5.Egypt. This ancient agricultural civilization began to take shape in the 4th century. BC. The history of the state and the country of E. is divided into several periods: the Early, Ancient, Middle and New Kingdom. Early E. was the time of the formation of the slave system and the despotic state, throughout the cat. formed characteristic of the ancient. Egyptian religious beliefs: cult of nature and ancestors, astral and afterlife cults, fetishism, totemism, animism and magic. Stone began to be widely used in religious construction. Dr. and Wed. The kingdoms were characterized by the strengthening and centralization of the bureaucratic apparatus of government, the strengthening of the power of Egypt and its desire to expand its influence on neighboring peoples. In general development, this is the era of construction, surprising with the size of the tombs of the pharaohs, such as the pyramids of Cheops, etc., the creation of unique monuments of art, such as the sphinxes of the pharaohs, portrait reliefs on wood. About the grandeur of the largest of Egypt. pyramids - pyramids of Cheops, cat. has no equal among stone structures all over the world, its dimensions say: 146 m in height, and the length of the base of each of the 4 faces is 230 m. New the kingdom was last period E.'s external activity, when he waged wars in Asia and the North. Africa. At this time, the architecture of temples especially flourished. Among the greatest achievements of thin. TV of this period, the image of Queen Nifertia from the sculpture workshop in Akhetaton, the golden mask of Pharaoh Tutankhamun and the paintings of the tombs in the Valley of the Kings near Thebes. They continued the characteristic for Dr. The Eastern tradition of depicting the head and legs of a figure in profile, and the torso in front. This tradition disappears in the end. the period of the fall of Egypt, when it was conquered by Persia. Within the boundaries of a unique worldview, the religious and mythological system of the ancients was formed. Egyptians about building peace. The whole multitude of fragmented religions was gradually reduced to a certain divine hierarchy, where the cult of the god Ra (the most important among all deities) merged with the cults of other gods. In Dr. E., where only the pharaoh stood over society, all other citizens were considered equal before the creator and the law, women were equal to men. Belief in individual immortality gave rise to such a phenomenon in the ancient world. Egyptians, as a desire to leave a memory of themselves throughout the centuries, they built tomb monuments marked with hieroglyphs. If in the era of Dr. kingdoms, only pharaohs could enter the “kingdom of the dead” by building a pyramid for themselves, then from the time of Wed. Kingdom, everyone had the right to build their own tomb. In Dr. E. all special knowledge was concentrated in a small group of people, cat. constituted the ruling caste of priests in society. The priests effectively used the data of astronomical observations accumulated over time to control the masses, discovering the periodicity of solar eclipses and learning to foresee them. In Dr. E. for the first time in the world, practical medicine arose, def. The decimal counting system in arithmetic reached its development. Ancient The Egyptians also owned some. electronic knowledge in algebra. The discovery of hieroglyphs as writing contributed to the development of such genres of literature as myths, fairy tales, tales, prayers, hymns, laments, epitaphs, stories, love lyrics and even fictional dialogues and politics. treatises, later religious drama and secular theater appeared. The rapid development of art in ancient Egyptian society led to the emergence of the first written aesthetic and artistic reflections in the world. This is where peace came for the first time in history. humanism arose. King's inheritance of Dr. E. played its part in history. role in the formation and development of the world. to-ry.

