Definition of attention and its types. The process of selective concentration. Main types of attention

Man is a complex creature. 3 components define an individual: spirit, mind and body. Each of its hypostases performs its own functions. The psyche, being a reflection of reality, helps to adapt to the environment, somehow change it or change yourself. The human psyche carries out several vital important processes that help in activities. Attention in a person’s life is difficult to overestimate. It helps us learn, think, select the necessary information, and so on. What exactly does attention do for us, how is it characterized, and how to develop it? We will try to answer all questions.

Mental process - attention

Many people have heard and often use such a phrase as human attention. Psychology defines this concept as the process of directed and concentrated fixation of consciousness on specific objects, as a result of which they are presented clearly and clearly.

Attention is responsible for several important actions in our consciousness, with the help of which we can perceive information and choose from a large amount of it exactly what we need. The main functions of this mental process are:

• Stimulating necessary work and slowing down unnecessary mental processes at a given time. For example, we need to remember several sentences verbatim. During this period of time, analysis of this text is irrelevant, so processes such as memory, will, speech are immediately involved, and thinking (specifically, analysis) and sensation fade into the background. Of course, all mental processes are interconnected, so there are dominant and secondary processes.
• Provides sifting of information perceived by us in accordance with our needs in a specific period of time. For example, we read a newspaper and want to see a recipe there New Year's salad. We all read, but special attention and memorization are directed specifically at this salad.
• Ensuring selectivity and concentration on a specific object or action for a long time. In this function we have already touched a little on the types of attention in psychology, so we will explain them in more detail.

What types of this mental process are there?

Since attention is multifaceted, due to the fact that other mental processes also take place in its action, its varieties are classified from several sides. So, the types of attention in psychology are divided depending on the leading analyzer, the activity in which this process is involved, the focus on a specific object, and so on.

According to the type of activity in which this mental process takes part, it can be:

• sensory-perceptual (receiving information using the senses, for example, when a person listens to music or follows the movement of an object);
• intellectual (we are attentive to any problem being solved, this process begins its action during mental operations);
• motor (this type of attention actively manifests itself during complex movements, for example, among athletes or stuntmen).

In some cases, these types are combined into one process. This happens during complex surgical operations, among engineers working with equipment, and so on.

Types of attention in psychology also differ according to the analyzer: olfactory, auditory, gustatory, kinesthetic, visual and others.

Attention may differ in focus:

• internal - a person focuses on the sensations that bother him inside the body, which very often happens with the acute manifestation of a disease or an unstable state of mind;
• external - the process is aimed at the external environment, the world;
• Borderline is not internal sensations, but those that come from the surface of the skin and mucous membranes.

The mental process is also divided according to the degree of volitional control. These types of attention are analyzed most often in psychology, especially in children. The volitional sphere is very complex, requiring constant development not only at an early age, but also in adults. The strength of the personality itself is assessed by willpower in life, therefore the mechanisms of its development and action are of great importance for the manifestation of attention.

1. Involuntary attention is almost always observed in young children until they are able to show their will. This look happens to all adults when we see something interesting, bright or hear a sudden sound. In this case, no effort is made to concentrate. A test can be a sudden clap of hands in a circle of friends - even those who are not participating in the conversation will see what is happening there. Sometimes each person has his own object of involuntary attention. It depends on his needs in a specific period of time.
2. Voluntary attention is considered to be attention that is controlled by the will. To achieve our goal, even if we are not interested in something, we focus our attention on a specific action or object. The process of holding this type of mental process on an object can be strengthened with the help of actions aimed at this object and the removal of any distracting stimuli. The development of voluntary attention begins at the age of 3-4 years, when the child is already able, if necessary, to keep it on an object or perform certain actions that are not interesting to him. A striking example is learning a rhyme in kindergarten or collecting toys.
3. Post-voluntary, in other words - transitional, first requires certain efforts, then turns into unintentional (involuntary) attention. This happens when preparing for exams - at first it is difficult to force ourselves, then the information interests us, and we plunge into it headlong.

What are the properties of attention in psychology?

They help us understand what mental operations we perform. Also, with their help, we can cover several objects with attention and change focus, depending on the circumstances. Attention properties are divided into two subgroups based on how many objects or actions we want to cover: those directed to a single object and many.

Directed to one object:

• Concentration - we often encounter this property in everyday life. It often happens that a person is playing or reading and cannot get enough of it. In this case, he has a well-developed concentration. This is very good property for those who work mentally amid noise. Children who cannot comprehend the material in class have a low level of concentration.
• Stability - differs from the first property in its duration, active inclusion. Why do elementary school children often have a small number of lessons per day? Because they are not able to actively perceive information for a long time.
• Selectivity - manifests itself when focusing attention on one or several objects. The properties of attention are characterized by the fact that they intersect with each other very closely. This property is similar to concentration, that is, it manifests itself as selective concentration among any stimuli, most often noise. Selectivity is more needed during mental work.

The next group includes the properties of attention in psychology, which are aimed at a certain number of objects.

• Distribution - a person performs several tasks at the same time (with full awareness). A striking example This property is the behavior of Julius Caesar, who could perform many actions at the same time. But such people are rare, because it is impossible to consciously and concentratedly do 4-7 actions. Most often, many achieve this result by performing two actions, when one of them is reduced to automatism. If someone thinks they can act like Julius Caesar, they are confusing distribution with the following property, described below.
• Switchability is a characteristic of attention, its property in which a person consciously moves attention from one object to another. This can happen quickly, making it seem like several things are happening at once. This property is extremely necessary for us in everyday life, as it helps us navigate and adapt to an ever-changing situation. Switchability is easy to train.
• Volume is the amount of information that we can think about clearly and clearly at the same time. Our brain cannot analyze all incoming information from the outside, so the task of attention is to split it up. This happens with the help of volume, which from birth practically does not change during training. Almost all people have an attention span of 5 plus or minus 2.

The relationship between memory and attention

Memory and attention in psychological science are considered two closely related processes. First, we adapt to a changing situation, highlighting the objects we need, then we remember them. The types and properties of memory are already connected here.

In addition, they are similar in the quality of information received. Both memory and attention depend on having a sensory experience while concentrating on an object and remembering it. This mechanism of perception is associated with our attitude to information, as well as our emotional mood at the moment.

Our psyche is truly very interesting. We can walk down the street, knowing where to step over a hole in the road, and not be aware of it at all. We often do many things automatically, thinking about something completely different. How does this happen? This is the main characteristic of attention and types of memory: by distributing information from the outside, connecting the processes of memorization, switching and concentration, we will find our way home without error, concentrating on the problems of study or work.

Emotions and attention, or What is the benefit of impressions?

When we accept useful information, we want it to be remembered well. But this is not always possible - we could get distracted at that moment, switch to something else, and so on. Therefore, our impressions come to the rescue here. Interest in an impressive object makes us attentive, and the emotions that arise help develop long-term memory. By focusing on what emotions we had and what impressions we had after certain information, we can easily remember its essence.

Peculiarities of children's attention

A child is born as Blank sheet- helpless, tender and trembling. From the very beginning, during the normal course of pregnancy and childbirth, all the mental processes that develop throughout life are present. As for attention, this mental process is also inherent in the child - he focuses his gaze on his mother, studies arms and legs, plays with toys, loves to draw and watch cartoons. All his activities do not go unnoticed. At the same time, there is a small, but very important nuance- kids cannot specifically focus on something. In early childhood, the active type of attention is involuntary. With its help, the child actively learns and adapts to the environment, as defined by the science of psychology. The types and properties of attention at this age are aimed at learning and perceiving new information about everything that surrounds the baby.

Only by the age of 3-5 years does voluntary attention begin to form, with the help of which the child can already carry out some instructions and tasks, but it is still very difficult for him to concentrate on an object for a long time. During this period, involuntary attention comes to the fore.

IN school age When the formation of a holistic personality occurs, the development of voluntary and post-voluntary attention gradually gains momentum. The teacher plays a very significant role in the development of this mental process, its types and properties. It is teachers who help the student organize his attention, thereby developing such properties as concentration, distribution, selectivity, and switchability. During the period of secondary school, the child has already decided on the direction in which he is interested, in which he would like to develop. If there are no health problems (for example, hyperactivity, which directly depends on the properties of attention), after school he has no problems absorbing information and concentrating on it.

What changes does attention undergo during adolescence and adulthood?

In adolescence, the main type of activity is educational and professional. It is in this activity that the mental process under discussion continues to develop. The mechanism, which is defined as the development of attention, at this age includes such personality structures as orientation, abilities, motivation, formation of a worldview, and others. Boys and girls pay their attention to what is first of all interesting to them, and then they force themselves to perceive the information, showing interest in it later. Thus, in adolescence, a person has all types of attention and its properties, continuing to develop.

The development of attention (psychology defines childhood and adolescence as peak periods for the mental process under consideration) in adulthood occurs due to the previously formed value orientations of an adult. The desire not to remain at the achieved level, the constant search for new information, the desire to learn more new things, to practice, to improve - these are the main internal driving forces, motives that help a person develop not only attention, but also other cognitive processes. At this age, there may still be certain limitations that interfere with the development process, for example, a low level of education, stress, destructive personal qualities and habits.

Mental process in older people

Age itself makes us think that attention problems may theoretically arise. A decrease in memory and attention functionality does occur among older people. In the period after 60-65 years, structural changes occur in the brain, which are accompanied by neurophysiological and neurochemical aging processes. Compensatory brain functions also decrease due to changes in neuronal plasticity. Consequently old man cannot adapt to changes in the environment, which means that one of the main functions of attention is affected. In addition, people in old age begin to be attacked by various vascular and degenerative diseases. You can support your body by watching your diet, doing simple tasks, and leading a healthy lifestyle.

Diagnosis of attention

To study the characteristics of human attention, psychologists use test materials. There are many of them, but each test is aimed at a specific type and quality of attention. There are universal methods that allow you to find out the level of development of attention in general. Most often, such tests are used for diagnosis in children, adolescents and young adults. In adulthood, narrowly targeted questionnaires with a professional bias are used.

The main methods for studying attention are: the Münsterberg method, Schulte tables, the “10 words” method and some others, depending on the purpose of the study. These tasks are determined by the science of psychology. Topic "Attention" in Lately arises very often, since problems associated with this mental process attack children of preschool and school age, even adults suffer from a lack of concentration, distribution and switching.

How to develop this mental process?

Not only psychologists, but also doctors, speech therapists, speech therapists, and teachers are involved in the development of attention. Since much in our lives depends on this mental process, there are entire programs for the research and development of individual types and properties.

In psychological practice, increasing the level of attention functioning is carried out in two ways: individual correctional classes and group ones; sometimes we can observe elements of correction of this process in personality development trainings. For this, the specialist selects special exercises, depending on what age group he will work with. You can develop attention on your own by finding some picture exercises in which you need to find or track something, or perform certain actions.

Attention.

DIDACTIC PLAN.

The psychological essence of attention and its properties. Physiological basis of attention. Definition of attention. Properties of attention: stability, concentration, volume, switchability, distribution, intensity, absent-mindedness.

Functions and types of attention. Auditory signals. Visual signals. Types of attention: socialization, indirectness, arbitrariness.

Psychological theories of attention. General theoretical approaches to the study of attention. Experimental models of attention from cognitive psychology. Model with Broadbent filtration. Treisman divider model. The Deutsch/Norman model of appropriateness. Analysis of experimental models of attention. The connection between the level of arousal and attention in Kahneman's theory.

Development of attention.

PSYCHOLOGICAL ESSENCE OF ATTENTION AND ITS PROPERTIES.

A person is continuously affected by many objects and phenomena with different properties. Of all this, only a little is clearly perceived by him at any given moment. Everything else is either not noticed at all, or is noticed vaguely, indefinitely. Remembering, imagining, thinking, a person also focuses on something specific, limited (which is the object of ideas or thoughts), distracting from everything else. The same is true for all types of mental activity.

Physiological basis of attention.

The physiological basis of attention is the concentration of excitation in certain areas of the cerebral cortex, in the focus of optimal excitability (I.P. Pavlov), with more or less significant inhibition at the same time of other areas of the cortex. This occurs according to the law of negative induction, according to which, as mentioned above, excitation of some areas of the cortex causes inhibition in other areas.

The focus of optimal excitability does not remain for a long time in the same place of the cortex, but constantly moves from one area of ​​the cerebral cortex to another. The area that was in a state of optimal excitability appears after some time in an inhibited state, and where there was inhibition before, excitation arises, and a new focus of optimal excitability appears.

Externally, attention is expressed in facial expressions, in human movements, which have a slightly different character depending on what type of activity we are engaged in, what objects we perceive, and what exactly our attention is directed to.

External signs attention do not always correspond to its actual state. Along with real attention and real inattention, apparent attention and apparent inattention are observed (V.I. Strakhov) as a discrepancy between the external form of attention and its true state.

Since at every moment there is a focus of optimal excitability somewhere in the cerebral cortex, this means that a person is always attentive to something. Therefore, when we talk about lack of attention, it means the absence of attention not to anything, but only to what it should be directed to at the moment. We call a person inattentive only because his attention is directed not to the work in which he should participate, but to something extraneous.

