry Greek gods they do not give a person a choice, determining his fate (Oedipus tried to choose, and we remember how the matter ended). A man of modern times understands that every time God gives him moral choice and, depending on this choice, on the action, whether or not it gives you the strength to carry your cross further. The absence of choice or its central importance gives absolutely different meaning tragic.

M.S.-N. But today there is a fork in the road: one thing is being laid, the cultural layer is doing another, the performance is saturated with context...

M.D. And there is also an actor’s sense of the genre. Whatever Oleg Borisov played, he played a tragic fault.

O.S. And no matter what O. Yakovleva played for Efros, it was a tragedy.

M.D. Man is a genre. No matter how G. Kozlov is a publican, he will not have a purely tragic or purely comedic perception of the world. Its genre is drama. I like the idea of ​​the genre consciousness of the artist, but I cannot define the genre of Galibin, Proudin or Klim.

O.S. Method replaces genre.

L.Z. The category of method does not currently cover anything. It's better to talk about worldview. In general, theater as a way of interaction between the stage and the hall grows out of the pre-artistic way of human communication. There are three forms of human communication, to which correspond three types of theater. There is official role-playing communication, according to certain rules - this is a ritual theater that works with basic, systemic values, and the viewer here is also included in the action, and not as an individual. There has always been very little of this in the Russian theater, but we can find elements in the art of Tairov and Koonen, and now just such a turn is happening with A. Vasiliev. The second type is playful communication, which corresponds to performance theater. You are offered a field in which you play. And the third is interpersonal communication, and the theater most beloved by Russian people is like this, that is, of course, the theater of experience.

N.P. This all has to do with the problems of artistic method. Moreover, the ritual and the game were not separated from the very beginning. And Vasiliev has both a metaphysical and playful nature. And here it is interesting that the origins of theater do not have a genre; theater is initially syncretic. Art begins without genre. On the other hand, genre is a communicative category. Here we are watching the “Orchestra” of the Small Drama Theater, and if we don’t know what guignol, farce, profanation, etc. are, if I don’t master this genre language, it will seem to me that I’m seeing blasphemous nonsense. There is a truth to the genre that really comes from the viewer.

M.D. What should the ancient viewer have known? Tragedy and comedy. And how many genres have grown over the twentieth century! At the same time, as N. Pesochinsky once correctly said, the genre memory of our directors (especially the audience) extends no further than Akdrama performances of the 30s. Their aesthetic memory for genres is minimal. It seems to me that our directors can extract the dramatic from the comic, and the comic from the dramatic, but they do not extract the comic from the tragic, and the tragic from the comic. That is, they do not work with poles. The swing does not swing widely.

L.Z. There is a term "tragedy". When everything is like a tragedy, but there is no catharsis and so on...

M.S.-N. Humanity has already lost knowledge several times throughout its existence. Several times we lost the theory of the golden ratio, then discovered it again and found it. Today the secret of tea spouts and the tragedy genre has been lost.

Now we can talk about the return of cultural syncretism, about the disappearance and even absence of boundaries not only between tragedy and comedy, but even between art and non-art. Many things now, according to critics, lie outside the boundaries of culture. And yet they are consumed by the majority of humanity precisely as products of culture and art. And one more thing - the logic of our conversation raises another related problem for discussion - the problem of “taste”, the problem of evaluation.

M.D. As the play “Arcadia” says, “we drop and pick up at the same time. Whatever we don’t pick up, those who follow us will pick up.”

IN In the modern post-structuralist, deconstructivist theoretical context, reliance on the category of “artistic world” seems especially relevant. On the one hand, this term is associated with the domestic tradition of understanding artistic meaning as holistic and present. On the other side, "art world" involves considering all the author’s works as a “single text”, which is associated with the ideas of the so-called “cross-genre” (Yu.M. Lotman, V.N. Toporov). With this approach, all the author’s works are considered as an integral, single, probabilistic text. Fragments, unfinished works, versions and variants are perceived in their unity. Unfinished, unfulfilled things are included in the same category as published works. In this case, the last point set by the author and the subsequent publication of the text are not final and can be passed in forward and backward directions, which echoes the systemic principles proposed by I. Prigogine.

Significant deviations, undoubtedly inherent in different texts, do not remove the single principle of their generation - the energy of semantic coherence that unites dissimilar works into a “single text” - a “statement” included in a certain semantic sphere.

The study of the artistic world does not fit into the accepted formal framework. In such studies, genre definitions are used not in genre-restrictive terms, but in genre-restrictive terms.

ART WORLD

Rovo-connective sense, as parts of a single text. Moreover, the “text” appears here “as a kind of monad, reflecting in itself all the texts (within the limit) of a given semantic sphere” 1 . Of great importance is also the analysis of the generation and development of the “artistic world”, which goes back to generative poetics. Let us note that it is most convenient to consider the “generation” of the entire series of texts by a particular author at this “cross-genre” level. Obviously, important aspects of the concept of “artistic world” are associated with the description of the author’s “individual mythology”, which appears in in this case like a Najan phenomenon. At the same time, traditional literary genres also have their own “artistic world”. Collisionindividual mythology the author with a collective genre mythology and constitutes the “artistic world” of a particular work.

In the “literature” system, the category “artistic world” is associated primarily with the relationship between the author and all texts of a given author (including variants of texts). The moment of naming, the generation of the text, seems fundamentally important. However, the concept of “artistic world” also includes the aspect of completeness, formalization of the artistic whole.

1 Bakhtin M.M. Aesthetics of verbal creativity. - M., 1986. P. 299."

2 Losev A.F. Problem artistic style/ Comp. A.A. Tahoe-Godi. -
Kyiv, 1994. P. 226. From the standpoint of philosophical aesthetics, M. Bakhtin in the 20s
formulates his understanding of the terms “aesthetic world” and “artistic
ny world”, which subsequently influenced Russian philology. Through
the motive of his scientific creativity was the idea of ​​the author as “...the bearer
intensely active unity of a completed whole...” See: Bakhtin M.M.
Aesthetics of verbal creativity / Comp. S.G. Bocharov. - M., 1979. P. 16. Bakhtin
introduces the term “architectonics of the artistic world”, which is associated with
creative activity of the author. It is this “architectonics” that determines
“...the composition of the work (order, distribution and completion, concatenation
the formation of verbal masses...” (p. 181). According to the researcher, “architectonics”
appears as “the principle of vision and the object of vision” at the same time. This
the formula is one of the brilliant explanations of the concept of “artistic
world". From Bakhtin’s theoretical provisions included in the semantic field
“artistic world”, the principle of “mixing moments” of content follows

The meaning fills the zone of meaning of the category “artistic world”. Probably, style is the “artistic world” in its technical aspect, taken from the perspective of “incarnation”. “The artistic world” signals the inseparability of artistic thinking and its implementation, content and form, statics and dynamics. In this category, the differences between the written, published text and the material that remains in the manuscript disappear. A work created and potentially capable of existing has legal rights from the point of view of the “art world”. So, art world- this is not only a principle, but also embodiment, design and construct at the same time, modeling and model, synthesis of statics and dynamics, an invariant of possible implementations of the symbolic model of the world not only in a given work (text), but also in many works of this series. Art world- this is a symbolic invariant static-dynamic model of a work or creativity as a whole, surrounded by a fan of potential text options.

In a different system of terms, we can talk about the “artistic world” as a system of “concepts” in creativity this author(or a given era). Concepts represent “...certain substitutions of meanings, “substitutes” hidden in the text, certain “potencies” of meanings...”. The “artistic world” reproduces reality in a kind of “abbreviated,” conventional version” 3 .