6.K-ra Dr. India. Early Indian civilization was created anciently. local population of the North. India in the 3rd century. BC. Its centers Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro (now Pakistan) maintained connections with Mesopotamia, the countries of the Center. and Wed. Asia. The inhabitants of these places achieved high skill, especially in depicting images of small forms (figurines, engravings); their amazing achievement was the water supply and sewerage system, cat. none of their other trees had it. k-r. They also created their own original, still undeciphered writing. A striking feature of the Harappan region was its unusual conservatism: for centuries, the layout of the streets was ancient. ind. the locations did not change, and new houses were built on the sites of the old ones. A characteristic feature of India is that we meet with numerous religions. interact with each other. Among them, the main ones stand out - Brahmanism and its forms, Hinduism and Jainism, Buddhism and Islam. The real heyday of ancient India. k-ra reached in the era of the “Rigvedi” - a large collection of religious hymns, magical spells and ritual customs created by the priests of the Aryan tribes, which appeared in India after the so-called. "Great Migration" At the same time, Brahmanism emerged as a unique form. a synthesis of the beliefs of the Indo-Aryans and the religious ideas of the previous local pre-Aryan population of the North. India. In the era of the Rigvedi, India began to take shape. phenomenon - caste system . For the first time, the moral and legal motives for the division of ind. were theoretically substantiated. Community for 4 main units. “Varnas”: priests, warriors, commoners, farmers and servants. A whole system of regulations for the life and behavior of people of each varna was developed. According to this, marriage was considered legal only within one varna. The result of such relations between people was the following division of varnas into an even greater number of small castes. The formation of castes is the result of a thousand-year evolution of the interaction of different racial and ethnic groups in a single system of the ancient Indian race. community, where a very complex social system was formed. structure. Olympus in Hinduism is symbolized by the trinity Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva, the cat. represents the cosmic forces of creation, conservation and destruction. Original the reaction of the population not belonging to the priestly castes and opposed to the inequality of castes was Buddhism. According to the teachings of Buddhism, the mission of human life is to achieve nirvana. Islam was strikingly different from all previous religious views. First of all, Muslim. the tribes owned military technology and strong politics. system, but ch. their beliefs were based on the concept of "grouped brotherhood", cat. united by bonds of deep respect all who accepted this faith. All ind. Literature, both religious and secular, is filled with hints of sexual content and symbolism of open erotic descriptions. In the Middle Ages, the process of cosmic creation itself was depicted as a marriage union between a god and a goddess, which is why figures on the walls of temples were depicted in various poses. In the center of Dr. India is closely connected by the originality of the national trends and the beautiful thought. F-f views, cat. shared religious division of light, inc. into Brahmanism, Jainism, Hinduism and Buddhism. All f-f views played an important role not only in the history of India, but also the world. Physics and science. The achievements of various branches of ancient India are closely related to them. science - uterus, astronomy, medicine and natural history. It is known that ind. Scientists were ahead of some in the distant past. discoveries made by Europe. scientists only in the Renaissance or in modern times. Thin k-ra ancient Indian. society is inextricably linked with its traditional religious and religious systems. Ideas characteristic of ancient religious beliefs. Indians were inspired by TV in art, painting and painting. For posterity, huge statues of Buddha, Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva, made of metal, remained for posterity. cause surprise with its colossal size. The perception of light through the spiritual prism of the beliefs of these religions is the frescoes of the cave temples of Ajanta and rock compositions in the temples of Ellora, cat. unite the traditions of the north. and south type of structure of temples in Dr. India. In some details of these monuments, the influence of art and other ancient times is felt. eastern civilizations. This was explained by the location of India on the Great Silk Road, according to the cat. not only were there caravans with goods, but also a major exchange took place. In this process, India played a major role, expanding the civilized influence of Buddhism on other ancient times. countries.