The presence of a focus of optimal excitability provides the best reflection, under given conditions, of what affects the brain. This determines the most important role of attention in a person’s cognitive activity, and at the same time in his work activity, since cognitive processes are involved in any human activity.

The principle of dominance introduced by A.A. Ukhtomsky is of particular importance for understanding the physiological mechanisms of attention. According to Ukhtomsky, each observed motor effect is determined by the nature of the dynamic interaction of the cortical and subcortical centers, the actual needs of the organism, and the history of the organism as a biological system. The dominant is characterized by inertia, i.e. the tendency to be maintained and repeated when the external environment has changed and the stimuli that once caused this dominant no longer act on the central nervous system. Inertia disrupts the normal regulation of behavior when it becomes a source of obsessive images, but it also acts as an organizing principle of intellectual activity.

By the mechanism of dominance, Ukhtomsky explained a wide range of mental acts - attention (its focus on certain objects, concentration on them and selectivity); the objective nature of thinking (isolating individual complexes from a variety of environmental stimuli, each of which is perceived by the body as a specific real object).

Definition of attention.

The important role of attention does not mean, however, that it provides a clear reflection (perception, representation, understanding) of what is its object. Listening, even very carefully, to the sounds of speech flying from afar, you may not be able to make out the words that are being spoken. However, they are heard and recognized in these cases (if there is attention to them), still better than when there is no attention to them, focused on something else. Attention provides only a relatively greater clarity of reflection of what is its object, but this is of great importance for the success of the activity being performed.

Modern psychology uses the following general definition of attention: attention- the process of conscious or unconscious (semi-conscious) selection of one information coming through the senses, and ignoring another.

Attention research examines four main aspects: attentional capacity and selectivity, arousal level, attentional control, and consciousness.

Many modern theories of attention assume that the observer is always surrounded by many cues. The capabilities of our nervous system are too limited to sense all these millions of external stimuli, but even if we detected all of them, the brain would not be able to process them, since our information processing capacity is also limited. Our senses, like other means of communication, work quite well if the amount of information processed is within their capabilities; When overloaded, a failure occurs.

In foreign psychology, problems of attention began to be actively developed in 1958, when D. Broadbent wrote in his acclaimed book “Perception and Communication” that perception is the result of the operation of an information processing system with limited bandwidth. Essential to Broadbent's theory was the idea that the world contains the possibility of receiving a much larger number of sensations than can be captured by human perceptual and cognitive abilities. Therefore, in order to cope with the flow of incoming information, people selectively direct attention only to some signs and “detach” from the rest.

For a long time it was believed that it was possible to pay attention to one feature only at the expense of another. If we try to understand several messages at the same time, especially similar ones, we will have to sacrifice accuracy. Our everyday experience tells us that we pay more attention to some features of the environment than to others, and that those features to which we pay attention tend to go through further processing, while those that do not receive it may not undergo further processing. . Which signs we pay attention to and which ones we don’t depend on a certain amount of control over the situation on our part and on our long-term experience. In all cases, the attention mechanism switches to some stimuli, preferring them to others, although not all of the latter are necessarily completely excluded from attention: they can be monitored and filtered out.

The fact that our attention is selective has several explanations. First, our ability to process information is limited by “bandwidth.” Second, we have some control over where we pay our attention. If two characters speak at the same time, we can choose which one to listen to. Third, the perception of events is related to our “arousal level,” which in turn is related to our interest. Finally, what you pay attention to is part of your conscious experience. These four topics constitute the “hot spot” of attention research.

Properties of attention.

When characterizing attention, they distinguish the degree of its concentration (concentration), which determines such quantities as the volume of attention, its intensity (or intensity), distribution of attention, its stability or distractibility, switching of attention. The opposite of attention is distraction. The properties (quality) of attention are presented in Fig. 1.

Rice. 1. Qualities of attention.

Thus, there are five main properties of attention, which we will consider below.

Sustainability of attention.

Sustainability of attention- a property of attention, manifested in the ability to maintain a state of attention for a long time on any object, subject of activity, without being distracted or weakening attention.

This is its characteristic over time. Stability of attention does not mean focusing it all the time on the same object. The objects of action and the actions themselves can change (and most often they do change), but the general direction of the activity must remain constant. However, the general direction of activity, determined by the task that must be completed (read or write a given text, etc.), continues to remain the same all the time. They speak of sustained attention, therefore, when a person is absorbed for a long time in some activity subordinated to one task.

Physiologically, stability of attention means that the foci of optimal excitability are consistently those areas of the cerebral cortex that regulate actions that are links in one activity.

One of the important conditions for stability of attention is the variety of impressions or actions performed. Anything monotonous quickly reduces attention. With prolonged exposure to the same stimulus, excitation, due to negative induction, causes inhibition in the same area of ​​the cortex, and this serves as the physiological basis for decreased attention. It is difficult to maintain attention for a long time on one thing. If there is a change in objects or actions performed, attention remains at a high level for a long time. In order to maintain attention on one thing for a long time, one must constantly reveal more and more new aspects of the same thing, pose different questions in relation to it, perform different actions subordinate to the common goal that is being pursued. K.S. Stanislavsky correctly characterized the meaning of this condition, saying that in order to be attentive, it is not enough, even very closely, to look at an object, but it is necessary to consider it from different points of view, to diversify its perception.

To be attentive, it is especially important to perform any actions with the object. This maintains the active state of the cerebral cortex, which is necessary to maintain optimal excitability of its individual areas, which is characteristic of attention.

Great importance have outwardly expressed practical actions with objects, operating with them. This contributes to the variety of impressions received, a more complete, versatile acquaintance with the subject, and better perception of it.

Internal, mental activity is also of great importance, which should be aimed at solving such problems, the content of which requires the best reflection of the object of attention. Setting more and more specific tasks within the same one and actively trying to solve them is one of the most important conditions for sustained attention.

Even when performing simple and repeatedly repeated actions, attention can be maintained for a long time if it is constantly supported by such stimuli that each time require the performance of a certain action.

In Dobrynin’s experiments, subjects had to cross out circles with a pencil that quickly (at a speed of up to three per second) passed in front of them in the window of a screen, behind which there was a tape (rewinding from shaft to shaft) with circles printed on it, moving at a certain speed. The results of the experiments showed that under these conditions the subjects could work without errors (despite the high speed of the belt) for a long time - up to 20 minutes. During this time they had to cross out up to 3,600 circles.

The state opposite to stability of attention is its distractibility. Its physiological basis is either external inhibition caused by extraneous stimuli, or internal inhibition as a result of monotony of activity or prolonged exposure to the same stimuli.

The distracting effect of extraneous stimuli depends on the nature of these stimuli and their relationship to what attention is directed to. Homogeneous stimuli, i.e. those similar to those on which attention is focused have a more distracting effect than dissimilar stimuli. Visual stimuli, for example, when it is necessary to respond to any visual impression, have a more inhibitory effect than in the case when, during the action of extraneous visual stimuli, it is necessary to respond to auditory stimuli.

The nature of the activity that requires attention is very important. Perception, for example, suffers less from the action of extraneous stimuli than mental activity, which is not currently based on the perception of surrounding objects. Of the perceptual processes, visual perception is less affected by extraneous stimuli.

Periodic distraction or weakening of attention, interspersed with a return to the same object or with increased focus on it, is called fluctuations in attention.

Fluctuations in attention occur even during very concentrated work, which is explained by the constant change of excitation and inhibition in the cerebral cortex.

The presence of periodic fluctuations in attention can be clearly detected in the perception of so-called dual images. To reduce fluctuations in attention, it is useful to try to mentally imagine the pyramid as, for example, a pedestal (then it will seem to have its top facing towards us) or like an empty room in which three walls, a floor and a ceiling are visible (then the pyramid will seem to have its top facing away from us). Giving an image a specific objective meaning helps keep attention in one direction.

Small fluctuations in attention are observed very often. In a number of experiments on the study of reaction speed, in which, in response to the action of any stimulus (sound, light), it is required to make a predetermined movement as quickly as possible (for example, pressing an electric key with your hand), it was found that if the stimulus is preceded by a warning signal “Attention!”, then the best result is obtained when this signal is given approximately 2 seconds before the stimulus is presented. With a longer time interval, fluctuations in attention already occur. Such small fluctuations, naturally, turn out to be harmful only when a person is required to react very quickly to some short-term stimulus. In conditions of longer and more varied work, their influence may be negligible.

Not every collateral irritation causes distraction. In the complete absence of any external stimuli, maintaining attention can again be difficult. Weak side stimuli do not reduce, but increase excitation in the focus of increased excitability. The dominant, according to Ukhtomsky, is not weakened, but is supported by excitations caused by the action of side stimuli (unless, of course, due to their inherent characteristics, they are not those that themselves are able to cause a new dominant that corresponds to them).

Focus.

Focus- a property of attention, manifested in the differences that exist in the degree of concentration of attention on some objects and its distraction from others. The narrower the circle of objects of attention, the more concentrated it is.

Physiologically, concentration of attention is a pronounced limitation of the focus of optimal excitability in the cerebral cortex.

The number of objects to which attention is distributed while simultaneously perceiving them is the volume of attention.

Attention span.

Attention span- a property of attention, which is determined by the amount of information that can simultaneously be stored in the sphere of increased attention (consciousness) of a person.

That we selectively direct our attention to some part of all available features is obvious from many ordinary situations.

The amount of attention depends both on the characteristics of the perceived objects and on the task and nature of the activity of the perceiving person.

If, for example, letters are presented for a short period of time that are arranged in a line, but do not make up a word, and asked to identify them, then the number of letters named in this case is significantly less than when letters that make up one or more words are shown. In the first case, a clear perception of each letter is required to complete the task. In the second case, the same problem is solved even if the perception of some of the letters forming the word is not clear enough.

Significant changes in the amount of attention are observed with variations in many other features of objects. When shown, for example, letters of the same color, the volume of attention is greater than when presented with letters of different colors. With the same arrangement of letters in a line, it is larger than when the letters are placed at different angles to each other. When the letters are of the same size, they are perceived in greater numbers than when they are all of different sizes, etc.

Consequently, during the same task, the amount of attention turns out to be unequal due to differences in the perceived material. However, if the perception task becomes more complicated when presenting the same objects, then the amount of attention can change significantly. Thus, if, when showing letters that do not form a word, the task is to indicate some incorrectnesses made when writing letters, or to name the color of each letter separately (when presented with multi-colored letters), then the number of letters considered in accordance with this task turns out to be smaller, than when you need to name them. The decrease in the amount of attention is caused in these cases by the fact that the specified work requires a clearer perception of each letter separately compared to what is needed only for identifying letters. With the same material, the amount of attention is therefore different due to differences in the task and the nature of perception.

As numerous experiments have shown (conducted for the first time in the laboratory of Wundt et al.), the amount of attention when perceiving objects that are homogeneous, but in no way related to each other in meaning (for example, individual letters) in adults varies on average from 4 to 6 objects.

In laboratory conditions, the following experiments are carried out to determine the volume of attention.

A special apparatus is placed in front of the subject, serving for this purpose - a tachistoscope. In the middle of the vertical plane of this device, an exposure card is fixed, on which a number of letters, or numbers, or some figures are drawn. In front of this plane there is a falling screen, which has a slot in the middle, the area being equal to the exposure card. Before the experiment begins, the card is covered with the lower part of the screen raised up. When the screen falls, the card is temporarily opened (when a slot in the screen passes past it) and then closed again by the lowered upper part of the screen. The exposure duration is limited to a short period of time in order to make the perception of all objects as simultaneous as possible. Usually this time does not exceed 0.1 seconds, since during this period the eye does not have time to make any noticeable movements and the perception of objects practically occurs simultaneously. The number of objects perceived during such a short-term display characterizes the amount of attention.

To test the scope of attention, you can use cards with images of various objects presented for a short period of time (for example, see Fig. 2).

Rice. 2. Attention span (watch for 3-4 s, then list the items that you remember)

Switching attention.

Switching attention- a property manifested in the speed of transfer of attention from one object to another.

In many cases, switching attention is deliberate and is caused by the fact that we have either completed previous work or consider the new one more important or interesting. If, when attention is turned off, the activity being performed is disrupted (due to the action of extraneous stimuli), then when attention is switched, there is a legitimate change from one activity to another. And the faster it is carried out, the faster the switching of attention occurs. On the contrary, the prolonged aftereffect of previous activity, its inhibitory influence on new activity, means a slow and insufficient switching of attention.

The speed and success of switching attention depends on how intensely it was attracted to the previous activity, as well as on the nature of new objects and new actions to which it is transferred. The more intense attention was previously and the less new objects (or new activities) meet the conditions for attracting attention, the more difficult it is to switch it.

Physiologically, switching attention means the occurrence of inhibition in the previously existing focus of excitation and the appearance in the cerebral cortex of a new focus of optimal excitability.

Distribution of attention.

Distribution of attention- a property of attention, manifested in the ability to disperse attention over a significant space, simultaneously perform several types of activities or perform several different actions.

Various techniques are used to study the distribution of attention (Fig. 3).