And shapes. The retention of this “mixing”, which Bakhtin wrote about, is the specific meaning of the term. The category “artistic world” captures the idea of ​​“form content”. In the book “Gogol’s Mastery” (1934), A. Bely emphasized that “<...>content removed from the process of its formation is empty; but a form outside this process, if it is not a form in motion, is empty; form and content are given in form-content, which means: form is not only form, but also somehow content; content - not only content, but also somehow form; the whole question is: how exactly!"(italics - A.B.). The category “artistic world” contains the answer to the question "how exactly!", since it involves attention to the static and dynamic aspects of form and content at the same time. Cm.: Bely Andrey. Gogol's mastery / Preface. N. Zhukova. - M., 1996. P. 51.

3 Likhachev D. S. Conceptosphere of the Russian language // Russian literature: From the theory of literature to the structure of the text. Anthology / Under the general editorship. Doctor of Philology, Prof. V.P. Unrecognizable. - M., 1997. P. 283.; Likhachev D."Inner world work of art» // Questions of literature. No. 8. 1968. P. 76.

ART WORLD

For the terms “conceptosphere” and “artistic world" The semantics of the “circle”, semantic coverage, deeply thought out by W. von Humboldt and G.W.F. are also common. Hegel. W. von Humboldt notes that with the power of imagination, the poet creates a fundamentally different world in his work. The work, like language, appears to the German philosopher as both a process and a result. A work arises as a result of the transformation of reality into an image. It becomes.

Humboldt emphasizes the idea of integrity and the independence of the work. According to the German philosopher, “... the poet erases in him features based on the accidental, and brings everything else into an interconnection in which the whole depends only on itself...” W. von Humboldt defines this “integrity” (Totalitat) like "peace". Moreover, the word “peace” is not used as a metaphor. “Integrity” in art arises when the artist manages to bring the reader or viewer to a state in which they could see(italics - W. von Humboldt) All. The “world” according to Humboldt is “... a closed circle of everything real”, where “... the desire for a completeness closed within itself” reigns, and “... every point is the center of the whole.” In other words, the “art world” can unfold from any point. Consequently, all elements of the work are equal. It is obvious that the Russian formalists largely followed W. von Humboldt and A.A. Potebne, putting forward the position about the significance of even the smallest elements of form.

In Hegel's Aesthetics these ideas are further clarified. The German philosopher understands a poetic work primarily as “organic integrity.” In other words, the meaning of a work (in Hegel’s language - its “universal”, its content) “equally” organizes both the work as a whole and its various aspects (“every little thing in it”), “...just as in In the human body, every member, every finger forms a most elegant whole, and in general, in reality, any creature represents a world closed within itself.” Already here Hegel introduces the concept of “world,” although for now he uses it only by analogy. Further, the author of “Aesthetics” directly correlates this term with a work of poetic art. Hegel develops the position according to which “... the universal, constitutes

The existing content of human feelings and actions must appear as something independent, completely complete and as a closed world(italics mine - V.Z.) on my own." A work of art is such a completely independent “world”. Hegel explains that “self-sufficiency” and “closedness” must be understood “... simultaneously and as development(italics - Hegel), division and, therefore, as such a unity that, in essence, comes from itself in order to come to the real isolation of its various aspects and parts" 4. Thus, the "world" of the work is self-sufficient and at the same time capable of development , closed-open unity. This unity contains the poet’s “individual,” “special” view of the world. This “special” indicates an individual, concrete, sensory form of embodiment of the universal content in a work.

Later, similar thoughts were developed in Russia by G. G. Shpet and the German philosopher H.-G. Gadamer, who proposed a broad understanding of the term “hermeneutic circle”. Based on the ideas of A.A. Potebnya and G. G. Shpet, it should once again emphasize the idea that The “artistic world” of a work is an analogue of the internal form of a word.

The “artistic world” as a “model of models” is associated with many private models, including:

2) artistic time-space(“chronotope” according to ter
minology M.M. Bakhtin);

3) the principle of motivation (the author’s artistic logic, his
“game with reality” (B.M. Eikhenbaum).

These basic models operate at the levels: plot-thematic, character and of course, linguistic

At the linguistic level, it is clearly visible how the process of generating an “artistic world” is transformed into a result. Language, on

4 Humboldt Wilhelm. Language and philosophy of language / Comp. A.V. Gulyga and G.V. Ramishvili. - M., 1985. P. 170-176. (Translated by A.V. Mikhailov.) Hegel Georg Wilhelm Friedrich. Aesthetics: In 4 volumes: T. 3 / Ed. Mich. Lifshitz. - M., 1971. S. 363-364. (Translated by A.M. Mikhailov.)

ART WORLD

In which the work is written becomes the language of this work. The laws of contextual synonymy and antonymy begin to operate. The linguistic “process-result” is another example of the action of forward and backward connections in the literature.

The question of the interaction of different levels of the “art world” is very complex. An important aspect of the study is the analysis of the expression of some parameters in the language of others, consideration of contextual synonymy/antonymy of units at different levels.

The specificity of the category “artistic world”, and perhaps its uniqueness, lies in the combination of static and dynamic moments, since this world arises at the moment of the generation of a poetic statement, “externalization”, textualization of the internal, names of the world (generation of names). As a result, it becomes possible to simultaneously analyze both the formation of the text and its result 5 .

5 Archpriest Sergius Bulgakov expresses deep thoughts about the nature of “naming” in his book “The Philosophy of the Name.” S. Bulgakov’s concept, associated with the tradition of name-glorification, implies the objective, cosmic meaning of language as a carrier of thought. He understands by “naming” “...the act of birth...the moment of birth” when the “name-idea” is connected with matter. The philosopher considers the essence of the word to be its ability to name, which consists in "predicates" that is, defining one through the other. “Predicability” lies primarily in the function of the connective "There is". The author of The Philosophy of the Name states that “...the connective expresses the world connection of everything with everything(italics - SB.) cosmic communism of existence and altruism of its every moment, i.e. the ability to express oneself through another.” According to the ideas of Sergius Bulgakov, the word is an “incomprehensible and antinomic” “fusion” of “ideal and real”, “phenomenal, cosmic and elementary”. In other words - words are symbols(italics - SB.). The features of the “name” of the artistic world, the processes of end-to-end semantization of all its elements, both significant and secondary, determine the mechanisms of its generation. Cm.: Bulgakov Sergius. Philosophy of the name. - M., 1997. P. 33-203. It is clear that similar ideas were expressed by P.A. Florensky and A.F. Losev. S. Bulgakov appears here only as one of the authors of a large series. Cm.: Florensky Pavel. Names // Small collected works: Vol. 1 / Prep. text: abbot Andronik (Trubachev) and S.L. Kravets. - Kupina, 1993; Cm.: Losev A. F. Being. Name. Space. - M., 1993. P. 613-880; Losev A.F. Name: Works and translations / Comp. A.A. Tahoe-Godi. - St. Petersburg, 1997. P. 127-245. Taking a different position in philosophy, G.G. Shpet also emphasized that in the process of naming a thing, “grasping” or “conception” of it occurs. At the same time, poetic naming often leads to “... complete emancipation from existing(italics - G.Sh.) of things". Cm.: Shpet G.G.