7.K-ra Dr. China. The most ancient The period of Chinese civilization is considered to be the era of the existence of the state of Shang, a slave-owning country in the valley of the Yellow River. Its capital was the city of Shan, which gave it its name. country and the ruling dynasty of kings. Later it was conquered by other Chinese tribes, called. new kingdom of Zhou. Subsequently, it split into five independent principalities. Already in the Shang era, ideographic writing was discovered. through long improvement, it turned into hieroglyphic collegiography, and a monthly calendar was also compiled in basic terms. During the early imperial era, Dr. K. brought into the world. to such discoveries as a compass and a speedometer, a seismograph. Later, printing and gunpowder were invented. It was in China that paper and movable type were discovered in the field of writing and printing, and guns and stirrups in military technology. Mechanical technology was also invented. hours and technical technical occurred. improvements in the region silk weaving. In mother-ka, the outstanding Chinese achievement was the use decimals and an empty position to indicate 0, calculation of the number P, discovery of a method for solving equations with two and three unknowns. Ancient The Chinese were educated astronomers and compiled one of the world's first star maps. Since the ancient Chinese society was an agrarian one, a centralized bureaucracy had to solve complex technical issues related primarily to the use and protection water resources, therefore, high development in Dr. K. was achieved by astronomy, knowledge of calendar calculations and astrological forecasts, mathematics, physics and hydraulic engineering in their engineering use. The construction of forts also remained important, aimed primarily at protecting the external borders of the empire from incursions by warlike nomads from the North. Chinese builders became famous for their grandiose structures - the Great Wall of China and the Grand Canal. Over the course of 3 thousand years of history, Chinese medicine has achieved many results. In Dr. K. was the first to write “Pharmacology”, and for the first time they began to perform surgical operations using narcotics. means, for the first time used and described in the literature methods of treatment with acupuncture, moxibustion and massage. Ancient Chinese thinkers and healers developed an original doctrine of “vital energy”. On the basis of this teaching, the wushu health-improving system was created, which gave rise to the therapeutic gymnastics of the same name, as well as the self-defense art of kung fu. The originality of the spiritual constitution of Dr. K. is largely due to the phenomenon known in the world as “Chinese ceremonies.” These strictly fixed stereotypes of ethical and ritual norms of behavior and thinking developed on the basis of the cult of antiquity. The cult of the gods was replaced by the cult of real clan and family ancestors. And those gods whose cult has been preserved have lost the least resemblance to people, becoming abstract symbolic deities, for example. Sky. The most important place in the Chinese spiritual culture is occupied by Confucianism - ethical and political. teachings of the idealist Confucius. His ideal is a highly moral person, based on the traditions of wise ancestors. The doctrine divided society into “higher” and “lower” and demanded that each person fulfill the obligations assigned to him. Confucianism played significant role in the development of Chinese statehood and the functioning of politics. k-ry of imperial China. Ch. the force that opposed Confucianism in the sphere of politics and ethics was legalism. The legalists, being realists, based their doctrine on law, force and authority. must be supported by severe punishments. Confucianism relied on morality and ancient history. traditions, while legalism put administrative regulations in first place. Under the influence of those characteristic of the ancients. Chinese society of religious, ethical, social and political. views developed and all his classical. Liter. Already in the earliest poetry collection of Dr. K., the famous “Book of Songs”, cat. was created over a long period of time on the basis of folk songs, sacred chants and ancient traditions. hymns, the exploits of ancestors are glorified. In the 2nd-3rd centuries. Buddhism comes to K., cat. quite noticeably influenced traditional Chinese art, this was manifested in literature, figurative art and, especially, in art. Buddhism existed in China for almost 2 millennia, and changed noticeably in the process of adaptation to the specific Chinese civilization. Based on the synthesis of his ideas with Confucian pragmatism, Chan Buddhism arose in China. subsequently spread to Japan and received the form of Zen Buddhism. The most transformations of Buddhism manifested themselves in their own way. Chinese art, cat. like nowhere else in the world was it based on tradition. The Chinese never adopted the Indian form. Buddhas created their own image. The same thing happened with the ar-roy of temples. Taoism also played a significant role in the Chinese religion. related to the development of science and technology Dr. K. The “Great Silk Road” played a special role in K.’s close contacts with the outside world. not only trade took place, but also a major exchange of China with other countries, which influenced the Chinese economy.