In the laboratory, the distribution of attention can be studied, for example, under working conditions on a special support. A metal plate with a slot of one shape or another is fixed on its upper surface. A metal needle can move along this slot, driven by two rotating caliper handles. The rotation of one of them gives the needle a longitudinal direction, the rotation of the other - a transverse direction. By simultaneously rotating both handles, you can move the needle in any direction. The subject’s task is to distribute attention between two actions (rotating both handles) and move the needle so that it does not touch the edge of the slot (otherwise a current short circuit will result, registering an error). In all such cases, a special organization of activity is required, which characterizes the distribution of attention.

The organization of activity that facilitates the distribution of attention is characterized by the fact that only one of the actions is carried out with a fairly complete and clear reflection of what is needed for its implementation, while all other actions are performed with a limited reflection of what is required for them.

How difficult it is to achieve such a distribution of attention under the influence of heterogeneous stimuli coinciding in time can be judged by the fact that usually in these cases one of the stimuli is noticed first and only after some (even a very short) time the second one. You can verify this using:

the so-called complication apparatus (intended for experiments with complication, i.e. a combination of heterogeneous stimuli). The device consists of a dial with 100 divisions, along which the arrow rotates rapidly. When the arrow passes through one of the divisions, a bell rings. The subject's task is to determine which division the arrow was on when the bell rang. Usually the subject does not name the division on which the arrow was at the time of the bell, but either the one preceding it or the one following it. His attention, therefore, is directed first to one stimulus (bell or arrow position) and only then, with some delay, to another.

Physiologically, the distribution of attention is possible because, while there is a dominant focus of excitation in the cerebral cortex, in some other areas of the cortex there is only partial inhibition, as a result of which these areas can control simultaneously performed actions.

The more familiar and automated the actions are, the greater the possibility of performing actions with partial inhibition of the corresponding areas of the cerebral cortex. Therefore, the simultaneous execution of actions is easier, the better a person has mastered them. This is one of the most important conditions for the distribution of attention.

In Dobrynin's experiments (using work on a support), the subjects were forced to perform mental calculations simultaneously with work on the support. The study showed that such a combination of mental work with complex manual work is possible if the work on the support is performed more or less automatically.

The relationship in which simultaneously performed actions stand to each other is also significant. If they are not connected, it becomes difficult to perform them simultaneously. On the contrary, if, due to their content or frequent repetition in previous experience, they have already formed a certain system of actions, their simultaneous implementation is easier.

Intensity attention.

Intensity attention characterized by the degree of its focus on these objects and simultaneous distraction from everything else. This is the most vivid reflection of what characterizes attention in general. With intense attention, a person is completely absorbed in what attention is directed to, and does not see or hear, in addition to this, anything that happens around him.

High intensity of attention is achieved when what characterizes the conditions of attention is present to the maximum extent (the action of strong stimuli that stand out sharply against the general background, interest in an object or phenomenon, their importance for solving the problem facing a person, etc.) .

The physiological basis of intense attention is the presence of pronounced excitation in one of the brain foci with equally pronounced inhibition of other areas of the cortex. The action of extraneous stimuli in these cases does not (or hardly causes) inhibition in the focus of optimal excitability that occurs in other conditions of the cortex.

Both of these features of attention - its concentration and intensity - are closely related. The narrower the circle of objects to which attention is directed, the more opportunity increased attention to them. And vice versa, the more objects are covered by attention, the more difficult it is to achieve a high level of attention. When intense attention to something is required, the circle of objects to which it is directed narrows.

Absent-mindedness.

The opposite of attention is absent-mindedness. This is a state when a person cannot hold his attention to anything thoroughly and for a long time, is constantly distracted by strangers, and nothing attracts his attention for a long time, but now gives way to something else.

This state, characterized by complete disorganization of activity, often occurs in a state of great fatigue. Physiologically, it means the absence of any strong and persistent focus of excitation in the cerebral cortex. It may also be based on the very high mobility of nervous processes - the speed and ease of excitation changing with inhibition in the same areas of the cerebral cortex.

It is important to note that absent-mindedness is often called the completely opposite state just mentioned, characterized not by a lack of concentration, not by low intensity, not by insufficient stability of attention, but, on the contrary, by its high intensity and prolonged retention on one thing, due to which a person is completely incapable of attention. notices everything else, forgets what he had to do, etc. Such absent-mindedness in many cases is also highly undesirable, but it speaks not of lack of attention, but of its qualitative originality - its maximum subordination to any one task and complete distraction from everything else.

FUNCTIONS AND TYPES OF ATTENTION.

Attention characterizes the consistency of various links in the functional structure of an action, which determines the success of its implementation (for example, the speed and accuracy of completing a task). There are three functions of attention:

1. First function of attention– activation of necessary and inhibition of unnecessary psychological and physiological processes.

2. Second function of attention– promoting organized and targeted selection of incoming information.

3. The third function of attention- ensuring selective and long-term concentration of mental activity on the same object or type of activity.

IN Western psychology A large amount of experimental material has been accumulated concerning the functions of attention. The reason why humans pay attention selectively to some features is often attributed to insufficient channel capacity or our inability to process all sensory features simultaneously. This view suggests that there is a bottleneck somewhere in information processing, driven in part by neurological capabilities.

As for the amount of information that a person reacts to and remembers, there appears to be an additional sensory limitation.

Within the framework of the information approach, several models have been proposed that define the function and localization of this “bottleneck”. One of these models, associated with Broadbent, assumes that the bottleneck is at or just before the stage of perceptual analysis: some “overlooked” piece of information is simply not transferred for further perceptual analysis. According to another model described in Deutsch's publication, the bottleneck is at or immediately before the selection stage of the responsible response. According to this model, all information is subjected to perceptual analysis, but only part of it is responded to.

Studies of selective attention and bandwidth were conducted using auditory and visual signals.

Auditory signals.

Information approach to attention in to a large extent associated with hearing research. Cherry's research led to the development of an experimental procedure called shading and which then became a popular method for studying auditory attention. In this technique, the subject is asked to repeat a verbal message exactly as it was presented. This is not difficult if the speech is slow, but if the speech is pronounced quickly, the subject will not be able to repeat all the information received. Many of us have experienced this, at least in a game. Cherry's experiments, however, had one more feature: two auditory messages were presented simultaneously - one of them should be “tinted”, and the other should be ignored. Sometimes these messages were presented through headphones, sometimes through speaker systems located in different places. Cherry notes that subjects cope successfully with a wide variety of texts, although they admit it is very difficult. Since both messages are read by the same speaker, there are no cues to help differentiate the voices as in ordinary life when talking at a party. And furthermore, when both messages are recorded on tape and then played back through headphones, all binaural directional cues are also absent.

Cherry found that despite the subjects' ability to shadow messages, they remembered quite little of them. Perhaps most of the information processing occurred in temporary memory, so permanent storage and understanding of the message was lacking. A message that was not given attention was much less remembered. When speech was presented as a message, subjects noted that they recognized it as speech. But when the English language was replaced by German in the ignored channel, they did not notice it. The ability to focus on one message and inhibit processing information from another message is an important human characteristic: it allows us to process a limited amount of information without overloading the processing mechanisms.

Since in Cherry's experiments many of the main features were eliminated, the subject had to focus on some other features, which, apparently, are related to the laws of the linguistic structure of language. Throughout our lives, a person learns a lot about phonetics, letter combinations, syntax, phrase structure, sound patterns, speech cliches and grammar. Thanks to the ability to pay attention to the subtlest cues of context and immediately compare them with knowledge about the language, a person can understand speech even when it is masked by a lot of auditory noise. For anomalous messages – i.e. those that are not consistent with the conventions and intricacies of the lexico-grammatical structure of the native language - require powerful signaling characteristics in order to be admitted to the upper stage of the cognitive system; at the same time, well-known messages are processed more easily. The fate of “forgotten” messages is of great theoretical interest. What portion, if any, of information from channels not accompanied by attention is lost to the individual?

In at least one of Morey's experiments, information received in the deaf ear was not retained by subjects listening in the opposite channel, despite the fact that some words were repeated about 35 times. Even when Moray warned his subjects that they would be asked to repeat some of the information coming through the ignored channel, they could reproduce very little. Then Moray took an important step: he made sure that the message in the ignored channel was preceded by the name of the subject. Under this condition, this message was accepted more often. However, the pressure to pay attention to a single message is very strong, and except for special information, little will be accepted beyond what comes through the main channel.

Let's think about what cognitive mechanism can explain these results. There is no reason to believe that the ears received unequal stimulation at the sensory level. Nor is there any evidence that one of the messages did not reach the auditory cortex. Therefore, the explanation of selective attention must be sought in an information processing paradigm that explains to us how messages are controlled by attention and how it is that uncontrolled messages are sometimes processed.

Visual signals.

The phenomena discussed above for the most part have a parallel in visual perception. Most people can (as with auditory stimuli) reproduce some of the information from a source not under attentional control, even when they are consciously trying to pay attention to only one message. We may focus on one source but be more or less aware of other events occurring at the same time.

In a similar experiment on visual attention, conducted within the framework of the information approach, Neisser demonstrated what he called selective reading, in which the subject reads lines of the same color from text typed in different colors. If the subject pays attention to only one color, and if this attention precludes all processing of information printed in another color, then information in that other color should not be noticed. For the most part, this is exactly what happened. Even repeated words in the ignored visual channel were not recognized, but material with a strong impact on consciousness (for example, the name of the subject) and presented through the ignored channel was often noticed.

A technically complex experiment on selective visual attention was conducted by Neisser and Beklen. They used two videos of two different scenes. The first plot involved a game against a chalkboard background, with one player attempting to slap an opponent's hand. (Neisser and Beckler themselves acted in this comic scene). The second sequence depicted three men tossing a basketball and moving around a room. These two episodes were superimposed on each other, and subjects were asked to monitor what was happening in only one of them; Subjects indicated which episode they were observing by pressing a button at the moment when something significant happened in the observed episode. The subjects had no difficulty tracking one of the episodes; they rarely noted unusual events from another episode. They found it very difficult to keep track of both episodes. These results can be explained by several reasons. First, the ignored episode must have been observed in peripheral vision for a significant portion of the time, which would have precluded the perception of some of its features, given the poor quality of peripheral vision.

Socialization of attention.

Every person is born with an orientation reflex, expressed in one way or another. Adequate development of the orientation reflex serves as a basic prerequisite for intellectual development. The primary type of attention, on the basis of which the baby is oriented in the world around him, is called natural attention.

Natural attention- a type of attention given to a person from his very birth in the form of an innate ability to selectively respond to certain external or internal stimuli that carry elements of information novelty.

As the child socializes, he learns to organize natural attention. He directs him to certain objects of interest, which gives him the opportunity to carry out actions of choice and not completely depend on changes in the environment. His attention becomes socially conditioned.

Socially conditioned attention- a type of attention that develops throughout life as a result of training and upbringing, is associated with the volitional regulation of behavior, with a selective conscious response to objects.

Mediocrity of attention.

Processes similar to socialization occur when direct attention is converted into indirect attention.

In the first period of a child’s development, direct attention predominates. Direct attention- a type of attention that is not controlled by anything other than the object to which it is directed and which corresponds to the actual interests and needs of a person. Any unusual phenomenon causes immediate attention: loud noise, sudden changes in color background, strong unexpected odors, etc.

As a person develops, he begins to control his attention, it becomes indirect. Indirect attention- a type of attention that is regulated using special means, for example, gestures, words, pointing signs, objects. The duration and quality of attention begin to depend not so much on the stimulus that evokes attention, but on the will and conscious effort of the person himself.

Arbitrariness of attention.

The third category by which attention is divided into two types is voluntariness. This is one of the most important qualities of attention, so we will pay special attention to it. There are two types of attention - voluntary and involuntary. In addition to the above, N.F. Dobrynin also identified a third type - post-voluntary attention.

Table 1

Involuntary attention- a type of attention that is not associated with the participation of the will.

The focus of mental activity on certain objects or phenomena can arise unintentionally, involuntarily, due to the very characteristics of the stimuli affecting a person (objects and phenomena of reality). Thus, the attention that arises is accordingly called unintentional, involuntary.

The source of involuntary attention is also changes, “fluctuations” in the environment, the appearance of some previously absent stimulus, or any change in the stimuli currently in effect.

The simplest and initial form of involuntary attention is the orienting reflex, those orienting movements that are caused by a change in the environment and through which the perceptive apparatus is established in such a way that the best reflection of the stimulus under given conditions is achieved.

Involuntary attention is attracted, however, not by any changes in the environment. Other stimuli acting at the moment can inhibit the orienting reflex. In order for a new stimulus to become an object of attention, it must have certain features that would facilitate its isolation from everything that affects a person at the moment.

The characteristics of stimuli that evoke attention include, first of all, the strength of the stimulus. Strong stimuli: bright light and colors, loud sounds, pungent smells - easily attract attention, since according to the law of force, the stronger the stimulus, the greater the excitement caused by it, and, consequently, the conditioned reflex to it. And this, in turn, entails an increase in the negative induction caused by this excitation, i.e. increased inhibition in other areas of the cerebral cortex. Of great importance is not only the absolute, but also the relative strength of irritation, that is, the ratio of irritation in strength to other irritants that constitute, as it were, the background against which it appears. Even a strong stimulus may not attract attention if it is given against the background of other strong stimuli. In the street noise of a big city, individual, even strong, sounds do not attract attention, although they will easily attract attention if they are heard at night in silence. On the other hand, the weakest stimuli become the object of attention if they are given against the background of the complete absence of other stimuli: the slightest rustle in complete silence around, a very weak light in the dark, etc.