The “artistic world”, taken as a super-genre phenomenon, represents the “individual mythology” of the author. This term can be understood as the “individual myth” of a particular author embodied in the texts, which is “... a unifying invariant, inextricably and deeply connected with constant diverse variability.” This “individual mythology” reworks the poet’s biography and, in turn, is reworked by it 6 . Based on the views of P.O. Yakobson about “permanent mythology”, a deep characterization of the “poetic world” as a concept of literary theory is given in a number of works by Yu.M. Lotman. The researcher comes to the conclusion that the individuality of each specific author lies “... in the creation of occasional symbols (in the symbolic reading of the non-symbolic) ...”, as well as “... in the actualization of sometimes very archaic images of a symbolic nature.” From the researcher’s point of view, to understand the “poetic world” it is necessary to grasp "...a system of relations, which

Works / Preface E.V. Parsnip. - M., 1989. P. 395, 408. Later, these provisions were put forward by Y. Lotman. In his opinion, “...an individual poetic nomination turns out to be at the same time a picture of the world seen through the eyes of the poet.” Cm.: Lotman Yu.M. Jan Mukarzowski - art theorist // Mukarzhovsky Ya. Studies in aesthetics and art theory. - M., 1994. P. 25.

6 Jacobson Roman. Selected works / Comp. and general editing by V.A. Zvegintseva. - M., 1985. P. 267. Even earlier, the author reveals this concept in the 1937 article “Statue in the poetic mythology of Pushkin.” See: Jacobson Roman. Statue in the poetic mythology of Pushkin // Jacobson Roman. Works on poetics / Comp. and general ed. Doctor of Philological Sciences M.L. Gasparova. - M., 1987. P. 145-180. M.L. Gasparov defines the artistic world of a text as “... a system of all images and motifs present in a given text. /.../ The frequency thesaurus of a writer’s language (or a work, or a group of works) is what the “artistic world” is when translated into the language of philological science.” Cm.: Gasparov M.L. The artistic world of M. Kuzmin: formal thesaurus and functional thesaurus // Gasparov M.L. Selected articles. - M., 1995. P. 275. Under the “picture of the world” A.Ya. Gurevich understands “...a system of ideas about the world embodied in the text, formed in the consciousness of an individual, a particular human community, a nation, humanity as a whole...” Citing this well-known position, F.P. Fedorov explains: “The Picture of the World” contains a kind of transcendental grid, i.e. dominant categories “...demonstrating the most general, fundamental concepts of consciousness...”. Cm.: Fedorov F.P. Romanticism and Biedermeier // Russian Literature. XXXVIII. - North Holland, 1995. P. 241-242.

ART WORLD

The poet sets between(in all cases italics - Yu.L.) fundamental images-symbols." Under " poetic world“Yu. Lotman implies a “crystalline lattice of mutual connections” between these symbols 7 .

Equally important is the “system of relations” between the author’s super-genre “individual mythology” and "memory of the genre." We are talking about freedom and simultaneous limitations of the “art world”. In the literary process, the super-genre existence of texts is only hypothetically possible. The “artistic world” of every author is always “constrained” by the “genre world”.

The genre can be understood as a “collective”, generalized artistic world, formed as a result of the movement in time of the works of writers from different countries, movements and eras. “Memory of the genre” (the term of M.M. Bakhtin) is that same integrity, that structural unity that is imposed on the “individual mythology” of the author, changing it. The “artistic world” as such arises as a result of the “meeting” of “individual mythology” and “memory of the genre”. This is the same problem that was posed by A.N. Veselovsky, reflecting on the “boundaries” of personal creativity, personal “initiation”, colliding with tradition, “legend”. The relationship between the categories “genre” and “artistic world” determines the nature of a particular work.

Let us take as an example the “artistic world” of F. Kafka. Here the word has almost lost its ability to act as a “bundle”, Logos, means and content of Dialogue. When violated "connection", then it is eliminated and "predicate"(term by S. Bulgakov). In Kafka's world, proper names and topographical designations disappear. The main character of the novel “The Trial,” the procurator of a certain bank, Josef K., turns into the land surveyor K. from the novel “The Castle.” The unnamed, anonymous space in Kafka's short stories most often does not expand, but collapses. The movement is directed from light into darkness (“Nora”), from the street and window to the dark center of the house (“Verdict”). As you roll up

7 See: Lotman Yu.M. Typological characteristics of the realism of late Pushkin // Lotman Yu.M. At the school of poetic word. Pushkin. Lermontov. Gogol: A Book for Teachers. - M., 1988. P. 131. See also: Lotman Yu.M. The poetic world of Tyutchev // Lotman Yu.M. Selected articles: In 3 volumes. T. 3. - Tallinn, 1993. P. 147.

One of the possibilities of art. Literature and art are open systems in which forward and backward connections, creating a “musical” movement of meanings. This “musicality,” symbolic and mystical by its very nature, A.F. Losev defines it as “universal and indivisible fusion and interpenetration” of often opposing and “self-contradictory” parts 10.

In our case, the “artistic world”, studied by the method of an integrated approach to literature, is considered as a macrosystem. It is focused on the author, the tradition of the text, reality and reader perception. In turn, all these elements also represent a system connected with the literary text by genetic, logical, intuitive, and symbolic relationships. It is not necessary for the researcher to consider all these connections in their final depth. But an integrated approach assumes that they are taken into account, even if the emphasis is on the problems of the work, the “individual mythology of the author,” the problem of artistic style, characterology, etc. The proposed structural unity of the concept of fiction does not contradict the concept of “artistic world”. The inevitable schematism of the System, unable to reflect simultaneously statics and dynamics, an artistic text and the process of its implementation can be partly overcome by understanding the inconclusiveness of the result.

Questions to the topic: 1. How do you understand the author’s “individual mythology”? Give examples of the supporting symbols that make up A. Blok’s “individual mythology”.

10 See: Losev A.F. Music as a subject of logic // Losev A.F. Form. Style. Expression / Comp. A.A. Tahoe-Godi. - M., 1995. S. 406-602.

ART WORLD 189

3. What is the specificity of naming the world in the writer’s work? Give your analysis of the beginning and ending of N.V.’s story. Gogol's "Nose".

Literature on the topic

1. Bakhtin M.M. Aesthetics of verbal creativity / Comp. S.G. Bocharov. -

2. Likhachev D. The inner world of a work of art // Questions

literature. No. 8. 1968.

additional literature

1. Humboldt Wilhelm. Language and philosophy of language / Comp. A.V. Gulyga and

G.V. Ramishvili. - M., 1985.

2. Losev A. F. The problem of artistic style / Comp. A.A. Tahoe-Go-
di. - Kyiv, 1994.

CONCEPTUAL DICTIONARY

Literature (from Latin littera - letter) - a set of written and printed texts that can receive the status of a work of art in the system:

Work

Reader

Text(from Latin textus, textum - fabric), written or printed, is the form of existence of a work of verbal art.

Communication(from Latin communicatio - connection, message) - a category denoting interaction system elements taken in a symbolic, semiotic aspect. Communication theory has developed rapidly in last decades XX century in connection with the successes of cybernetics and computerization. A wide range of functions and possibilities of communication have been identified in linguistics, psychology, and ethnology. In literature, communication is a condition for the interaction of elements, a means of implementation forward and backward connections systems.

System(from Greek - a whole made up of parts). A system is a set of elements that are connected and mutually dependent. The basic property of a system is that the system is greater than the sum of its parts.

The construction of the “general theory of systems” belongs to the Austrian biologist and theorist L. Bertalanffy (1901-1972), who applied the formal apparatus of thermodynamics to biology and developed general principles behavior of systems and their elements.

Among the main ones are the principle of integrity and universal dependence, the presence of system-forming factors, hierarchy, the irreducibility of the properties of the system to the sum of the properties of its elements, the relative independence of the elements that are in relation to the system subsystems. The set of relationships between elements forms system structure:

Systems approach - direction of methodology, which is based on the research systems, It came into scientific use in the last decades of the 20th century in connection with discoveries in thermodynamics (I. Prigogine’s Nobel Prize).