9. The Hellenes worshiped deities representing various forces of nature, social forces and phenomena, heroes - the mythical ancestors of tribes and clans, and the founders of cities. The myths have preserved layers different eras- from ancient worship of plants and animals to anthropomorphism - the deification of man, the representation of gods in the images of young, beautiful and immortal people. Legends about heroes - children of gods and mortals - occupied a significant place in Greek mythology. Mythology became a significant element of Greek culture, on the basis of which literature, philosophy, and science later developed. The basis of literary education was the works of Homer, Hesiod, and Aesop. One of the greatest acquisitions of Dr. Gr. There are the works of Homer “Iliad” and “Odyssey”; lyric poetry arose, one of the first lyres. Archilochus is considered a poet. On the island of Lesbos Sappho created her creative work. was the pinnacle of Dr. Gr. In the 7th century BC. stone buildings appear. Ch. So these are temples. In the process of forming the group. ar-ry there are 3 main directions: Doric(), ionic(), Corinthian( sophistication ). Temples of the arch. period: Apollo in Corinth and Hera in Paestum. In sculpture by arch. period, the main place is occupied by the image of a person. Gr. artists are trying to master the correct structure of a person’s body and learn to convey movement. The human body was subjected to careful geometric study, as a result the cat. rules were established for the proportional relationship of its parts. Historians believe that the theorist of proportions is the sculptor Polykleitos. The anthropocentricity of ancient Greek culture presupposes the cult of the human body. The cult of the body was so great that nudity did not evoke a feeling of modesty. As soon as the famous Athenian beauty Phryne, accused of committing a crime, threw off her clothes in front of the judges, they, blinded by her beauty, acquitted her. The human body became the measure of all forms of Greek culture. Painting ch. arr. known to us from vase paintings. In the 6th century Black-figure painting dominates; figures are depicted on a yellow surface using black varnish. At the end of the 6th century. Red-figure painting appears when the figures remain in the color of clay, and the background is black and varnished. dramaturgy develops. The emergence of gr. The theater was associated with the cult of the god of wine Dionysus. The actors performed in goat skins and therefore this genre was called “tragedy” (“song of the goats”). Famous playwrights were Aeschylus (“Prometheus the Chain”), Sophocles (“Antigone” and “Oedipus Rex”), Euripides (“Medea”, “Electra”). Rhetoric flourished from prose genres in the classical period - the ability to clearly express one’s thoughts and convincingly defend one’s positions. Sculptors mainly depicted gods. The most prominent sculptors were Phidias, Polykleitos and Lysippos (court sculptor of A. Macedonian). The creations of Phidias were the statues of Athena in the Parthenon and Olympian Zeus in Olympia. Polykleitos is the main representative of the Peloponnesian school. The most famous sculpture of the master is “Doriphoros”, a young man with a spear. In the 4th century BC. gr. sculpture leans towards transfer individual characteristics har-ra man. In the 5th century BC. - fracture time in gr. painting, transition to three-dimensional image. The Greek agon - struggle, competition personified the characteristic features of a free Greek. The most striking expression of the ancient agon was the famous Olympic Games. The origins of the first Olympiads are lost in antiquity, but in 776. BC. It was the first time the name of the winner in the race was written on a marble tablet, and this year is considered the beginning of the historical period of the Olympic Games. The site of the Olympic festivities was the sacred grove of Altis. In the famous Temple of Olympian Zeus there was a statue of the god created by Phidias and considered one of the seven wonders of the world. Trade deals were concluded in the sacred grove, poets, speakers, and scientists spoke to spectators, artists and sculptors presented their paintings and sculptures to those present. The state had the right to announce new laws here. The Academy of Athens, a grove dedicated to the Athenian hero Academus, became famous for the fact that torch races later began from here. Dialectics (the ability to conduct a conversation) originates in the Greek agon. Greek culture is festive, outwardly colorful and spectacular. In literature during the Hellenistic period, attention to man grows. The comedy was a success. The rapid growth of cities and the desire of rulers to glorify the power of their states contributed to the development of art, especially the art of urban planning and types of art associated with the decoration of buildings - mosaics, decorative sculpture, painted ceramics. Basilicas, gymnasiums, stadiums, libraries, as well as royal palaces and residential buildings appeared. In the region There were 3 schools of sculpture during this period. 1. Rhodes school. Pergamon SchoolAlexandria School