In all these cases, the decisive factor is the contrast between the stimuli. It plays a very important role in attracting involuntary attention. And this applies not only to the strength of the stimuli, but also to their other features. For any significant difference - in shape, size, color, duration of action, etc. - the person pays attention. A small object stands out more easily from large ones; long sound - among abrupt, short sounds; colored circle - among circles painted in a different color. The number attracts attention among the letters; foreign word - if it is in the Russian text; triangle - when it is drawn among squares. Attention is attracted, although usually not for long, by repeated changes in stimuli that systematically follow each other: such as, for example, periodic intensification or weakening of sound, light, etc. The movement of objects works in a similar way.

An important source of involuntary attention is the novelty of objects and phenomena. New things easily become the subject of attention. Everything is formulaic, stereotypical, and does not attract attention. The new serves as an object of attention, however, to the extent that it can be understood or encourages comprehension. And for this it must find support in past experience. If this is not the case, the new does not attract attention for long. The unconditioned orienting reflex fades away soon. In order for attention to be long-lasting, conditioned orienting reactions are necessary, a whole chain of them, which is possible only when in new objects and phenomena, in addition to the new, there is also something with which temporary connections have already been formed, i.e. something that is already associated with something known. Of great importance in this regard is the presence of knowledge, a person’s awareness in the area to which the object he perceives belongs, as well as the habit of noticing certain objects and phenomena (to which an inexperienced person will not pay attention).

Caused by external stimuli, involuntary attention is significantly determined by the state of the person himself. The same objects or phenomena may or may not attract attention, depending on the state of the person at the moment. An important role is played, first of all, by the needs and interests of people, their attitude towards what affects them. Everything that is connected with the satisfaction or dissatisfaction of needs (both organic, material, and spiritual, cultural), everything that corresponds to interests, to which there is a certain, clearly expressed and especially emotional attitude - all this easily becomes the object of involuntary attention.

Significant role The mood of a person plays a role, which to a large extent determines what will attract attention from everything affecting at the moment.

Fatigue, or vice versa, the cheerful state in which a person is, is also essential. It is well known that in a state of severe fatigue, things that easily attract attention in a cheerful state are often not noticed.

Different from involuntary attention is voluntary attention, which is an arbitrarily, deliberately caused focus of mental activity on certain objects or phenomena (or their properties, qualities, states). Voluntary attention- a type of attention that necessarily includes volitional regulation.

This higher type of attention arose in the process of activity. In his activity, a person achieves a certain result, which usually subsequently receives public evaluation and is used by other people. In cases where voluntarily evoked attention is not distracted by anything extraneous that interferes with the performance of the activity, it is retained without much effort. In many cases, however, such unhindered preservation of voluntary attention is, due to the action of extraneous stimuli, impossible and sometimes requires very significant efforts and special measures.

Distracting stimuli (extraneous sounds, visual stimuli that distract us) are also some states of the body (illness, fatigue, etc.), as well as extraneous thoughts, images, feelings. To overcome this obstacle, special actions are required to keep attention on what is required by the task of the activity. Sometimes there is a need to destroy or at least weaken the effect of extraneous external stimuli: remove distracting objects, reduce the strength of sounds, etc. Often, everything that interferes with work is eliminated in advance, the workplace is put in order in advance, everything that is needed for work is prepared, the necessary lighting conditions are created, measures are taken to ensure silence, to maintain a comfortable posture while working, etc. The creation of familiar working conditions plays an important role. Their presence, the absence of anything new that a person is not yet accustomed to, greatly facilitates his ability to maintain attention on the activity being performed and is one of the essential prerequisites promoting attention.

However, the presence of favorable external conditions does not always ensure attention.

An important condition attention is the meaning of the task of the activity being performed, the place it occupies in a person’s life, an understanding of what its implementation and non-fulfillment entails, therefore it is advisable to carry it out. The more important this task is, the clearer its meaning is, the stronger the desire to complete it, the more attention is drawn to everything that is needed to successfully complete this task.

The role of interest is great, and especially the importance of stable interests of the individual. At the same time, the connection with interests during voluntary attention turns out to be indirect. This means that the immediate result of an activity, as well as the activity itself, may be uninteresting, but what they will lead to in the future may, on the contrary, be of great interest, and this will have a significant impact positive influence to perform an activity, will encourage you to be attentive.

Thus, the consciousness of the need to perform a given activity, an understanding of its significance, the desire to achieve the best results, the connection of what is being done with the interests of the person - all this contributes to voluntary attention. However, in order for all this to attract attention, some special actions are needed to ensure it.

In many cases, a significant role is played by reminding oneself that one must be attentive, especially if it is done at critical moments of activity that require increased attention. Such a reminder can be organized in advance by what the person envisages that should serve as a signal for maximum attention.

Significant support is provided by asking questions, the answer to which requires a careful perception of what determines the success of actions. Such questions are needed when conducting any observations, especially when you have to get acquainted with big amount objects or with any complex phenomena and processes. It is very important to combine the posing of such questions with the awareness of what has already been done (some word has been written, such and such has been resolved arithmetic example, such and such a line is drawn, etc.). It is of great help to realize what is being done, as well as to remember the requirements that this action must satisfy.

All of these ways of promoting voluntary attention are, to one degree or another, related to words, are carried out in verbal form, and require the participation of a second signaling system. This is one of the characteristic features voluntary attention, as well as any conscious and voluntary activity of people.

An important role (in cases where intellectual activity is performed) is played by its combination with external, practical action.

An important point follows from this: in order to maintain attention on something, it is desirable that what it should be held on be made the object of practical actions that would serve as a support for intellectual activity that requires attention to this subject. Everything that has been said about the conditions of voluntary attention reveals its dependence on the organization of activity. To achieve voluntary attention to what it should be directed to means organizing activity in such a way as to ensure the best reflection of the objects of action under the given conditions, corresponding to the task.

Often such organization of activities requires significant effort from us. Sometimes it is carried out easily, as something familiar (as soon as we find ourselves in conditions in which it has already been achieved more than once). Essential for all cases of voluntary attention, however, remains the intentional organization of activity. It is precisely this that characterizes voluntary attention.

The famous statement that genius is 90% of work and 10% of abilities is based precisely on the fact that any significant works of science and art are created not only and not so much on inspiration, but on voluntarily retained attention, contrary to other incentives that involuntarily distract from work : entertainment, leisure, etc.

Both types of attention - involuntary and voluntary - cannot be strictly differentiated from each other. There are a number of intermediate forms, when intentional focus on certain objects is expressed to a weak degree, although it is not completely absent. Transitions from one type of attention to another also occur. Voluntary attention often turns into involuntary attention. This happens when, when performing any activity, at first, due to a lack of interest in it, a conscious, intentional focus (in many cases even a volitional effort) to perform it is required, but then, as interest in what is being done arises , a person continues to be attentive to work without any special intention and, even more so, without any effort.

There are also reverse transitions: involuntary attention weakens or stops altogether, while the performance of the activity requires that the person continue to be attentive. In these cases, keeping attention on what previously attracted it in itself is done intentionally, voluntarily.

General theoretical approaches to the study of attention.

The range of problems in the study of attention emerged as a result of differentiation of the broader philosophical concept of apperception (G. Leibniz, I. Kant, I. Herbart). Under apperception understood the dependence of perception on past experience, on general content mental activity of man and his individual characteristics. The term apperception was proposed by the German philosopher G. Leibniz, who interpreted it as a distinct (conscious) perception by the soul of a certain content.

In the works of V. Wundt, this concept was attributed to the processes through which a clear awareness of the content of the perceived and its integration into the holistic structure of past experience (“creative synthesis”) is carried out. Definition of attention given by W. Wundt- a mental process that occurs with a clearer perception of a limited area of ​​content compared to the entire field of consciousness.

Other major psychologists of that time also dealt with the problems of attention: E. Titchener is the leader of the structural school, which considers the subject of psychology to be consciousness, studied by dividing into elements what is given to the subject in his introspection, in order to then find out the universal laws by which they are formed structure, and W. James is the author of the motor-biological concept of the psyche as a special form of activity of the organism, designed to ensure its effective survival.

Definition of attention given by E. Titchener- a state of consciousness, that degree of consciousness that provides our mental work with the best results.

Definition of attention given by W. James- one of the most characteristic features of our spiritual life, when, being under a constant influx of more and more new impressions penetrating into the area of ​​our feelings, we notice only the most insignificant part of them.

A significant contribution to the development of ideas about attention was made by the Russian psychologist N.N. Lange, who developed the theory of volitional attention. Like the French psychologist T. Ribot, he associated attention with the regulation of ideomotor movements, which are carried out during the perception and representation of objects. Definition of attention given by N. Lange- attention is precisely nothing more than the relative dominance of a given idea at a given moment in time: subjectively, i.e. for the conscious subject himself, it means to be attentive, to be focused on this impression. Despite the similarity of the main provisions, this definition differs significantly from the definition given by T. Ribot. Definition of attention given by T. Ribot- attention is a mental state, exclusive or predominant, accompanied by an involuntary or artificial adaptation of the individual.

In Russian psychology, the problem of attention is traditionally considered within the framework of the cultural-historical approach (L.S. Vygotsky), the activity approach (P.Ya. Galperin, S.L. Rubinstein, N.F. Dobrynin), attitude psychology (D.N. Uznadze).

L.S. Vygotsky considered attention, like other mental functions, in two forms - as natural attention and as a product of cultural development, that is, a higher mental function. Definition of voluntary attention given by L.S. Vygotsky– an inward-facing process of indirect attention, subject to the general laws of cultural development.

A more recent tradition in domestic psychological studies of attention is the consideration of attention as an internal activity. Thus, problems of development and regulation of attention were solved from the same positions as problems of regulation of any external activity. Attention as an activity contained all the same components (activity, action, operation) as external activity. Definition of attention given by P.Ya. Galperin– attention is an activity of control.

A representative of another activity approach, S.L. Rubinstein, who considers activity in unity with consciousness, considered attention as a general phenomenon inherent as a necessary component in all activities, without attributing to it the properties of a separate activity. Definition of attention given by S.L. Rubinstein- the side of all cognitive processes of consciousness, in which they act as activity aimed at an object.

We find a position similar to Rubinstein’s definition in N.F. Dobrynin. Definition of attention given by N.F. Dobrynin- this is the direction and concentration of mental activity.

The approach to the study of attention in the concept of the attitude of D.N. Uznadze, which reveals the patterns of development and functioning of the psyche in the process of the subject’s purposeful activity, is original. Definition of attention given by D.N. Uznadze: this is the process of objectification, in which one of them stands out from the circle of our primary perceptions, becoming the clearest of the actual contents of our consciousness.

Modern domestic psychologist V.I. Strakhov, who deals with problems of attention, synthesizing existing approaches, considers attention as a mental state.

He distinguishes between two terms: “attention” and “concentration.” In the traditional definition of attention, the concept of “concentration” appears as “explanatory”, as a clarification of the essence of the phenomenon being defined; accordingly, in its rank position it turns out to be reduced.

Attention is concentration, concentration is attention. Separating them is a “rupture” of attention, emasculation of its essence. Attention is realized in connecting and focusing the mental functions necessary in each case on the object being photographed, on a certain field (point) - this is precisely concentration. Attention, as is inherent in psychological states, has a synthetic organization - structure. It combines a certain complex of mental processes of its structural content in accordance with the specifics of the object of concentration, the problem being solved, the personal factor and other circumstances.

Translating the above into the specific situational language of the functioning of attention, let us consider the phenomenon of “educational attention” - the concentration of a student during a lecture. From a fairly wide range of structural units of attention focused on the object of activity, we will indicate visual and auditory perception, intellectual processing of what is perceived and emotional response to this process, the role component and, finally, the motor-motor and static physical “design” of attention (its so-called optimal -bodily support: posture, position, motor-effective support).

However, what is important is not the quantitative characteristics of the phenomenon under discussion, but the issue of closeness and point orientation of all components, their rigid connection to the object of concentration. It is their complex that constitutes attention.

So, complexity and focus are the initial defining indicators of the phenomenon considered by V.I. Strakhov. However, in a similar ranking position there is another property of attention - the dynamics of its focusing. This factor is associated with the capacity of attention, its productivity and reliability. It has been established that as soon as a person exhausts the possibilities of switching - the dynamics of attention in the sphere of the field of concentration - attention in its given direction exhausts itself.

In this regard, it is interesting to compare the attention of a professional specialist and a person just trying himself in a new type of activity. For the first, the object of his professional interest in employment is practically inexhaustible in changing aspects of concentration and therefore can remain in the center of attention for a long time. A specialist will always find an opportunity for another shift in attention within the limits of his employment. Competence predetermines the breadth and depth of knowledge in the relevant field, and hence significant variability in the switching (dynamics) of attention. Maintaining stability of attention (dynamically predetermined) in this case is a completely natural phenomenon; it has the indicated reasons for this - knowledge of the aspects of concentration and the search for new precedents for attention.

In the second case, that is, with superficial knowledge of the object of attention, “shortened” attention is observed. A few one-time “dynamics” of attention exhaust the entire process of concentration. There is practically no movement of the “point” of concentration.