Structure~ the main property of an object, its invariant, an abstract designation of the same essence, taken in abstraction from specific modifications-variants.

Method(from Greek through Latin methodus - “following + path”) - a way of constructing and justifying a system of scientific knowledge, in this case about literature and its history.

Dialogism- an extremely broad principle that asserts the existence sense in communication. Dialogism differs from “dialogue as one of the compositional forms of speech.” The dialogue of a person with people, the world and the Creator is described by M.M. Bakhtin as contact and contact between individuals endowed with unique voices. Of exceptional importance is the category of the boundary between “one’s own” and “alien” consciousnesses, where a “change of speaking subjects” occurs. According to M.M., Bakhtin, the author and the hero enter into a dialogical relationship. In this case, it is possible to “intersect” the planes of the author’s speech and the hero’s speech. To generalize this particular point, we can say that meaning arises at the intersection of planes. “The attitude to meaning is always dialogical” - this is the main thesis of the scientist.

Inner form- one of the signs of the meaning of a word, combined with its sound. Having different words for the same thing illustrates this phenomenon. A.A. Potebnya defined the internal form as “an image of an image”, “representation”.

“Internal form” is a deep model of the emergence of the meaning of a word. Following the tradition of W. von Humboldt and A.A. Potebnya, G.G. Shpet considers the “internal form” as the most important element of the structure of a word. Perceived as a dynamic structure, the meaning of the word turns out to be mobile. The actual meaning of the word thus appears only as one of its facets. sense. In the course of literary communication there arises "third kind of truth" When

Conceptual dictionary

A sign (word, gesture, their combination) ceases to be only a “concept” or only a “representation”, finding itself “between representation and concept” (G. Shpet).

Reception- the intersection of impact and perception, “recreation” And“re-creation” leading to the generation of meaning.

Art world - this is the relationship between the processes of genesis (Author M- Work) and functioning (Work -SCH- Reader) in the “literature” system. The artistic world can be presented in the form of a symbolic static-dynamic model of a work or creativity.

TOPICS OF ABSTRACTS AND REPORTS

1. Literature as a type of verbal creativity.

2. Literature as a system.

3. History of the study of literature as a system.

4. Specifics of literary communication.

7. The problem of tradition in historical poetics A.N. Veselovs-
whom.

9. The problem of dialogism in the works of M.M. Bakhtin.

10. Fact of life and fact of literature: sociological polemics
and formal schools.

11. Yu.M. Lotman on the structure of a literary text.

12. Literary translation as a problem of comparative studies.

13. Reception of Shakespeare (Goethe, Byron, Hoffmann, etc.) in Russian
sky literature XIX-XX centuries.

14. The image of Russia in English (French, German, etc.)
literature of the XIX-XX centuries.

15. Apply the provisions of the general theory of systems by I. Prigogine
relevant to the “literature” system.

16. Hermeneutic circle in the works of H.-G. Gadamer.

Topics of abstracts and reports

18. The main parameters of the writer’s artistic world (good
divine work).

19. V. Nabokov - reader and translator of the novel by A.S. Pushkin
"Eugene Onegin".

20. Poetry of B. Pasternak (O. Mandelstam, I. Brodsky, etc.)
as an intertext.

21. Pastiche novel as a variant of intertext (B. Akunin, J. Barnes,
P. Suskind, M. Pavic, U. Eco, etc.).

22. Concepts of the artistic world of F. Kafka.

23. Systematic approach to the analysis of a work of art
at school (using the example of M.Yu. Lermontov’s poem “Mtsyri”).

24. The principle of historicism in a university lecture on literature.

25. Describe the main literary methods and
approaches going back to “Historical Poetics” by A.N. Weight
Lovsky

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The correspondence between genders and genres is a controversial issue.

Classic division system:

Epic: epic, epic poem (small in size for an epic), novel, story, story, ballad, fable.

Lyrics: ode, elegy, epigram, message, song.

Drama: drama, comedy, tragedy.

Genre is a type of work that has developed in the process of development of artistic literature. The main difficulties in classifying genres are associated with the historical change of literature, with the evolution of its genres.

Within genera, there are different types - stable formal, compositional and stylistic structures, which are called generic forms. They differ in the organization of speech (poetic, prose) and volume. In the epic - according to the principle of plotting, in the lyrics - solid strophic forms, in the drama - the relationship to the theater.

There is also a division related to pathos.

The genre is archaic, capable of being updated, a memory of literary development, a representative of creative memory in the process of literary development. If something new is invented, it is perceived against the background of the old and does not destroy it. Each new work connects to historical memory.

32. Simile and metaphor: similarities and differences.

Metaphor: an avalanche of misfortune fell on him;
comparison: misfortunes fell on him like an avalanche. Comparison is either the instrumental case (a shock of hair), or the use of conjunctions (as if, as if, exactly, etc.), or a detailed comparison (likening related phenomena using conjunctions).

33. Theories of the origin of art. Art as a way of knowing and mastering the world (*)

Primitive creativity was syncretic in its content: artistic content was in undivided unity with other aspects of primitive social consciousness - with magic, mythology, morality, semi-fantastic legends from the history of individual clans and tribes, initial semi-fantastic geographical ideas. The main subject of syncretic consciousness and the creativity that expressed it there was nature, first of all, the life of animals and plants, as well as the manifestations of various elements of nature. A characteristic feature of this consciousness and creativity was their imagery. Being completely dependent on nature, people exaggerated the strength, size, and significance of its phenomena in their imagination; they unconsciously typified natural phenomena. A characteristic feature of primitive thinking was anthropomorphism.

The transition of people from hunting to cattle breeding and agriculture was the beginning of a new, higher stage of development of a primitive, pre-class society, which lasted tens of thousands of years.

At the same time, in primitive society its internal organization gradually became more complex, and its magic also changed. The very forms of magical rituals also developed: animal pantomimes before the hunt were replaced by spring round dances.

A ritual round dance is a collective dance, accompanied by the singing of all its participants, which can also include pantomimic movements or even entire scenes. This was a very important form of primitive creativity, which had a syncretic content, was not yet art in the proper sense of the word, but which contained the rudiments of all the main expressive forms of art - artistic dance(“choreography”), music, verbal lyrics. In round dancing, people for the first time mastered such an important aesthetic side of spiritual culture as rhythmic speech.

Drama (dramatism) - a combination of pantomimic action and emotional speech of the characters - arose when the luminary began not only to narrate the desired event, but also to act it out in front of a choir, responding to it with choruses. In Athens, the luminary of the spring ritual round dance acted out the myth of the inevitable, “fatal” death and resurrection of Dionysus, depicting him in the form of a goat (a particularly fertile animal), wearing a goat skin on himself, like the entire choir. Therefore, such a ritual performance was called “tragedy”.

An independent song narrative (poetic epic) apparently arose mainly in military ritual round dances. It developed the narrative chant of the luminary, conjuring the upcoming victory by depicting the previous victories of the tribe under the leadership of its illustrious leaders.

First, singer-storytellers appeared, telling stories about one person, a hero. Then people appeared among them, combining several songs into one, creating “monumental” epic songs, which in Ancient Greece were called epics.

The narrative depiction of life also developed among the peoples of those eras in prose - in mythological and totemic tales, in military tales.

Music developed in a similar way. special kind art. The basis of music is melody (Greek melos - song, tune) - a complete sequence of tones of different heights, expressing emotion. Initially, people learned to build melodies in choral ritual songs.

The art of dance also developed. As a creative work expressing collective experiences, dance arose in a ritual round dance and gradually acquired a complete rhythm in it.

So, all types of art originated in primitive times. folk art, syncretic in its ideological content and not yet artistic creativity in the proper sense of the word.