8. Archaic period. In the history of Dr. Gr. 8-6c. BC. characterized big changes in households activities, social life, k-re. One of the greatest acquisitions of the Arch. period there are Homer's works "Iliad" and "Odyssey". In the 7th-6th centuries. BC. arose lyrics, one of the first lyres. Archilochus is considered a poet. In the first half. 6th century BC. on the island of Lesbos Sappho created, the cat’s creativity. was the pinnacle of Dr. Gr. In 8-6c. in Dr. Gr. there was a rise in image-creative art and art. In the 7th century BC. stone buildings appear. Ch. So these are temples. In the process of forming the group. ar-ry there are 3 main directions: Doric( used mainly in the Peloponnese, characterized by simplicity and severity of forms ), ionic( lightness, harmony, decorativeness ), Corinthian( sophistication ). Temples of the arch. period: Apollo in Corinth and Hera in Paestum. In sculpture by arch. period, the main place is occupied by the image of a person. Gr. artists are trying to master the correct structure of a person’s body and learn to convey movement. Painting ch. arr. known to us from vase paintings. In the 6th century Black-figure painting dominates; figures are depicted on a yellow surface using black varnish. At the end of the 6th century. Red-figure painting appears when the figures remain in the color of clay, and the background is black and varnished. Generalization of knowledge about the environment. world were the basis for the development of f-fii. The founder of the Milesian f-f school was Thales, who believed that the fundamental principle of the world is water, from the cat. everything arises in the cat. everything transforms. “Apeiron”, indefinite, eternal matter, air, fire, was also considered the fundamental principle. Ancient Greece ph and mathematician Pythagoras founded the ph school in South. Italy. According to him, the world consists of quantitative patterns, cat. can be calculated. The merit of the Pythagoreans was the development of theorems, the theory of music based on numerical relationships, and the establishment of a number of regular patterns in the world. The idealistic line in Physics, founded by the Pythagoreans, was continued by the Eleatic Physics school. The victory over Persia gave Gr. full power in Sre-rye. Military production, trade, and the use of slave labor contributed to the development of all sectors of the economy.

Classic period. In class period dramaturgy develops. The emergence of gr. The theater was associated with the cult of the god of wine Dionysus. The actors performed in goat skins and therefore this genre was called “tragedy” (“song of the goats”). Famous playwrights of this period were Aeschylus (“Chained Prometheus”), Sophocles (“Antigone” and “Oedipus Rex”), Euripides (“Medea”, “Electra”). Rhetoric flourished from prose genres in the classical period - the ability to clearly express one’s thoughts and convincingly defend one’s positions. Among the f-f problems in class. period, the understanding of the essence and place of man in the world comes to the fore, and consideration of the problems of existence and the fundamental principles of the world continues. A materialistic interpretation of the problem of fundamental principles was put forward by Democritus, who developed the doctrine of atoms. Ancient Greece the sophists taught that “man is the measure of all things,” and the essence of things depends on their connection with man. Socrates saw the path to achieving truth in self-knowledge. To explain existence, Plato developed the theory of the existence of “ideas.” Plato also paid significant attention to issues of the state; he proposed a project for an ideal policy governed by f-fs. Aristotle made his contribution to philosophy, natural history, history, literature, state law, and the foundations of formal logic. Astronomy, medicine, geography, mechanics, and history developed. The ancient Greeks made contributions to medicine. physician Hippocrates. Gr. claim in class period reached its highest development. Sculptors mainly depicted gods. The most prominent sculptors were Phidias, Polykleitos and Lysippos (court sculptor of A. Macedonian). The creations of Phidias were the statues of Athena in the Parthenon and Olympian Zeus in Olympia. Polykleitos is the main representative of the Peloponnesian school. The most famous sculpture of the master is “Doriphoros”, a young man with a spear. In the 4th century BC. gr. sculpture tends to convey the individual characteristics of a person’s character. In the 5th century BC. - fracture time in gr. painting, transition to three-dimensional image. Trait gr. competitiveness. Gr. agon - struggle, competition personified the characteristic features of a free Greek. The most striking expression of the ancient agon was the famous Olympic Games. In the Greek agon, dialectics originates - the ability to conduct a conversation.