Thus, it can be said that dynamics of attention- this is his life, full-blooded functioning. The impoverishment of the dynamic pattern of attention means its elimination. At the same time, the dynamics of attention are not exhausted by “physical” dynamics – switching from one fragment (detail) to new points. This also refers to “internal” dynamics – a change in the semantic accents of concentration; in this case, the dynamics of attention may exclude a change in the zone of concentration, while focus as such remains the same. Naturally, a restructuring of the internal plane of attention occurs - the psychological apparatus “involved” in attention is replaced.

A scientist, within the framework of a local (point) focus of attention, can manipulate these approaches (carrying out the dynamics of attention in an “internal” way) and exhibit super-stable concentration. There are many examples of this in the history of science, as well as in other areas of human activity. And this should not at all be a sphere of some kind of high exclusivity - professionalism in any field turns out to be such, largely due to the discussed organization of attention.

An equally significant basis for drawing attention to the category of mental states is also its temporal (temporal) organization and the balancing of its components as an indicator of the functional optimum. The temporal indicator of attention is multi-valued. It is revealed, firstly, in the temporal extent of concentration. In this regard, we can talk about its, on the one hand, dimensionlessness - since, like mental states, attention is always there, no matter how busy the person is, varying in its specificity, it is revealed in dreams and in reality.

On the other hand, attention includes measurements of its various dosages within the framework of any activity. In this case, it is possible to record both the total temporary volume and its operational-stage doses. It is legitimate to measure attention to micro-fragments of activity and other specific units. It makes sense to fix the time periods for the detection of attention in different measures of its intensity, legitimate weakening and, of course, in negative manifestations (both forced and due to reduced activity demands and other reasons). These are, as it were, measurements “from the outside.”

The adequacy of attention, its productivity and completeness of attention are largely determined by the balance of temporal assignments of attention (to the past and future, or otherwise these positions can be designated by recurrent attention and prospective attention). An unjustified priority for one or another time frame of attention will immediately manifest itself in the form of reflection costs. The predominance of the recurrent form of concentration causes a dulling of the sense of the new, conservatism, decreased initiative, difficulty in communication (especially with younger people, fixed ideas, etc.). In the case of excess perspective attention, this phenomenon is projected in the form of an overestimation of one’s capabilities, projection, ignoring previous experience, deviation from the systemic organization of activities, unjustified overload, etc. The above refers to the “internal” temporality of attention. A similar approach is also implemented in the study of mental states.

Let's consider another position of bringing attention closer to the category of mental states. This is the multifunctionality of attention. The issue of functional “loading” of attention in science is resolved ambiguously: from monofunctionality (according to P.Ya. Galperin), through the “middle” interpretation of the fixed list of functions to the maximalist approach to the issue, shared by the author of this unit. The latter is largely predetermined by a separate fundamental understanding of attention as a synthetic phenomenon, as a universal category.

Experimental models of attention from cognitive psychology.

In Western psychology, great attention is paid to the problem. The main difference between the approaches to the study of attention in Western and domestic psychology is that in Russian psychology general theoretical, conceptual approaches to the problem of attention are developed, while Western psychology is more focused on experimental research to identify the characteristics of attention and factors of its development and improvement, without giving so much attention importance of identifying general theoretical categories.

Let us consider in detail the data from experimental studies of attention obtained in modern cognitive psychology.

Model with Broadbent filtration.

The British scientist Broadbent was the first to develop a holistic theory of attention in foreign psychology. This theory, called model with filtration, was associated with the so-called single-channel theory and was based on the idea that information processing is limited by channel capacity, as stated in the original theory of information processing by Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver.

Broadbent argues that the messages carried along an individual nerve can vary depending on which nerve fiber they stimulate or how many nerve impulses they produce. (Neuropsychological research has shown that high-frequency signals and low-frequency signals are indeed transmitted by different fibers.) Thus, when several nerves are excited at the same time, several sensory messages can arrive at the brain at the same time. In Broadbent's model, such messages are processed by several parallel sensory channels. (It is assumed that such channels have different neural codes and can be selected on the basis of such a code. For example, two simultaneously presented signals - high and low frequency - can be distinguished on the basis of their physical characteristics, even if both reach the brain at the same time.) Further processing of information occurs only after attention has been directed to this signal and it has been transmitted through a selective filter into a “bandwidth-limited channel.” Since more information enters the system than can be processed by a channel with limited bandwidth, Broadbent believed that to avoid overloading the system, the selective filter could be switched to some other sensory channel.

Intuitively, the filtered model looks plausible. Obviously, our ability to process information is limited. To extract meaning from what we hear, our brains must be tuned to one type of impulse (based on physical characteristics) in the same way that a tunable filter in a high-quality receiver is able to detect messages (electrical impulses) of a particular frequency and send each message to corresponding amplification channel for further processing. When the situation demands it, we can switch our attention to another channel. However, if selection is based on the physical characteristics of the signal, as Broadbent initially believed, then the shift of attention should not be related to the content of the message.

In one of his first experiments, Broadbent used dichotic listening to test his theory. He presented three digits to one ear of the subject, and three other digits to the other ear at the same time. The subject could thus hear: right ear - 4, 9, 3, left ear - 6, 2, 7.

In one case, subjects were asked to reproduce numbers presented through one ear (for example, 493 or 627). In another condition, they were asked to reproduce the numbers in the order they were presented. Because two digits were presented at a time, subjects could reproduce one of the digits of the first pair, but they were asked to name both of them before continuing the sequence. In this case, the subject's report looked like this: 4, 6 2, 9 3, 7.

Given the amount of information reproduced (six units) and the speed of presentation (two per second), Broadbent could expect the accuracy of reproduction to be about 95%. But in both experiments, subjects reproduced less than expected. In the first case, the fidelity of reproduction was about 65%, and in the second - 20%.

Broadbent explains this difference by the need in the second experiment to switch attention more frequently between sources of information. In the first experiment, where subjects were asked to remember first all the items presented through one ear, and then the items presented through the other ear, they could direct all their attention to the stimuli in one “channel” and then to the stimuli from the other (it is assumed that these the second stimuli were held for a short time in some memory system). In the second experiment, however, subjects had to switch their attention at least three times: for example, from the left ear to the right, then back to the left, and again from left to right.

Oxford graduates Gray and Wedderburn conducted an experiment whose results cast doubt on the Broadbent filter theory. They presented through the left and right ears syllables that together made up one word, and random numbers, so that when a syllable was heard in one ear, a number was heard in the other.

For example:

Left ear Right ear

If Broadbent's filtering theory (based on the physical nature of auditory signals) is correct, then subjects, when asked to repeat what they heard through one channel, would have to say something unintelligible - for example, “ob-two-tiv” or “six- ev-nine.” But instead they said the word “lens,” thereby demonstrating their ability to quickly switch from one channel to another.

In a second experiment (sometimes called the “Dear Aunt Jane” or “what the hell” task), Gray and Wedderburn used the same procedure but presented phrases instead of syllables (e.g., “The mouse eats the cheese,” “What the hell,” or “Dear Aunt Jane"):

Left ear Right ear

Darling 3

As in the Digits and Split Words experiment, subjects in this experiment tended to hear the phrase “Dear Aunt Jane”; they thus explicitly grouped parts of messages according to their meaning.

Other researchers have challenged the single channel theory based on findings of changes in galvanic skin response (GSR). In these experiments, some words presented to the attentionally controlled ear were followed by an electric shock. Repeated presentation of these words caused a change in GSR. After developing a conditioned galvanic skin response, subjects were asked to shade one of the messages. Unexpectedly, the word to which the conditioned response had been developed was presented through the ignored channel. It turned out that when this happened, GSR appeared. In one of the experiments (von Wright et al.), a change in GSR occurred as a result of the presentation of not only a conditional word, but also its synonyms and homonyms. These results imply that ignored signals are not only not detected, but are also semantically processed. But Wardlaw and Krol were unable to replicate these results and questioned the reliability of the effect. A more serious test of the filtration theory was carried out by Anne Treisman and her colleagues.

Treisman divider model.

The above results were a serious blow to Broadbent's filtration theory. Among the most obvious problems with this model is the detection of sensory information (for example, the subject's name) through an ignored channel. Moray conducted such an experiment and found that in about a third of all cases, subjects noticed their own names presented through the ignored channel. We also know from everyday experience that by focusing on one message, we can also monitor another. We must pay tribute to Broadbent: in the original version of the theory, he believed that the selective filter allows the perception of one or two “most likely” (i.e. those that are possible in a given context) words through an ignored channel.

Given the uncertainty of Broadbent's theory, which arose as a result of the experiments of Gray, Wedderburn and Moray, the task arose of developing a new - or at least improving the old - theory of attention. That's exactly what Treisman did.

To explain how subjects can sometimes hear their own names presented to them through an unattended channel, Moray proposed that some kind of analysis must take place before the filter. Treisman objected, arguing that in the subject's “vocabulary” (or store of words) some words had a lower activation threshold. So, “important” words or sounds (like own name or the characteristic cry of your child) are more easily activated than less important signals. Her model is in many ways similar to Broadbent's, but can also explain the empirical data obtained by Moray.

Treisman extended Cherry's research on selective attention, which allowed her to refine Broadbent's filtering theory. We remember that in Broadbent's model one channel is turned off when attention is directed to another channel. Most notable in the work of Treisman and her colleagues was an experiment in which subjects were asked to attend to a message presented to one ear while the semantic parts of a phrase were presented first in one ear and then in the other. For example, the message “It’s worth the house to understand the word” was presented to the right ear, and the expression “Knowledge about on the hill” was presented to the left ear. Even when we need to remember a message received through one ear, we tend to monitor the meaning rather than listen to the message with that ear. Thus, the subjects answered that they heard the phrase: “There is a house on a hill.” One of Treisman's experiments involved subjects who were fluent in English and French; they were instructed to follow a passage of text from J. Orwell’s book “England, Your England.” The English text was sent to one ear and the French text to the other. The English and French versions of the same text were slightly shifted in time, but the subjects were unaware of this. This time gap gradually narrowed, and gradually the subjects began to notice that both messages had the same meaning. It turned out that the “uncontrolled” channel was not disconnected from the DVP, where the knowledge of the second language was stored.

In addition to the linguistic conditioning of our ability to shade, Treisman examined conditions when one voice was female and the other male, and when one message was technical material and the other an excerpt from a story. She even studied how easy it was to shade English text while listening to Latin, French, German, and Czech (with an English accent) texts. The general conclusion from the latest experiment was that message shadowing was relatively easy if the foreign language sounded very different from English - such as Latin.

The data obtained by Treisman and other researchers was inconsistent with the filtering model. Some kind of think tank, before analyzing the characteristics of the signal, had to decide that this was necessary. Obviously, this required some preview of the material. According to Treisman, in the first of these previews, the signal is evaluated based on general physical characteristics, and then in more complex previews, it is evaluated based on meaning (Figure 4).

Initial viewing is carried out through a divider or “perceptual filter” - a device that regulates the intensity of the message and acts as an intermediary between the signal and its verbal processing. Treisman argued that it is likely that “the channel filter only attenuates irrelevant messages rather than blocking them completely. If so, then words that are highly important or salient to a person may be retrieved despite a low signal-to-noise ratio if their detection threshold is temporarily or permanently lowered within the word recognition system itself. One possible word recognition system could be a hierarchy of sequential tests that have a separate output for each word or other linguistic unit. The decision made at each stage of testing can be represented as a signal detection problem: a cutoff point or some adjustable criterion is set on the axis of distinguished features, above which signals are accepted, and below which they are rejected as noise. For some outputs, the criteria for determining test results may be lowered if the context facilitates this, or these outputs have been recently used, or they are of particular importance. Messages weakened by such a filter can only pass the tests if the criteria are lowered in their favor, otherwise they cannot pass further in the hierarchy.” .

Treisman's model suggests that “irrelevant messages” are heard at a muted rate rather than blocked out completely.

The Deutsch/Norman model of appropriateness.

So far we have talked about attention in terms of models that rely on limited human bandwidth and the presence of a divider in the processing circuit. An alternative model to the filtering model was proposed by Deutsch and then revised by Norman. Norman's model of selective attention differs from Treisman's divider model in one important detail. According to Norman's model, all signals undergo preliminary analysis and are then transmitted to a divider, which sends them in a modified form for further processing. The difference from the Treisman system is that the determination of the significance of a particular set of stimuli occurs at an earlier stage of information processing. On the other hand, Norman's model seems somewhat uneconomical: a large number of irrelevant stimuli must be tested in long-term memory before further processing begins.

In this model (Figure 5), the values ​​of the sensory inputs are extracted simultaneously. (This is called “parallel processing.”) The system's capabilities become limited only after the sensory input signals have been processed in some way. Preference is given to one or the other depending on its materiality or relevance. (Norman means relevance in relation to the current goal of the system.)

Physical signals

Rice. 5. Model of the appropriateness of the selection process.

Physical input signals, passing through the sensory system and stimulus analysis mechanisms, excite their representation in the storage system. Analysis of previously encountered material, expectations, rules, perceptions - all this determines the class of events considered most appropriate. The material that has received the greatest total stimulation is selected for further careful study.