K. Marx called this era “the childhood of human society” and noted that “artistic production as such” had not yet begun and that the “soil” of art in that era was mythology, which “overcomes, subjugates and shapes the forces of nature in the imagination and in the help of imagination" and which "disappears, therefore, along with the onset of real dominance over these forces of nature."

Essay

Feature article

An essay is an artistic and journalistic genre that combines logical-rational and emotional-imaginative ways of reflecting reality to address certain aspects of the concept of a person or public life. This is the scientific definition of the genre. What does it mean?

First of all, the essayist artistically embodies real historical persons and events in words, forming an opinion about them based on a systematic study of the object. Judgment is achieved through analysis, and the conclusion and conclusion are its logical conclusion.

In short, the essay is both a documentary-scientific understanding of reality and an aesthetic exploration of the world. It is no coincidence that an essay is compared with works of art and even with painting, emphasizing: if a story is a picturesque picture, then an essay is graphic drawing or a sketch for a painting. It seems to be on the verge between a document and a generalized artistically. If historians today had no other sources other than essay literature, then in this case they would be able to correctly imagine the past life: the Russian essay contains enormous artistic and educational material, reflecting many important moments in the development of the country over a number of decades.

After all, the essay has been known in the history of Russian journalism since the end of the 18th century. And it was distinguished not only by its breadth of coverage and thematic diversity, but also by its presentation of exciting, pressing problems of our time. For this reason, the educational value of Russian essay literature is inseparable from its active role in the history of the liberation movement. Throughout its history - from its appearance to modern development - the essay has sought to acquaint the reader with new, emerging forms of life and its daily course, awaken public opinion and form an understanding of the right to put forward and defend advanced thoughts, combining an objective assessment of reality with a subjective one. opinions, comparisons and parallels between them. Only when a publicist shows himself to be a competent researcher and a subtle analyst can he convince the reader of the correctness of his assessments and judgments.

Researchers identify several types of essays.

A portrait sketch develops a certain aspect of the concept of a person, reveals the inner world of the hero, the socio-psychological motivation of his actions, the individual and typical in character. The essayist is looking in real life such a person who would embody the main typical features of his social environment and at the same time be distinguished by the originality of character traits and originality of thought. And only then he creates not a photographic image, but an artistic and journalistic reflection of an individual image.

This is not a simple biographical note. A person’s life cannot be revealed in its moral beauty, in the richness of its creative manifestation, by replacing the story about it with a statement of personal data or a description of the hero’s labor technology.

To portrait sketch took up an entire newspaper page, we need a personality who would be very significant. After all, a journalist outlines a portrait of his hero only in detail, with strokes. At the same time, an essayist is unlikely to fit it into less than 300-400 lines: the relative laconicism of the genre is combined here with a journalistic elaboration of an actual problem, an analysis of the hero’s psychology.

The problematic essay includes a number of subtypes: economic, sociological, philosophical, environmental, judicial, polemical and others. Here, the role of a publicist is played by a specialist in a certain field. The subject of his research and artistic and journalistic reflection is an urgent problem facing society at a specific current moment. This is a conceptual author's monologue, illuminated by an individual vision of a person and the situation in which he acts.

An essayist not only develops a topic using emotional and figurative expressive means, but creates an image of the situation. What comes to the fore is no longer the display of a specific personality, but a scientific and journalistic study of the problem. The role of the author here is always active - he enters into a direct conversation with the reader, freely using knowledge of the history of the issue, numbers, and statistical data.

This type of essay is not a frequent guest on the pages of newspapers. By creating a detailed image of the situation, it is much more voluminous than the problem-analytical genres - correspondence and articles. For this reason, the problem essay is a form of magazine or even book journalism.

Travel sketch is one of the oldest types. Its features lie in the fact that the object of study unfolds gradually for the author. Indeed, while traveling, a publicist peers into people, situations, records facts and events, reflecting them through the prism of individual observations. The specificity of a travel essay lies in the transmission of personal impressions from the forms of life, customs, morals, and social contrasts that appear before the eyes of the essayist. It combines elements of portrait and problem essays.

This is not accidental: the very origins of the Russian essay should be sought precisely here, in this type of genre. The aggravation of social contradictions in Russia in the 18th century set the task of publicists to show a panorama of developing events. A new attitude to reality was combined with a search for new forms of its reflection. This is how “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow” by A.N. Radishchev and “Letters of a Russian Traveler” by N.M. Karamzin appeared.

Often travel essays are published with continuations, creating the illusion of a joint journey between the author and readers. The essayist becomes the eyes of his audience, using reportage techniques for this.

The stylistic linguistic structure of the essay fully corresponds to the goal set by the author and the type of essay he chose for an artistic and journalistic understanding of reality. Brevity, laconism, the ability to say a lot in a concise form, to create a multifaceted picture - one of the basic signs of high professional skill of an essayist.

Special role Landscapes play in the essay. A description of nature helps to reveal both the setting in which the action takes place and the emotional and psychological state of the characters in the essay or the essayist himself. In identifying the essential features of natural phenomena, showing their relationship with the main idea of ​​the essay, expressive details and detail, the essayist can achieve an extraordinary depth of penetration into the very essence of what is being described.

At the same time, in the practice of novice journalists, the depth of understanding of what they have experienced and seen is often replaced by the monotony of the topic, illustrative skimming over the surface of life, dryness of presentation of thoughts, poverty of vocabulary - an essay here is any description of a fact, an event, a person.

For this reason, we note once again that Russian essay journalism primarily strives for an active intervention in life, for problematic issues, for novelty, for the disclosure of facts of great social significance. And the bright, imaginative manner of narration, sharp individual speech characteristics, metaphors, comparisons, hyperboles contribute to greater expressiveness and artistic and journalistic reflection of reality.

One of the effective methods of constructing an essay is the associative method of presentation, a typical manifestation of which is the author’s reflections. Author's associations, as a rule, deepen the figurative and psychological development of the main idea of ​​the narrative.

It is very important that all situations, facts, events, associations represent a single whole, subordinate to a single goal - the development of the topic chosen by the essayist. At the same time, only after fully studying the material, facts, circumstances, people, can you finally decide what twist to give to the essay, what problem to put forward in it. For this reason, when working on an essay, a journalist records everything in his notebook and in his memory: general information, data, numbers, first and last names, positions, specific episodes, situations that reveal a person in action, so that later he can reveal characteristic, instructive , impressive. After all, the composition of a genre requires an indispensable connection, a collision of many facts, episodes, and reflections.

An essay is a prose sketch presenting general or preliminary thoughts about any subject or for any reason. This is a deeply personal, personalized literary and journalistic genre that requires independence and originality of thinking, some experience in the area to which the thoughts are devoted. Actually, translated from French, its name means “experience”.

He is the youngest in the system of Russian journalistic genres, despite the fact that he has been known in European literature since the end of the 16th century, gaining particular popularity in England. At the same time, for almost four centuries, domestic literary scholars have classified essays as purely literary genres, since in them the main role is played not by the reproduction of a fact, but by the depiction of impressions, thoughts and associations.

Meanwhile, among essays there are several varieties.

A literary critical essay does not at all pretend to analyze a work or creative path the writer, limiting himself to general discussions about them with an emphasized subjectivity of the author’s attitude to the subject of consideration.

The philosophical essay is a reflection on the meaning of existence, on the development of society, on life and death, on the knowledge of truth, on good and evil. All these problems can and are discussed by people of different professions, with different experiences and cultures. But for many centuries, such questions were discussed within the framework of a special spiritual activity, which since antiquity has been called philosophy. Thus, a philosophical essay is an expression of deeply personal individual knowledge about existence, distinguished by a critical and creative attitude to the world and the previous system of views on the world.