Hellenism. The period from the beginning of A. Macedonian’s campaign to the East until Rome’s conquest of Egypt is called Hellenic. It is typical for him to expand the relationships and mutual influences of the group. and east k-r. Having lost the policy restrictions, gr. k-ra absorbed the east. el-you. These changes found their manifestation in religion, literature, and literature. New f-f schools have emerged. The most famous in this period are the teachings of the Stoics (founder Zeno) and the philosophy of Epicurus (follower of Democritus). In literature during the Hellenistic period, attention to man grows. The comedy was a success. The rapid growth of cities and the desire of rulers to glorify the power of their states contributed to the development of art, especially the art of urban planning and types of art associated with the decoration of buildings - mosaics, decorative sculpture, painted ceramics... Basilicas, gymnasiums, stadiums, libraries, and also palaces of kings, residential buildings. In the region There were 3 schools of sculpture during this period. 1. Rhodes school(dramatic). Sculptural groups “Laocoon” and “Farnese Bull”. 2 . Pergamon School. Sculptural frieze of the altar of Zeus and Athena in Pergamon. 3. Alexandria School. Image of the goddess Aphrodite. Painting, especially landscape painting, has achieved great development. The Hellenistic culture became the final stage in the development of the culture of Dr. Greece.

20. Z. Freud. - created a new direction in psychology and medicine - self-criticism. He called it psychoanalysis. However, the significance of the French concept of man goes far beyond the boundaries of medicine: the French generalization of psychoanalysis - Freudianism has become a doctrine in the field of psychology and psychology. Fr. discovered the unconscious in man as an independent, impersonal beginning of the human soul, independent of consciousness. At the same time, the unconscious actively interferes in human life. Fr. considers it only an illusion that our lives are controlled by our “I”. Fr. called This is the unconscious beginning of “It” and believes that our “I” is just a toy in the hands of this ancient psychic force. The French “It” is of purely natural origin; all the primary drives of a person are concentrated in it. These primary drives come down to 2: - sexual desires, - the drive to death, i.e. attraction to destruction. Our “I”, striving to survive in the world of nature and society, constantly faces the reckless force of “It”. The “I” is guided by the reality principle, and the “Id” is entirely based on the pleasure principle. Hence the inevitable struggle between “I” and “It”. Fr. reveals the “cunning of the unconscious,” which is capable of carrying out its drives, disguising them as conscious decisions of the “I.” But a person is able to survive only insofar as the mind and nature can subordinate “It” to their goals. Fr. indicates a method, cat. K-ra implements his goals, which do not coincide with the primitive drives of the “It”. This method Fr. called sublimation. If sublimation takes place, then the primitive drives of the “It” take the form of a drive to knowledge, art, and a high ideal. At the same time, according to Fr. expresses a system of general norms and always stands above an individual. Kra can lead a person only insofar as she herself has become part of his unconscious, has taken shape as a special unconscious attitude. This installation Fr. called "Superself." Person "I" according to Fr. closed between 2 opposite poles - the natural elements and the requirement of nature. If a person demands more from a person than he can, then this causes rebellion or neurosis in the individual, or makes him unhappy. It makes life safer by blocking people's instincts and aggressiveness, but the price they pay is a psycho. human health, cat torn between natural psyche. elements and local norms, between sexuality and sociality, aggressiveness and morality. The teaching of Fr. had a huge influence on the development of science and medicine in the 20th century. Jung discovered typical images that appeared to his patients in dreams and visions. These images coincided with symbols running through the entire history of the world. to-ry. The most surprising thing is that most of Jung’s patients could not know, due to their education, about these rather complex cardinal symbols. These symbolic images did not come from outside and were not invented consciously, so we can conclude that they were born from the unconscious common to all people, Jung called. this is a lot of unconsciousness. According to Jung, the vast unconscious has a regional origin, but is inherited biologically. Jung believes that the basis of the soul can still live in peace with the cut, without sharing the opinion of Fr. about the contradiction. It is impossible to tame the “demons of the soul,” but they can be tamed, their manifestation can be made relatively safe, and they can even be placed in the service of the kingdom. Therefore, European The body must change in order to restore the lost unity of the human soul, which, however, does not at all mean immersion in the unconscious and complete subordination to its archaic motives. Jung revealed