The main proposition of this model is that all elements are recognized (even those coming through an uncontrolled channel), but at the same time, subjects are not able to process information coming from an uncontrolled channel after its recognition, since they are usually required to reproduce a message from an uncontrolled channel. channel, and this requires effort. Both the Broadbent and Deutsch-Norman models recognize limited processing capacity. However, they differ as to where exactly the filter is located, which filters out some information and allows others to pass on. In the Broadbent model, the filter is located much earlier (Fig. 6) than in the Norman-Deutsch model.

Filter Filter

Broadbent Deutsch-Norman

Rice. 6. Arrangement of filters in the Broadbent and Deutsch-Norman models in the context of the generalized information processing model

For Norman, before the selection of information occurs, all signals find a correspondence in memory, where some maximum analysis of their meaning is performed. Then the mechanism of selective attention is launched. Norman believes that a sensory signal enters memory automatically, depending only on its sensory characteristics. He describes the path of sensory signals as follows:

“All signals received by the senses go through the stage of analysis, which is first carried out by physiological processes. Based on the parameters extracted by these processes, the location where the representation of a given sensory signal is stored is determined. All sensory signals excite their representations stored in memory. Now let's assume that at this very time the analysis of previous signals continues. This creates a class of events that should be considered relevant in relation to the current analysis. This set of relevant elements also evokes its representations in memory. The element that is most excited by the combined action of relevant and sensory inputs is selected for subsequent analysis.” .

Treisman and Geffen tested Deutsch and Norman's assumption that all input information is recognized. The experiment was designed in the form of the already familiar message shading task. The subjects listened to a message presented to one ear, while a completely different message was presented to the other ear. The subjects had to retell the shaded message and, in addition, say whether they heard a certain “target” word, which could be presented in either one or the other ear. According to the Deutsch-Norman model, the target word should have been detected and elicited a response regardless of which ear it was presented to. Broadbent's model predicted that attention to information presented to one ear would interfere with the processing of information presented to the other ear.

Subjects detected 87% of target words presented in the attentionally controlled ear, but only 8% of words presented in the uncontrolled ear, a strong refutation of Deutsch and Norman's model. Deutsch and Norman rejected this experiment as a test of their model, arguing that when a subject repeats a shadowed message, he or she develops an attitude favorable to that message.

Of the many experiments conducted to test the Deutsch and Norman model, some did not confirm certain provisions of this model.

Analysis of experimental models of attention.

We have discussed, most generally, two types of attention models. One type assumes that sensory input is selected early in the processing process; the other type, the “relevance” model, assumes that sensory input is selected at later stages of the process. Which model should you prefer? Although dozens of experiments have already been described in the literature, there is no clear answer yet. If we assume that information is selected first and then its further analysis, then it turns out that the nervous system is to some extent ineffective - i.e. the message is processed twice. Broadbent argues against the early selection model. He believes that “this would require a biologically impossible mechanism. This would mean that in front of the part of the brain that processes signals coming from the environment, and which is apparently quite complex, there is another, redundant part of the brain that does the same job and decides “what is there” - with in order to allow or not allow these elements into the mechanism that decided “what is here.”

On the other hand, Posner, Snyder and Shelis believe that early selection provides only the most general actions. They suggested that the early stage of information processing is carried out by a mechanism that has limited capacity and serves to inhibit some information and thus speed up the processing of other information.

To resolve this dispute, it is necessary to address the issue of the characteristics of information and the criteria for its selection. Thus, a system that performs initial “filtering” and minimal processing of some type of information, and leaves more complex processing to subsequent systems, would answer Broadbent's objection to the economy of the brain and at the same time would explain the results of research showing that before selection must be made some processing may need to be done. This dilemma (on the one hand, compliance with the principle of economy of the nervous system, on the other, processing information before its selection) can be solved if we postulate that the functions implemented during early processing (for example, determining the directions of further processing) are not duplicated later. New data are needed to confirm this assumption.

Given the abundance of models in cognitive psychology, the original hypothesis of how the human brain processes information turns out to be too simple to explain all the features of our perception and thinking. In an effort to better define the differences between Treisman and Deutsch's models, Johnston and his colleagues proposed a more complex model that suggests that auditory information is selected at several stages. However, the most important thing about Johnston's hypothesis is that the selection of information occurs as early as possible from the point of view of this task. Simply put, a person can process more information earlier if required.

In one empirical test of this hypothesis, Johnston and Heinz presented target and nontarget words simultaneously and binaurally. Subjects were asked to shade the target words. In one case, both sets of words were read by the same male speaker, and in the other, the target words were read by a man, and the non-target words were read by a woman. In the second case, due to differences in the pitch of male and female voices, it was possible to distinguish words by their sensory (tone) characteristics. In the first case, when both sets were read in a male voice, the sensory distinction turned out to be more difficult, and the subject had to rely on other signs, for example, on the meanings or semantic characteristics of the words. Under these conditions, one would expect that when the nontarget words were read in a male voice, as well as the target words, subjects would require more effort early in processing than when the words were read by a woman and a man, respectively.

The good thing about this experiment is that it is a critical test of two models of attention: the Treisman model and the Deutsch-Norman model. As you may recall, in the Deutsch-Norman model all signals undergo some preliminary analysis, whereas in the Treisman model, irrelevant messages are attenuated by a channel filter rather than eliminated completely. One might foresee that in Johnston and Heinz's experiment, the target words would undergo more complex processing when both sets were read by a man. According to the obtained conclusion, the degree of processing of non-shaded stimuli varies depending on the requirements of the task being solved, which is better suited to the more flexible Traisman model than to the Deutsch and Norman model.

Another perspective on the topic of attention was proposed by Neisser. Definition of attention given by W. Neisser: this is the focus of the main flow of our information processing activities on a limited part of the cash input.

The information approach assumes that if a certain rate of input data (channel capacity) is exceeded, information cannot pass through without errors in transmission. This view of information processing systems comes from communications theory, where the bandwidth required to cope with the flow of signals is determined literally by the physical limitations of that system, and many believe that the brain processes information in a similar way. Neisser sharply attacks this assumption. He argues that “although such an argument is valid in principle, its value for psychology is questionable. The brain contains millions of neurons connected to each other in an incredibly fine way. Who can say how great may be the limit imposed by such a “mechanism”? No one has ever been able to show that all the facts about selective attention have anything to do with the actual capabilities of the brain, if at all. Indeed, no psychological fact deals with the entire volume of the brain. Contrary to popular belief, we do not have such a large brain warehouse that it is in danger of becoming overcrowded. There appears to be no quantitative limit to long-term memory; for example, you can continue to meet new people, learn new languages, and explore new surroundings for as long as your inclinations and energy allow. Likewise, there is no physiologically or mathematically defined limit to how much information we can take in at one time.”

If there is “no limit to how much information we can take in,” then how do we explain the dichotic listening data that clearly shows that we cannot take in two messages at the same time? Neisser is convinced that in most cases we can, with practice: “We may not be able to cope with dual tasks simply because we have not had a serious occasion to try to do it. We listen to conversations and likewise we can participate in them, or at least imagine ourselves participating, and this can only be done with one message at a time.” He adds, however, that he is “skeptical about this hypothesis; if double listening was really possible, someone would have already discovered and used it. It is more likely that there is some genuine information barrier preventing the parallel development of independent but similar circuits. If each of the schemes contains anticipations covering a significant period of time (this is necessary, for example, for meaningful listening, reading or watching), then the problem is which of the schemes to apply to new information, may turn out to be insoluble.”

The question remains unresolved, but Neisser's views on the problem of human attention may have a significant impact not only on those who study attention, but also on the large group of cognitive psychologists who share the information approach.

The connection between the level of arousal and attention in Kahneman's theory.

Kahneman proposed a theory of attention that includes both the role of arousal and limited opportunities information processing person. Instead of postulating a processing bottleneck, Kahneman proposed that there is a general limitation on a person's ability to perform mental work. According to Kahneman, the central elements of this model are “principles of distribution” and “demand estimation and resources.” Kahneman explains “Principles of Distribution” this way. “These principles themselves are determined by four factors: (1) long-term readiness, reflecting the laws of involuntary attention (for example, to allocate resources to process any new signal; to any suddenly moving object; to any conversation where a proper name is mentioned); (2) temporary intentions (for example, listen to a voice in the right earphone; look for a red-haired man with a scar); (3) requirements assessment; Obviously, the rule here is that if two actions require more resources for their implementation than are available, one of them is terminated; (4) influences of excitement.

As Kahneman suggests, attention is associated with what can be called “low effort,” and that the fundamental limitation on information processing lies in the limited resources available. However, arousal (the fourth factor in Kahneman's discussion of the “principles of distribution” above) can be increased by factors such as anxiety, fear, anger, sexual arousal and the effects of drugs...” .

According to this model, some types of information processing can be initiated upon receipt of input information, while others require additional input in the form of attentional effort. Since the possibilities for mobilizing effort are limited, that is, they require attention to two or more input influences, they will compete or interfere with each other.

DEVELOPMENT OF ATTENTION.

Cultural development of attention according to L.S. Vygotsky lies in the fact that, with the help of an adult, the child assimilates a number of artificial stimuli-means (signs), through which he further directs his own behavior and attention.

General sequence of cultural development of attention according to L.S. Vygotsky is as follows: “First, people act towards the child, then he himself interacts with others, finally, he begins to act on others, and only in the end begins to act on himself...”

The first series of stimuli that attract the child's attention- these are the surrounding objects themselves, which with their bright unusual properties attract the child’s attention.

The first stage of attention development– first weeks and months of life. The appearance of the orienting reflex as an objective, innate sign of the child’s involuntary attention.

Initially, the child’s attention is involuntary and is caused by the quality of external stimuli: the child is attracted to bright, shiny or moving objects, loud sounds, etc. Already in the first month of life, the child exhibits some manifestations of attention, when he reaches out to the mother’s breast, searches for it, begins to fixate certain objects with his gaze, and stops movements when he hears loud sounds.

From the second half of the year, children show great interest in surrounding objects, begin to look at them, put them in their mouths, and twirl them in their hands. The ability to manipulate things significantly expands the range of objects of attention and the duration of its retention on any object. However, at this age the child’s attention is still very unstable. As soon as you show him another object, he drops the first one on the floor and reaches for the second. Seeing any thing that interests him, the child begins to demand it, even cries if his desires are not satisfied, but it is enough to show him something else at that moment so that he immediately becomes interested in the new and forgets about what exactly he just demanded .

During this period of life, attention is attracted not only by objects and people, but also by words, which the child gradually begins to understand. The second series of stimuli that attract the child’s attention- this is the speech of an adult, the words he pronounces, which initially act as stimuli-instructions that direct the child’s involuntary attention.

The second stage of attention development- end of the first year of life. The emergence of orientation-research activity as a means of future development of voluntary attention.

The third stage of attention development- beginning of the second year of life. Detection of the beginnings of voluntary attention under the influence of an adult’s speech instructions, directing the gaze to an object named by the adult.

The fourth stage of attention development- second or third year of life. Fairly good development of the above initial form of voluntary attention. In the second year of life, thanks to the emergence of the ability to move independently and the acquisition of the ability not just to manipulate an object, but to perform simple actions (for example, picking up sand with a shovel), a variety of objects used by the child in his activities become objects of attention. At the same time, attention begins to subordinate to the task facing this or that activity, and the rudiments of voluntary attention appear.

The formation of this type of attention occurs mainly under the influence of adults, who begin to make various demands on children (maintain cleanliness, use certain things in a certain way, etc.).

The fifth stage of attention development- four and a half to five years. The emergence of the ability to direct attention under the influence of complex instructions from an adult. Preschool children (4-5 years old) sometimes display intense and sustained attention, subordinate to the activity they are performing. They can play a game that interests them for a long time, listen carefully to the stories of adults, but even in these cases their attention is still characterized by significant distraction if other objects that are interesting to them begin to affect them. A 4-5 year old child, for example, listens attentively to a fairy tale, his eyes sparkle with lively interest, even his mouth is slightly open in surprise, but then playing children run into the room, and the child’s thoughts are immediately distracted from the fairy tale. All this suggests that preschool children do not yet know how to intentionally maintain attention for a long time in the same direction.

In one experiment, children aged 5 were asked to point out in a picture which of a group of children skating on a skating rink had lost a mitten. Many of the children failed to cope with this task, since their attention was constantly distracted by other objects drawn in the picture. They were never able to concentrate on the task assigned to them and examine the hands of the children depicted in the picture in accordance with it.

Play plays an important role in the development of attention in preschool children as the main activity at this age. The game develops not only the intensity and concentration of attention, but also its stability. Studies have shown that the duration of play for a 6-year-old child can reach an hour or more, while for a three-year-old child it often does not exceed 20-25 minutes.

The sixth stage of attention development- five to six years. The emergence of an elementary form of voluntary attention under the influence of self-instruction (with reliance on external auxiliary means).

By the end of preschool age, the child gains some experience in managing attention, which is one of the indicators of his readiness to learn at school.

The seventh stage of attention development- school age. Further development and improvement of voluntary attention, including volitional attention.

School places significant demands on children's attention. At school, the student must listen carefully to what is said in class, and be attentive not only to what interests him, but also to what is not of interest to him.