The organizational and managerial essay is one of the popular methods in the science of personnel management. modern system formal assessment of completed activities. He suggests that it is extremely important for the evaluator to describe, using pre-developed evaluative standards, how a particular employee performs his or her job. It is used in cases where it is extremely important to evaluate the performance of employees performing very specific tasks that are difficult to fit into any standards, and serves as a management improvement program. Its goal is to improve performance, determine remuneration for work done and formulate considerations related to the employee’s career.

A scientific-journalistic essay - sometimes called simply a journalistic essay - is often classified as a type of essay. Indeed, having common origins, these two genres are similar in many ways. At the same time, a freer, more relaxed style of narration, dictated by the extreme importance of the publicist to speak out, remember the past and look into the future, has become a specific feature of this subtype of essay. A departure from traditional forms of communication, a philosophical outlook, full of reflections full of doubts and hesitations, a tendency to analyze one’s own experiences - this is the essence of a scientific journalistic essay.

When addressing this genre, a publicist must have a rich memory, abundant knowledge, an endless chain of associations, solid experience in scientific and theoretical research and life observations. From the first lines, the reader is obliged to feel in the author of the essay an educated, well-erudite specialist, capable of broad generalizations.

Often an essay can be constructed without a plot or dialogue, since its subject is the author’s introspection of the worldview and intuitive progress towards new knowledge about existence.

The essayist’s free self-expression is influenced by the level and direction of public opinion prevailing in the country philosophical concepts, features of national identity. For this reason, this genre does not fit into strict definitions. In different conditions of appearance, essays are different, since the armchair conclusions of publicists figuratively reflect real phenomena and episodes of life.

However, the essay does not belong to documentary journalism. He does not at all strive to form a broad public opinion, to achieve a specific result, to rely on a pragmatic system of facts. Being analytical in essence, the essay does not set itself the goal of analyzing current problem requiring an urgent solution. His interests are focused on global problems of social life that cannot be solved overnight. The leading thing in modern essayism has been the development of the existence of the triad “man, humanity, humanity” - truly global problem present and future.

And it is considered, first of all, through moral categories, the moral level modern society. For this reason, philosophers, cultural scientists, art critics, historians - in a word, specialists in the field of social sciences - pay tribute to the essayistic style of presentation.

The depth of penetration into the material and the breadth of coverage of reality entirely depend on the publicist’s ability to perceive the spiritual values ​​of society, on the level of his scientific worldview, which includes the scientific picture of the world, the generalized results of the achievements of human knowledge, the principles of the relationship of man with the natural and artificial environment.

The essayist advertises his subjectivity, his desire to comprehend the global nature of what is happening, to show a socio-psychological cross-section of society. And in this comprehensiveness, the publicist himself becomes the core, a kind of lens for refracting facts. No force can force the reader to continue reading once he realizes that his own intelligence exceeds that of the essayist.

The perception of spiritual values, as we know, is creative.
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Each person comprehends and interprets the images and feelings recreated by the author in their own way. Any person experiences spiritual values ​​through the prism own experience͵ but it's always creative work human soul and mind.

An essay becomes a special activity of two interconnected creative individuals - the author and the reader. Level of education and general culture each of these two personalities directly influences the emergence of a specific dialogue, simultaneous spiritual consumption and spiritual creativity.

Among stylistic devices, used by the essayist, not least occupied by the so-called “imaginary advance”. It has the ability to clearly delineate actions and movements, stopping the reader’s attention on each of them. All facts and phenomena are, as it were, compressed, shifted in time, pulled into a single space-time plane. For this reason, the author seeks to distinguish them by pointing out their real location in time: “a little later we will see...” or “a little later we saw...” - actions are assigned to the future or the past. And this sets the boundary separating the real world from the iconic world of art.

The contrast of time plans allows the essayist to highlight significant points in the text that he wants to pay special attention to. Sometimes he even interrupts the presentation mid-sentence in order to comment in detail or analyze his inner feeling about the real fact of the phenomenon.

This technique contributes to the expression of the emotional and expressive content of the essay, associated with the effect of communication, personal contact between the author and the reader, and the reproduction of a casual conversation between them. In the reasoning that periodically interrupts the narrative, the scientific-theoretical experience and life observations of the author are so organically combined that the reader, engaging in reflection, involuntarily perceives these reasoning as his own, based on personal observations.

An essay is a rare guest on a newspaper page. Although some analytical and artistic-journalistic publications publish materials written in this genre. For example, essays by prominent writers appear on the pages of " Literary newspaper"But this is, rather, still a book form of journalism.

Dictionary ʼʼPoeticsʼ:

The movement of literature itself is a kind of memory of the genre. - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "The movement of literature itself is a kind of memory of the genre." 2017, 2018.

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Literary genres. Their classification. Memory of the genre.

Literary genres are those that have developed in the process of development of art. literature types of works. The literary classification is based on genre features that have the most stable, historically repeatable character. The most important genre feature of a work is its belonging to one or another lit. genre: dramatic, epic, lyrical and lyric-epic genres are distinguished. Within genera, species are distinguished - generic forms. They differ in the organization of speech in the work (poetry and prose), in the volume of text (epics and epics), in the principles of plot formation, etc. Based on genre issues, works can belong to national-historical, moral-descriptive and romantic genres. Epic genres: 1) national historical genres: - heroic song - “song of victories and defeats”, the main hero is the best representative of the team Hector, Achilles). A combination of a hyperbolic image of physical power and attention to moral qualities. - a poem is a story about an important historical event, a hyperbolic depiction of the hero and an objective tone of the narrative. - story - real historical events(“The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”) - story 2) morally descriptive genres: fairy tale, poem, idyll, satire 3) romantic: “magic” fairy tale, novel, story, short story, short story, essay.

Dramatic genres: - tragedy - conflict in the mind of the hero, - drama - clashes of characters with such forces of life, cat. are opposed from the outside. - Comedy - a play filled with humorous or satirical pathos, with the help of plot conflicts the characters are revealed. Lyrical genres: - ode - a poem expressing enthusiastic feelings. - satire - verse expressing indignation, indignation - elegy - verse filled with sadness - epigram, epitaph, madrigal. Lyric-epic genres: fable - a brief allegorical narrative and the ensuing lesson - ballad - a poetic plot work, the narrative is pierced with lyricism
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^ Material and reception in literature.

The material is everything that the author took ready. The artist constructs his work from the material. In thin world, the material is transformed under the influence of the techniques used by the author. Component of transforming reality into art. reality - the relationship between plot and plot, i.e. relationship between material and shape. The material is everything that the author took ready. Form - how the author arranged everything. In the process of reading, the reader extracts material from the form, builds the life lines of the characters - the plot (events arranged in chronological order). The transition from plot to plot construction of a narrative is a transformation of the material, cat. given to the artist in its natural form. A detective story is a classic discrepancy between plot and plot. In thin time can be rearranged in a work. Techniques for plotting a work are the author’s techniques. Compositional movement. Fable is a chronological sequence of events. The plot is how the plot is told in a particular work. Composition is the relationship between plot and plot. In a work, reality is immaterial; it is not something that surrounds the author. The artist exists in the world of natural language, cat. readers understand it. Natural language in all its richness is material, cat. the artist transforms this language into his own.
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^ Artistic time and space in a literary work. Chronotope.