the organic connection between the creature and the human unconscious. The history of the queen and her symbolic world appeared as the realization of the unconscious foundations of the soul. Gaming concept- one of the most common concepts in the world. to-ry. One of the brightest representatives of this concept is J. Huizinga. The game in his concept is a cultural-historical universal. The tradition of interpreting art from a game as a spontaneous activity, cat. enjoyable in itself, regardless of any purpose. The game accompanies the game throughout its history and characterizes many of its forms. The culture-forming nature of the game is due to the fact that in order to change the environment. environment through any material reality, a person had to first perform similar work in his imagination, i.e. lose the activity process. But Huizinga does not reduce the gaming element only to spiritual manifestation; it is present in all spheres of the material world and determines the content of its forms. Modern analysis. The Spanish philosopher J. Ortaga y Gasset took a major step into the game aspect. Being a critic of the mass culture that has swept Europe in the present century, he contrasts it with a genuine “living” culture, cat. a person makes it a personal asset, turning to her out of inner need. The character of the “live” characters given by the Spanish f-f is in tune with Huizinga’s playing criteria. The essence of it, according to these thinkers, is spontaneity and the absence of a pragmatic attitude. From specific elements of such a crowd, an elite layer of the k-ry process is formed, resisting the onslaught of the mass crowd.

14. Middle and centuries in k-rology called. a long period (covering more than a millennium) in the history of Western Europe. Europe between antiquity and modern times. There are 3 periods of development: 1) Early Middle Ages- the new Western Europeans accepted Christianity, cat. in Rome it was the state religion; new states were formed on the territory of the former Roman Empire. formations created by barbarians. The Roman Empire broke up into many duchies, counties, margraviates, bishoprics, abbeys and other fiefs. Their rulers were completely sovereign masters and did not submit to any emperors or kings. Asceticism becomes the official ideology of Catholicism. In most states in the West. Europe still preserves the traditions of the ancient spiritual culture. Schools existing at monasteries cultivated “7 liberal arts", focusing on that knowledge, cat. required feudal society. In schools, the Latin liturgy, the Latin language with elements of literary education, necessary for the assimilation of Scripture, were preserved; 2) High (classical) Middle Ages- Europe began to overcome the difficulties of the Early period and revive. From the 5th century cooperation under the laws of feudalism made it possible to create larger states. structures and gather strong armies. In the rez. Christians gained dominance in the Mediterranean Sea and its islands. The resulting stability ensured the rapid rise of cities and the general economy. Society has lost the features of barbarism, spiritual life is flourishing in the cities. Based on the traditions of Dr. Romanesque and then Gothic art arose from Rome and barbarian tribes, theater, music, sculpture, painting and literature developed. Scientists got the opportunity with the works of ancient Greeks. and Hellenistic fiction, especially Aristotle. Subsequently, the f-f system of the Middle Ages, scholasticism, arose - a type of religious f-fia, which is characterized by subordination to theology. The focus of theologians was the relationship between faith and knowledge. The name of P. Abelard is associated with the emergence of the concept of free thought.; 3) Late Middle Ages- the formation of Europe continued. k-ry, but its progress was far from smooth. Zap. Europe repeatedly experienced great famines, numerous epidemics brought many human victims. The Hundred Years' War greatly slowed down its development. But after the war, crafts, agriculture and trade improved, new conditions arose for the rise of the spiritual life of science, philosophy, art, especially in the North. Italy. This led to the so-called. Voz-nyu or R-su. In the West Europe is undergoing profound social changes. Medieval symbolism was reflected in art and Christian liturgy. The dominant principle in art was the symbolism of numbers. IN religious rites theater elements are used. In the 10th century folk traveling actors and singers appear. Carnival-type holidays were common throughout Europe, but they reached a special variety of forms in the Romanesque countries (France). For the first time, the new city church spoke out against the monopoly of the church in the spiritual sphere. With the development of education in cities and castles, a secular society emerged, separated from the church. In France and Germany, courtly knightly literature is developing, its meaning directed against the asceticism of church literature. Its main genres are lyrics and novel. They sang high feelings for the lady of the heart. The first courtly lyricists were troubadours (Provençal poet-singers). The influence of folk art was reflected in the epics of the Middle Ages.