In younger schoolchildren, involuntary attention is still predominant, largely dependent on interest in work, on the clarity of teaching, on the impact of what the student sees and hears in class on the emotional side of his psyche. A younger student can easily skip what is essential in the educational material and pay attention to the unimportant only because the latter will attract him with its interesting features. Thus, while counting objects depicted in paintings, children can easily pay attention not to the quantity, but to their color, appearance, i.e. to something unimportant to the account.

The attention span of a younger student is also not great. It is usually limited to 2-3 objects (while in adults it covers 4-6 such objects). Therefore, in order for elementary school students to pay sufficient attention to a large number of objects, prolonged or repeated perception of these objects is necessary.

Junior schoolchildren still have little ability to distribute their attention. If he is concentrating, for example, on writing letters, he often does not notice that he is sitting incorrectly, holds his pen incorrectly, has placed his notebook crookedly, etc.

Insufficient development of voluntary attention leads children to superficial perception. This is especially noticeable in reading lessons in the first grade, when a child, having correctly grasped part of a word, often does not yet identify its main parts and therefore reads the entire word incorrectly.

However, a characteristic feature of a younger schoolchild, compared to a preschool child, is the more rapid development of voluntary attention. Not everything in academic work is of immediate interest. Every now and then the student has to make efforts not to be distracted from work. He is encouraged to do this by the demands of the teacher and by the tasks that are set before him. At the same time, the student himself sees that absent-minded work leads to undesirable results, and therefore forces himself to be attentive. Gradually, it is at primary school age that he begins to develop the habit of being attentive, which is important for learning.

Adolescence is characterized by greater intensity, concentration and stability of attention than in younger schoolchildren. If a teenager is interested in something, he can be attentive for a long time. His attention is determined, in addition to the habit of being attentive, by the emergence of interests of a cognitive nature. He wants to do a lot on his own. He has a lot of energy and activity, and many things interest him. But this is precisely why he is easily distracted from work; it is still difficult for him to restrain his desires, which force him to seek new experiences. He strives for activity, for a broad orientation in a life that is not yet sufficiently familiar to him.

Due to some impulsiveness inherent in given age, it is difficult for a teenager to manage attention, but nevertheless the skills to voluntarily direct and support it continue to develop during this period. A teenager can force himself to be attentive when doing work that is uninteresting to him, especially when he is interested in even the long-term result of his work. With skillful guidance from the teacher, the teenager gradually begins to work on developing voluntary attention.

One of the features of attention in a teenager is the ability to control the external expression of attention. If a teacher can easily notice from the face and posture of a younger schoolchild whether the child is attentive or not, then the teenager is quite good at pretending to be focused on work (especially on listening to what is being said in class), while in reality his thoughts may be very far from her.

The attention of adolescents is associated with the differentiation of interests that arises in them. Some teenagers focus better on physical work, others on mental activities. In some lessons, when studying a subject that interests him, a teenager can be very attentive, in other lessons, while studying other academic disciplines, his attention can be difficult to concentrate and is often the subject of constant concern for the teacher.

Adolescence is characterized by the further development of attention, which already determines the high performance of older schoolchildren. A wide range of cognitive interests at this age ensures intensive development of involuntary attention, and a conscious attitude to learning, understanding of tasks associated with preparing for future activities, helps to voluntarily direct and maintain attention. Although the habit of being attentive during work already develops in primary schoolchildren and teenagers, in adolescence it reaches a high level, and an older student is much easier to focus on even an uninteresting or difficult task.

If a junior schoolchild is most attentive to vivid facts and has difficulty concentrating on anything abstract, if a teenager still gives preference to the visual and concrete, although he can already delve into generalizations and conclusions, then the young man is able to maintain attention even then, when we are talking about abstract, theoretical positions that are not directly supported by visual, concrete ones. While the form and presentation of material is of great importance to attract attention among children and adolescents, among older schoolchildren it no longer plays such a role, and now the content of teaching is especially important.

At a young age, students become participants in productive labor; many of them perform production tasks with a considerable degree of qualification. They can already work with concentration for quite a long time and resist all kinds of distractions. The sense of duty developed at this age allows them to work attentively even when the tasks they perform are of no immediate interest to them. In especially difficult cases (preparing for an exam, an urgent task at work), senior schoolchildren can mobilize their attention for a long period of time.

One of the features of the attention of older schoolchildren when working in production is a significantly higher ability than at primary school age and among adolescents to control their work operations and the results achieved, to more strictly subordinate their actions to the planned plan and the requirements of the instructions.

What are the ways to cultivate attention?

A prominent place in the education of involuntary attention is occupied by the formation in children of the ability to see and hear, notice their surroundings, observe facts and phenomena, and do this without much effort, due to the constant desire to become more fully and better acquainted with reality. To do this, you should early years introduce the child to the richness and diversity of the world around him, teach him to notice what is around him, teach him to react sensitively to any change in the environment.

The main condition for the appearance of involuntary attention in schoolchildren is the presence of interest and emotions that would make the learning process quite attractive for them.

This depends primarily on the material that is to be studied and on the methods of its presentation. In particular, the visibility of teaching plays an important role. The use of aids (paintings, dummies, demonstration objects, etc.), demonstration of experiments, involvement of specific facts and illustrations from life that affect the emotions of students - all this makes teaching interesting, arouses involuntary attention, and is necessary in the lower grades of school. The use of visualization requires, however, that a number of conditions be met. First of all, it is necessary to correctly organize the student’s perception, teaching him to notice what requires attention. To do this, you need to set a task for him - not only to look at an object or picture, but also, for example, to discover something in them, answer some question, make a comparison, etc. All this, activating the students’ thoughts, teaches them to be attentive, highlight the essential, and notice the main thing. The quality of the teacher’s explanation of new material is important for attracting involuntary attention. Bright in form and rich in content, the teacher’s emotionally rich story attracts the involuntary attention of students to a greater extent. At the same time, here, too, a number of conditions must be met. Attention is attracted when students learn something new in the teacher’s story, and something that contains elements of what is familiar to them. Hence, there is a need for a connection between what is being newly communicated and what is already known. It is important, further, that what is uninteresting (and it can always be in new material) is connected with what interests students. “Boring” formulas and abstract laws of science come to life when students see that these laws reflect interesting phenomena in nature, technology, and social life. It is necessary that the teacher’s presentation awakens the thoughts of the schoolchildren, so that they themselves think about the questions that arise in them, strive to find out what will happen next, etc.

Students' attention to the teacher's presentation of new material arises mainly when the teacher's story is lively and dynamic. If the issue is covered from different angles and the subject being studied is revealed in various connections and relationships, attention is much more stable.

As a rule, schoolchildren are especially attentive when the material is specific, vital, and when children understand its meaning. Sometimes a student is not attentive due to the fact that he “lost the thread” of the teacher’s explanations and stopped understanding him. Such cases most often occur in mathematics and physics lessons, where it is absolutely impossible to consciously listen to what follows without understanding the previous one. However, there are also cases when the student is too simple and understandable about what is being said in class, as a result of which his attention is distracted by extraneous things. Attention is better retained when the student requires work of thought accessible to him, which, however, requires some effort on his part.

When trying to make the presentation of educational material interesting, you cannot only care about entertainment and try to captivate children with external effects. Even younger schoolchildren, not to mention older ones, feel great when a teacher simply wants to entertain them and when he imparts necessary and useful knowledge to them.

Student activity is of great importance for attracting and maintaining attention; it is necessary that they should not be passive listeners and spectators of what the teacher says or does, but act themselves: ask, answer, conduct experiments, etc.

An important condition for attention is the general cultural level of students, expanding their cognitive interests, increasing the range of ideas, and enriching them with knowledge and skills.

A necessary prerequisite for the development of voluntary attention is the formation in schoolchildren of a conscious attitude towards learning and fulfilling their duties.

Even before school, children strive to take part in the activities of the people around them. At school, the child becomes a member of the team, he wants to do everything no worse than others, strives to earn the approval of the teacher, takes into account the opinions of his comrades - all this is a strong incentive to be attentive. The teacher must support and develop all this in every possible way.

Voluntary attention is, first of all, organized attention, and since learning is conscious, purposeful, in a certain way organized activity, then schooling is the most important means of cultivating voluntary attention. It is necessary, however, for the student to understand the importance of learning and the role that attention plays in the learning process. It is important to ensure that he understands each individual task that is assigned to him. If a student is clear about what the teacher wants from him and why this is needed, he is more likely to be attentive to what is required of him. A clear indication of the purpose of the work and a detailed explanation of the methods for its implementation help students mentally imagine the results of their work and the ways to achieve them, which stimulates their voluntary attention.

Interest in work is of great importance for attracting voluntary attention, not only direct, caused by the work itself, but also indirect - interest in the results of the activity. If a student who is not interested in mathematics and is absent-minded when studying mathematics is convinced that knowledge of mathematics is necessary to work in the field of technology that interests him, he will be more attentive in mathematics lessons.

An important role in the education of voluntary attention is played by the teacher’s exactingness, which should be consistent and systematic. When presenting certain requirements to students, it is necessary to ensure that educational material and the work that the student must do was within his power and at the same time was not too easy for him. If the first condition is not met, the student, convinced of the futility of his efforts, begins to be distracted from work. In the second case, having noticed that the task is too simple, he easily becomes inattentive, as he stops making any effort necessary for the work. It is important that the student is convinced that completing the task is possible for him, although it requires effort. In these cases, voluntary attention easily turns into involuntary attention, and a keen interest arises in overcoming difficulties, in doing work that at the beginning seemed boring. When cultivating involuntary and voluntary attention in students, it is necessary to maintain the correct balance between both types of attention. If the educational process is designed only for involuntary attention, education may take the wrong direction: children will not develop the ability to overcome difficulties. If learning is based only on voluntary attention, school classes will lose the necessary attractiveness and will cause a negative attitude towards learning. Therefore, when teaching children to overcome difficulties, the teacher must make the learning process quite interesting, cultivating both types of attention.

ATTENTION- the concentration of the subject’s activity at a given moment in time on a certain real or ideal object - an object, event, image, reasoning, etc. Attention also characterizes the consistency of various links in the functional structure of an action, which determines the success of its implementation (for example, the speed and accuracy of solving a problem). Attention occupies a special place among mental phenomena. Acting as an inseparable side of cognition, feeling and will, it cannot be reduced to any of these three spheres of the psyche. Attention is the dynamic side of consciousness, characterizing the degree of its focus on an object and concentration on it in order to ensure its adequate reflection during the time necessary to perform a certain act of activity or communication. It manifests itself in the selective reflection of objects according to the needs of the subject and the goals and objectives of his activities. This is a kind of expedient will, a very important component in the structure of independence. It provides the individual with the opportunity to concentrate and direct consciousness towards objects that he perceives in the course of activity and about which he thinks or talks. Thanks to sustained attention, he becomes more deeply aware of his practical life and activities, which ensures a selective attitude towards the world, people, business and himself. The main characteristics of attention, determined experimentally, include:

1) selectivity - associated with the ability to successfully tune - in the presence of interference - to the perception of information related to a conscious goal;

2) volume (breadth, distribution of attention) - determined by the number of “simultaneously” (within 0.1 s.) clearly perceived objects; practically no different from the volume of direct memorization, or short-term memory; this indicator largely depends on the organization of the memorized material and its nature and is usually taken equal to 5 - 7 objects; the amount of attention is assessed using tachistoscopic presentation (‑> tachistoscope) of many objects (letters, words, figures, colors, etc.);

3) distribution - characterized by the possibility of simultaneous successful implementation of several different types of activities (actions); is studied under conditions of simultaneous performance of two or more actions that do not allow the possibility of execution by quickly switching attention;

4) concentration (intensity, level of attention) - expressed in the degree of concentration on the object;

5) stability - determined by the duration of concentration of attention on an object;

6) switchability (switching speed) - a dynamic characteristic of attention that determines its ability to quickly move from one object to another; To determine the switchability and stability of attention, methods are used that make it possible to describe the dynamics of the performance of cognitive and executive actions over time, in particular when changing goals. There are three types of attention:

1) involuntary attention is the simplest and most genetically original; represented by an indicative reflex that occurs when exposed to unexpected and new stimuli;

2) voluntary attention - conditioned by setting a conscious goal;

3) post-voluntary attention. Depending on where the object of attention is located - in the external world or in the subjective world of a person - external and internal attention are distinguished. In the course of training, education, activity and communication, a person develops the properties of attention and its types, and their relatively stable combinations are formed - individual typological features of attention, also determined by the type of nervous system. In Russian psychology, a theory of attention has been developed as a function of internal control over the compliance of mental actions with programs for their implementation. The development of such control improves the effectiveness of any activity and its systematic formation (‑> the concept of the formation of stage-by-stage mental actions), and allows one to overcome some defects of attention, such as absent-mindedness. Experiments with dissected cerebral hemispheres show that attention processes are closely related to the work of the corpus callosum; in this case, the left hemisphere provides selective attention, and the right hemisphere provides support for the general level of alertness.