The world is thin. cannot exist outside of space and time. Analysis shows that any event is associated with time, and imaginary space is associated with what is happening now. Production and time are universal characteristics of the artistic world, each with its own characteristics. Hood. time to strive to isolate real time, but can never be completely isolated from real time. We always correlate art production with the space around us. Different approaches to the problem time:

1) Grammatical time in literature as there is past, present, future + aspectual characteristics (Soviet and non-Soviet aspect) in the Russian language. 2) The writer’s view on the problem of time - the writer’s philosophy. 3) Essential for literature study of thin time as thin. fact literature. Significant relationship between time and spatial relations, artistically mastered in literature - chronotope (literally "time-space"). We understand chronotope as a formally meaningful category of literature. In lit.-art. In the chronotope there is a merging of spatial and temporal signs as a whole. Signs of time are revealed in space, and space is interpreted and changed by time - this is what characterizes the chronotope. In literature, the chronotope has significant genre significance. Genre and genre varieties are determined precisely by the chronotope, and the leading principle in the chronotope is time. Chr. determines the artistic unity of a literary work in its relation to reality. The meaning of the chronotope: - plot - chronological record. are the organizational centers of the main plot events of the novel. Plot knots are tied and untied in it. - pictorial - time acquires a sensory-visual character, plot events are concretized. Time and space in literature Reality in its space-time coordinates is mastered in different ways by different types of art. Fiction primarily reproduces life processes that occur over time, i.e. human activity (experiences, thoughts, ideas, etc.). Lessing came to the conclusion that poetry primarily reproduces action, i.e. objects and phenomena following one after another in time. At the same time, the writer is not bound by the need to capture the current time literally and directly. In a literary work, careful, detailed characteristics of some extremely short period of time can be given (Tolstoy’s description in “Childhood” of the feelings that Nikolenka Irtenyev experienced at his mother’s coffin). More often, the writer gives compact characteristics of long periods of time. Writers seem to stretch and compress the time of the depicted action. In mastering spatial relationships, literature is inferior to other arts. Lessing emphasized that objects coexisting near each other are depicted mainly in painting and sculpture. At the same time, he argued that the description of motionless objects should not come to the fore in a literary work. In the artistic exploration of space, literature also has advantages over sculpture and painting. The writer can move quickly from one picture to another, easily transporting the reader to different places. Spatial representations in literary works often have a generalizing meaning (the motif of the road in “ Dead souls“Gogol as space, awakening the thought of directed, purposeful movement). The artist of the word, therefore, has access to the language of not only temporal (it is undoubtedly primary), but also spatial representations.
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^ Origin of art. Art as a way of understanding the world. Functions of art.

In the early stages of the development of the world, when people lived in a tribal system, works of art were not yet such. In them, the artistic content was in undivided unity with other aspects of social consciousness - mythology, magic, morality, semi-fantastic legends. This unity was called “syncretism.” Primitive TV was syncretic in its content. The main subject of primitive consciousness and TV was nature, the life of plants and animals, various natural phenomena. A characteristic feature of consciousness and television was imagery. They presented all phenomena in the form of a particularly strong and bright individual embodiment of it. People exaggerated the strength, significance, size in their imagination, and unconsciously typified natural phenomena. Representations and images differed in the degree of fanaticism. A characteristic feature was anthropomorphism - awareness of the life of nature in its similarity to human life. People tried to influence nature with the help of magic, believing that certain phenomena could be caused by imitation or deliberate artificial reproduction. They painted animals, carved figures from stone and wood to promote hunting, or reproduced the lives of animals. With the development of speech, “animal” tales arise based on the personification of animals. From syncretic TV, the arts began to develop, primarily visual arts - painting, sculpture, stage pantomime and epic literature. With development, ritual round dances appear - a collective dance, accompanied by singing and sometimes pantomime, the beginnings of all the main expressive forms of art: art. dance, music, verbal lyrics. Later, drama arises - a combination of pantomimic action and emotional speech of the characters. From the choir room, ritual song Lyric poetry gradually emerged. Music as a special form of art, as well as the art of dance, developed in a similar way. All types of art originated in the primitive folk television, syncretic in its ideological content. Functions of art: educational, recreational, aesthetic pleasure, play (theater) - play on words, images, sounds, associations, instructive, didactic (fables, teachings, literature of social realism), communicative.
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^ The concept of the literary process.

Literary process - the totality of all works appearing at this time. Factors that limit it: - on the presentation of literature within the literature. The process is influenced by the time when a particular book is published. - lit. the process does not exist outside of magazines, newspapers, and other printed publications. (“Young Guard”, “New World”, etc.) - the literary process is associated with criticism of published works. Oral criticism also has a significant impact on LP. “Liberal terror” was the name given to criticism in the early 18th century. Literary associations- writers who consider themselves close on any issues. They act as a certain group that conquers part of the literary process. Literature is, as it were, “divided” between them. Issue manifestos expressing general sentiments one group or another. Manifestos appear at the moment of formation of lit. groups. For literature from the 20th century. manifestos are uncharacteristic (the symbolists first created and then wrote manifestos). The manifesto allows us to look at future activities group, immediately determine what makes it stand out. As a rule, the manifesto (in the classic version, anticipating the activities of the group) turns out to be paler than the lit. current, cat. he imagines.

Literary process. With the help of artistic speech in literary works, the speech activity of people is widely and specifically reproduced. A person in a verbal image acts as a “speaker”. This applies, first of all, to lyrical heroes, characters in dramatic works and storytellers. epic works. Speech in fiction acts as the most important subject of depiction. Literature does not only mean in words life phenomena, but also reproduces itself speech activity. Using speech as the subject of the image, the writer overcomes the schematic nature of verbal pictures that are associated with their “immateriality.” Without speech, people's thinking cannot be fully realized. Therefore, literature is the only art that freely and widely masters human thought. Thinking processes are the focus of people's mental life, a form of intense action. In the ways and means of comprehending the emotional world, literature is qualitatively different from other forms of art. In literature, a direct depiction of mental processes is used with the help of the author's characteristics and statements of the heroes themselves. Literature as an art form has a kind of universality. With the help of speech, you can reproduce any aspect of reality; The visual possibilities of the verbal truly have no limits. Literature most fully embodies the cognitive principle artistic activity. Hegel called literature “universal art.” But the visual and educational possibilities of literature were realized especially widely in the 19th century, when the realistic method became leading in the art of Russia and Western European countries. Pushkin, Gogol, Dostoevsky, Tolstoy artistically reflected the life of their country and era with such a degree of completeness that is inaccessible to any other type of art. The unique quality of fiction is also its pronounced, open problematic nature. It is not surprising that it is in the sphere of literary creativity, the most intellectual and problematic, that trends in art are formed: classicism, sentimentalism, etc.
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^ Plot, plot, composition in a literary work.

The plot is the course of events that consists of the actions of the heroes. This is the movement of events or thoughts and experiences, in which only human characters, deeds, destinies, contradictions, and social conflicts are revealed. Composition - the sequence of events. Function of the plot: detection of life contradictions, i.e. conflicts. The properties of the plot and composition are determined by the problematic. Plot - the main events, outline, which are told in the work or which are shown in it. The composition of the plot consists of a number of complex elements. IN classical works such elements usually include exposition (the motivation for the behavior of the characters in the conflict being shown, introduction, setting), plot (main conflict), development of action, climax ( highest point tension in the development of action) and denouement (resolution of the depicted conflict). There is also a prologue and an epilogue.

The work usually opens with a prologue. This is a kind of introduction to the main plot development. The author resorts to the epilogue only when he understands that the denouement is not clearly expressed in the work. An epilogue is a depiction of the final consequences arising from the events shown in the work.
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^ Epic as a literary genre.

Epic - from the Greek "word". An object. narrative genre of literature. First, the epic arose as a genre of folk-heroic legend: sagas, parables, epics, epic songs, legends, heroic tales, folk-heroic. stories. Existed until the Renaissance. In the last 3 centuries, when there was a turn towards man as an individual (the primacy of the individual over the collective), epic began to stand out as a type of literature in our modern understanding. The speaker reports a past action or remembers. There is a temporary distance between the speech and the event. The speech is given by the narrator, cat. maybe he becomes a storyteller (Grinev in Pushkin). The epic is as free as possible from the development of space and time. Characterizes not only the hero, but also the speaker of speech (artistic speech consists of: author's narration, author's description, author's reasoning, monologues and dialogues of the characters). Epic is the only type of literature that shows not only what the hero does, but also how he thinks. Int. monologues are the consciousness of the hero. Portrait and landscape - detailing is of great importance. Does not insist on the conventionality of what happened. The volume of an epic work is unlimited. In a narrow sense, an epic is a heroic narrative about the past. Came in the form of epics ("Iliad" and "Odyssey"), sagas - Scandinavian epics, short epic songs - Russian epics
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^ The concept of the integrity of a literary text. The inner world of a literary work.

To explain the concept of the integrity of a work of art, you need to dance from the concept of idea. That is Chern. says that in order to accurately reveal an idea, the form must be perfect, and there should not be any unnecessary details. This is called the ideological and artistic expediency of all details. So, only pronunciation created according to such a law is distinguished by integrity (i.e., the unity and necessity of all elements). Analyzing the integrity of a production can be very controversial. Examples: Turgenev “OiD”. Bast shoe-ashtray on P.P.’s table. Kirsanov, talking about his hypocrisy, his desire to seem like a “Russian” person. Or Chekhov’s “Cherry.” garden” all the details are very important. That. we can say that this pronunciation is holistic. ?The totality of all the details, characters and actions that are important for the concept of the fundamental idea of ​​the work constitutes the inner world of the work.

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^ Literary directions. The concept of a literary manifesto.

A literary movement is the works of writers of a particular country and era who have achieved high creative consciousness and adherence to principles, which are manifested in their creation of an aesthetic program that corresponds to their ideological and creative aspirations, in the publication of “manifestos” expressing it. For the first time in history, an entire group of writers rose to the level of awareness of their creative principles in the 17th-18th centuries, when a very powerful literary movement, called classicism, emerged in France. The strength of this movement lay in the fact that its adherents had a very complete and a distinct system of civic-moralistic beliefs and consistently expressed them in their work. The manifesto of French classicism was Boileau’s poetic treatise “Poetic Art”: Poetry should serve reasonable goals, the idea of ​​moral duty to society, civil service. Each genre must have its own specific focus and an artistic form corresponding to it. In developing this system of genres, poets and playwrights should rely on the creative achievements of ancient literature. Particularly important then was the requirement that works of drama should contain the unity of time, place and action. The program of Russian classicism was created in the late 40s. 18th century through the efforts of Sumarokov and Lomonosov and largely repeated Boileau’s theory. An inherent advantage of classicism: it required high discipline of creativity. The principle of creative thought, the permeation of the entire figurative system with a single idea, deep correspondence ideological content and artistic form are the undoubted advantages of this direction. Romanticism arose at the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries. The Romantics viewed their work as the antithesis of classicism. They opposed any “rules” that restrict the freedom of creativity, invention, and inspiration. They have

creativity had its own normativity - emotional. The creative force of creativity was not their mind, but romantic experiences in their historical abstraction and the resulting subjectivity. In leading national literatures In Europe, almost at the same time, romantic works of religious-moralistic and, in contrast, civil content arose. The authors of these works created the corresponding programs in the process of their creative self-awareness and thereby shaped literary directions. From the second half of the 20s. 19th century In the literature of advanced European countries, the active development of a realistic depiction of life began. Realism is the faithful reproduction of the social characters of characters in their internal patterns created by the circumstances of the social life of a particular country and era. The most important ideological prerequisite was the emergence of historicism in public consciousness advanced writers, the ability to realize the uniqueness of the social life of their historical era, and hence other historical eras. Showing the cognitive power of creative thought in the critical exposure of the contradictions of life, realists of the 19th century. At the same time, they revealed weakness in understanding the prospects for its development, and hence in the artistic embodiment of their ideals. Their ideals, like those of the classicists and romantics, were to one degree or another historically abstract. Therefore the images goodies turned out to be somewhat schematic and normative. Began its development in European literature of the 19th century. realism, resulting from the historicism of writers' thinking, was critical realism. Literary associations issue manifestos expressing the general sentiments of a particular group. Manifestos appear at the moment of formation of lit. groups. For literature from the 20th century. manifestos are uncharacteristic (the symbolists first created and then wrote manifestos). The manifesto allows you to look at the future activities of the group and immediately determine what makes it stand out. As a rule, the manifesto (in the classic version, anticipating the activities of the group) turns out to be paler than the lit. current, cat. he imagines.
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^ Contents of a literary work. The author's and objective idea in a literary work.

Content of a literary work Reproducing life in words, using all the possibilities of human speech, fiction surpasses all other types of art in the versatility, diversity and richness of its content. Content is often called what is directly depicted in the text, what can be retold after reading it. But it is not exactly. If this is an epic or dramatic work, then you can predict what happened to the hero or tell about the events. Pictured in lyrical work it is absolutely impossible to retell. Therefore, it is necessary to distinguish between what is known in a work and what is depicted in it. Characters are depicted, creatively created, fictitious by the writer, endowed with all kinds of individual characteristics, placed in certain relationships. Contents: the work contains different aspects, for the definition of which there are three terms - thematic, problematic, ideological and emotional assessment. Topics are those phenomena of life that are reflected in a particular statement, in a work, in particular fiction. The problematic is the writer’s ideological understanding of the social characters that he depicted in the work. This comprehension lies in the fact that the writer highlights and strengthens those saints, relationships of the characters depicted, which he, based on his ideological worldview, considers the most beings. Works of art, art. Literary writers in particular always express the ideological and emotional attitude of writers to those social characters which they depict. It is in the ideological assessment of the characteristic that the ideological essence of artistic works is most clearly and powerfully manifested. liters.
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^ The difference between scientific and artistic thinking.

Art and science are not the same thing, but their difference is not in the content, but only in the way of processing this content. Phil uses arguments, the poet uses images and pictures, but both say the same thing. The poet, armed with a lively and vivid language, shows, acting on the imagination of the readers, and the philosopher on the mind. One proves, the other shows, and both convince, only one with logical arguments, the other with pictures. But few listen and understand the first, everyone listens to the second. Science and art are equally necessary, and neither science can replace art, nor the art of science...
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^ The concept of interpretation.

Interpretation is the interpretation of a work of art, comprehension of its meaning, ideas, concepts. And-I is carried out as a re-registration of thin. content, i.e. through its translation into conceptual-logical (literary criticism, the main genres of literary criticism), lyrical-journalistic (essay) or other art. language (theater, cinema, graphics). Interpretation already took place in antiquity (Socrates interpreted the meaning of Simonides' songs). The theoretical foundations of interpretation were formed by interpreters Holy Scripture; their positions were further developed by romantic aesthetics. In Russian literary criticism, the term “interpretation” appeared in the 1920s, but gained relevance only in the 70s. Holy in-ii: it preserves the meaning of the original work, while at the same time new meaning appears in the interpreted work. The author always brings something new, his own, into the interpreted work, no matter how hard he tries to translate the original. The content always includes the perception of the interpreter. Reasons for change - the interpreter must explain things that have disappeared from our everyday life over time. In such cases, comments from the author are required. When interpreting, there is always a semantic residue that cannot be interpreted.
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