ATTENTION: VOLUME- one of the characteristics of attention, showing how many objects can be perceived, or how many actions can be performed at the same time. The most common experimental model for studying the scope of attention is to determine the scope of perception, which depends on the exposure time, the nature of the stimulus material and the skills of the individual. Thus, with exposure to visual stimuli lasting 0.1 s. The average attention span is 7 +/- 2 items. With the possibility of semantic generalization of perceived objects, the volume of attention increases noticeably.

EXTERNAL ATTENTION(sensory-perceptual attention) - directed to objects outside world. A necessary condition for knowledge and transformation of the external world.

ATTENTION INTERNAL(intellectual attention) - directed to the objects of the subjective world of man. A necessary condition for self-knowledge and self-education.

ATTENTION INTELLIGENT‑> attention is internal.

ATTENTION INVOLVED- the simplest and genetically original. It has a passive character, because it is imposed on the subject by events external to the goals of his activity. It arises and is maintained regardless of conscious intentions, due to the characteristics of the object - novelty, strength of influence, correspondence to current needs, etc. The physiological manifestation of this type of attention is an indicative reaction.

ATTENTION POST-VOLUNTARY(post-voluntary attention) - arises on the basis of voluntary attention and consists of focusing on an object due to its value, significance or interest for the individual. Its appearance is possible as the operational and technical side of activity develops in connection with its automation and the transition of actions into operations, as well as as a result of changes in motivation (for example, a shift of motive to goal). At the same time, mental stress is relieved and the conscious focus of attention is preserved, the direction of activity corresponds to the accepted goals, but its implementation no longer requires special mental effort and is limited in time only by fatigue and depletion of the body’s resources.

ATTENTION ARBITRARY- is directed and supported by a consciously set goal, and therefore is inextricably linked with speech. Voluntary attention is spoken of if the activity is performed in line with conscious intentions and requires volitional efforts on the part of the subject. It is distinguished by its active nature, complex structure, mediated by socially developed ways of organizing behavior and communication; origin is related to work activity. In conditions of difficult activity, it involves volitional regulation and the use of special techniques for concentrating, maintaining, distributing and switching attention.

(Golovin S.Yu. Dictionary of practical psychologist - Minsk, 1998)

ATTENTION(English) attention) - the process and state of the subject’s adjustment to perceive priority information and perform assigned tasks. Theoretically and operationally, V. (tuning) is characterized by level (intensity, concentration), volume (breadth, distribution), selectivity (see. Selectivity of perception,Stroop effect,Information selection), switching speed (movement), duration and stability.

A large number of techniques have been developed for the study of V.: tachistoscopic technique for determining the volume of V. (D. Cattell, IN.Wundt); various variants of the proofreading test to determine the concentration and stability of V. (the first version was proposed in 1895 by the French psychologist B. Bourdon); Schulte table method for determining V. switching speed; dichotic listening method(K. Cherry; see also Dichotic listening); methods of selective reading and selective observation (U. Neisser and R. Böcklin); Strupp test (see Strupp effect) etc. The distribution of energy is studied in experiments in which the execution of one task is supplemented by the execution of another task. Successful distribution is said to occur if the additional task does not impair the performance of the first (main) one. It has been shown, in particular, that a deterioration in the motor activity of the arms and legs occurs when simultaneously pronouncing an incoherent set of words and does not occur when pronouncing a phrase repeatedly "To be or not to be?". Engineering psychologists showed an understandable interest in the distribution of V., who also significantly enriched the factography of V. with numerous works on vigilance(vigilance) And noise immunity of operators.

Along with the so-called voluntary attention also highlights its involuntary form - indicative reaction, arising when exposed to unexpected (“new”) stimuli. With this reflex reaction, however, one should not confuse the involuntary and automatic tuning processes included in any process of voluntary activity.

In modern experimental studies Attempts are being made to separate internal (ideal) components and external motor components in V. processes. For example, it has been established that, regardless of eye movements, V.'s focus can move in the field of view at a speed of 125 arc. deg/s

V.P. Zinchenko and N.Yu. Vergiles (1969) studied perception under conditions of image stabilization on the retina and came to the conclusion about the existence of the so-called. "ideal V." (cm. Vicarious perceptual actions). In foreign psychology the term is used "attentional reflex", or Piltz reflex ( Piltz'sreflex), to indicate a change in the size of the pupil when V. turns to an object. The study of V. defects in patients with dissected (disconnected) cerebral hemispheres suggests that the corpus callosum is an important part of the system responsible for V., and that the left hemisphere is associated with selective V., and the right hemisphere is associated with maintaining a general level of alertness (more about neurophysiology V. see Attention physiological mechanisms).

In recent decades cognitive psychology intensively developed and tested various explanatory models of V. (see. Attenuator model,Model with filtration), which in their development move further and further away from crude mechanistic analogies and are steadily approaching an understanding of the enormous role of V. in complex forms of internal activity, about which Hegel wrote: “Without V. for spirit there is nothing... V. therefore forms the beginning of education.” Cm. Attention volume,Inertia,Tachistoscope. (B.M.)

WARNING VIOLATIONS(English) impairmentsofattention) - pathological changes in the direction and selectivity of mental activity. The trace is highlighted. types of V. n.: narrowing of volume attention, when a person can perceive only a small number of objects at the same time; instability of attention, when concentration is impaired and attention is distracted by side stimuli. Such V. n. observed as in a condition fatigue, and with organic lesions of the brain, primarily the frontal lobes.

V. n., arising from local brain lesions, may. modal-nonspecific; they manifest themselves simultaneously in many types of mental activity, during the perception of stimuli of any modality. Data from V. n. characteristic of cases where a person has damage to the frontal lobes of the brain and associated nonspecific structures.

If one or another is affected sensory system possible appearance modality-specific V. n., which are limited to only one modality. Thus, when the occipital region of the cortex is damaged, disturbances in visual attention occur; when the temporal cortex is damaged, auditory attention occurs, etc. Modality-specific V. n. manifest themselves in the form of inattention to stimuli of a certain modality. Cm. Children's hyperactivity,Neuroses,Attention volume. (E. D. Chomskaya.)

ATTENTION VOLUME(English) attentionspan) - one of the first indicators that I tried to measure experimental psychology. There are 2 main traditions. 1. Introspectionists interpreted V. o. in terms of content consciousness and defined it as the number of objects that simultaneously possess the attribute of clarity. Thus, in an experiment by Glenville and Dallenbach (1929), subjects reported whether they saw a presented cluster of dots equally clearly or some part more clearly. That. measured V. o. m.b. equal to 18 points. 2. The identification of V. o. is more common. with the volume of perception (and even with the volume of short-term memory): for V. o. the number of objects that can be accepted is accepted. correctly perceived during short-term simultaneous presentation. V. o. depends on the exposure time, the nature of the stimulus material, and the experience of the subject. With an exposure of visual stimuli of 0.1 s, the average V. o. is approx. 7 separate objects. If there is a semantic connection or the possibility of grouping objects of the V. o. increases. At the same time, V.'s exercise ability. for isolated elements is limited, and for semantic combinations - high. Values ​​of V. o. will differ significantly for different tasks (determine the number of elements, name them, name them and indicate the color, etc.). The vast majority of experiments on V. o. performed on visual perception: with touch an obstacle is the different sensitivity of skin areas, with rumor - disguise one sound and others while presenting them simultaneously.

According to the apt remark of R. Woodworth, “what might. measured by us is not even the volume of perception. It is the volume of perception and reporting of what is perceived.” Indeed, the measurement of V. o. complicated by active interference of processes memory,speeches. V. o. m.b. defined and how setting area, which follows from one interpretation of attention itself. Thus, from a theoretical point of view, the concept of V. o. quite controversial, which, however, does not prevent its use, for example, in psychodiagnostics. Cm. Attention,Operative field of view. (I. A. Meshcheryakova.)

ATTENTION PHYSIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS(English) physicalmechanismsofattention). Direction and concentration of mental activity during attention provide more efficient receiving information. The leading role in achieving this effect belongs to activating system, which includes brain structures of different levels and provides generalized and local activation cerebral cortex. Cortical activation is expressed on the EEG (see. Electroencephalography) as desynchronization reactions and blockades alpha rhythm. At the same time, they decrease sensation thresholds and the speed of nervous processes increases. Spectral-correlation analysis of EEG reveals more subtle mechanisms of the brain organization of attention. At the moment of drawing attention to a stimulus, the EEG observes both the collapse of the established system (decrease in coherence functions) and the formation of local functional associations of cortical zones that are adequate to the activity being implemented (increase in coherence). The collapse of the system (generalized activation) prevails in situations of surprise, uncertainty (for example, when indicative reaction). Functional associations of structures under the influence of local activation are formed when the activity strategy is determined and the activity is effectively implemented. Thus, generalized activation in response to novelty provides involuntary attention.

Selective activation of cortical areas and their functional integration under the influence of local activation, which is of a controlled nature and under the control of the frontal cortex, underlies voluntary attention.Frontal areas, one of the functions of which is to determine the significance of information and organize reactions on this basis, according to corticofugal connections are regulated by ascending activating influences reticular structures mesencephalic, diencephalic levels, limbic system, which selectively activate certain areas of the cerebral cortex. This ensures the effectiveness of activity in conditions of attention.

IN ontogenesis As the functional maturation of the frontal areas of the cortex increases, the regulation of activating structures increases, and the mechanisms of local activation that determine the development of voluntary attention are improved. see also Brain blocks,Dominant,E-wave. (N.V. Dubrovinskaya, D.A. Farber.)

(Zinchenko V.P., Meshcheryakov B.G. Large psychological dictionary - 3rd ed., 2002)

Attention is not an independent cognitive process, since it in itself does not reflect anything and does not exist as a separate mental phenomenon. At the same time, attention is one of the most important components of human cognitive activity, since it, arising on the basis of cognitive processes, organizes and regulates their functioning. Since cognitive activity is carried out consciously, attention performs one of the functions of consciousness.

Attention- this is a special state of consciousness, thanks to which the subject directs and focuses cognitive processes for a more complete and clear reflection of reality. Attention is associated with all sensory and intellectual processes. This connection is most noticeable in sensations and perceptions.

Characteristics of attention:

Sustainability– the duration of attracting attention to the same object or to the same task.

Concentration of attention– increase in signal intensity when the field of perception is limited. Concentration offers not only long-term retention of attention on an object, but also distraction from all other influences that are not important to the subject at the moment.

Focus manifests itself as a result of concentration of consciousness on an object in order to obtain the most complete information about it.

Distribution of attention– the subjectively experienced ability of a person to hold a certain number of heterogeneous objects in the center of attention at the same time.

Switchability- this is the speed of transition from one type of activity to another (absent-mindedness - poor switchability).

Objectivity of attention is associated with the ability to identify certain complexes of signals in accordance with the task at hand, personal significance, relevance of signals, etc.

Attention span characterized by the number of objects to which the subject can direct and focus attention in a split second. The amount of attention is determined using special tachistoscope devices. In an instant, a person can pay attention to only a few objects (from 4 to 6).

Types of attention:

The manifestation of attention is associated with both sensory and intellectual processes, as well as with practical actions and with the goals and objectives of the activity. In this regard, the following types of attention are highlighted: sensory, intellectual, motor, intentional and unintentional attention.

Sensory attention occurs when objects act on the senses. It provides a clear reflection of objects and their properties in the sensations and perceptions of a person. Thanks to sensory attention, the images of objects that appear in the mind are clear and distinct. Sensory attention can be visual, auditory, olfactory etc. Basically, a person exhibits visual and auditory attention. Visual attention is the best studied in psychology because it is easy to detect and record.

Motor attention aimed at movements and actions performed by a person. It makes it possible to more clearly and clearly understand the techniques and methods used in practical activities. Motor attention regulates and controls movements and actions aimed at an object, especially in cases where they must be particularly clear and precise. Intelligent attention aimed at more efficient functioning of such cognitive processes as: memory, imagination and thinking. Thanks to this attention, a person remembers and reproduces information better, creates clearer images of the imagination, and thinks clearly and productively. Since this attention is internal in nature and is little accessible for research, it is the least studied in psychology.

Intentional (voluntary) attention arises when the subject has a goal or task to be attentive to some external object or to an internal mental action. It is mainly aimed at regulating external sensory and motor actions and internal cognitive processes. Intentional attention can become voluntary when the subject needs to show volitional effort in order to direct and focus attention on an object that needs to be cognized or with which to act.

If the direction and concentration of attention are associated with a conscious goal, we are talking about voluntary attention. N. F. Dobrynin identified another type of attention - post-voluntary attention (this is attention that naturally accompanies the activity of the individual; it arises if the individual is absorbed in the activity; it is associated with the existing system of associations). This may occur when the goal of paying attention remains, but volitional efforts disappear. Such attention begins to manifest itself when activities that require volitional efforts become exciting and are carried out without much difficulty.

If direction and concentration are involuntary, we are talking about involuntary attention. According to K.K. Platonov, one of the forms of involuntary attention is an attitude (a state of readiness or predisposition of an individual to act in a certain way). Unintentional (involuntary) attention arises by itself without any purpose on the part of the person. It is caused by properties and qualities of objects and phenomena of the external world that are significant for a person. One of these properties is the novelty of the object. Involuntary attention is also attracted by all strong stimuli: bright light, loud sound, strong smell, etc. Sometimes not very noticeable stimuli can attract attention if they correspond to the needs, interests and attitudes of the individual.