15. Romanesque. Ar-ra. The first independent specifically European art. The style of medieval Europe was Romanesque. It arose as a result of the synthesis of the remains of thin. to-ry of Rome and barbarian tribes. At first it was the proto-Romanesque style. At the end of the Proto-Roman period, elements of the Romanesque style were mixed with Byzantine, Middle Eastern, Syrian, Germanic, Celtic, and other northern features. Tribes. These influences created in the West. Europe has many local styles called Romanesque. Ar-ra 5-8th century. usually simple, with the exception of buildings in Ravenna (Italy). In many regions this style was a continuation of early Christian art. Distinguished by rounded or polygonal cathedral churches - the Cathedral of San Vitalo in Ravenna and the octagonal palace chapel built by Charlemagne in Il'la Capelle, in the present. Time Aachen, Germany. One of the creations of Carolingian architecture was the westwork, a multi-story entrance facade. Buildings in the monastery style were also constructed. Monastic complexes are represented in St. Gall (Switzerland), on the island of Reichenau and in Monte Cassino (Italy). The achievement of the art-ditch was the development of buildings with stone voltaines. Ch. the reason for their development was the need to replace the highly flammable wooden floors of pre-Romanesque buildings. Sculpture. Most of the sculptures were integrated into the church art and served both structural, constructive and aesthetic purposes. In the French Romanesque cathedrals of Provence, Burgundy, and Aquitaine, many figures were placed on the facades, and statues on the columns, emphasizing the supporting elements. Painting, this is the decoration of art monuments, tikas like columns with abstract patterns and wall decoration with images of hanging fabrics or biblical stories. Mosaic, like painting, was mainly a Byzantine technique and was widely used in the design of Italian Romanesque churches (St. Mark's Cathedral, Venice and the Sicilian churches in Cefalu and Montreal). Art. Hoods have reached high level in illustrating manuscripts. The works of the English school of manuscript illustration are distinguished by the geometric interweaving of patterns in capital letters and frames. The designs of capital letters are often enlivened by figures of people, birds and monsters. Regional schools of manuscript illustration in the South. And Vos. Europe developed specific styles, for example, copies of the Apocalypse, Beata. Pre-Romanesque and Romanesque metalworking - used to create church utensils and for religious rituals. Other metalwork from this period is early Celtic filigree Jewelry and silver objects, as well as wonderful enamels. Famous metal craftsmen were Roger and Isgelmarshausen, a German known for his bronze products, and a Frenchman. Enameller Godefroy de Cler. The most famous example of Romanesque textile work is Yavl. embroidery 11th century, called "Tapestry from Baye." Gothic. As society develops, the Romanesque style gradually turns into a new one - Gothic. Gothic art originated in France. The main representative and exponent of the Gothic period was art-ra. A huge number of Gothic monuments were secular, although the Gothic style served primarily the church, cat. and ensured the development of this new architecture and contributed to its full implementation. A characteristic feature of the Gothic style is ribbed vaults, which included slender stone arches and made it possible to solve many architectural problems, because were light, thin and versatile and could be positioned diagonally, transversely and longitudinally. With the advent of the vault, the design, shape, layout and interiors of cathedrals changed. The first was Notre Dame Cathedral. In 1194 The cathedral in Chartres was founded, which is considered the beginning of the High Gothic period. The culmination of this era was the cathedral in Reims. Openwork partitions, a characteristic feature of the late Gothic architecture, were an invention of the first architecture of Reims Cathedral. Sculpture. Stone figures were depicted as decorations, personifying the dogmas and beliefs of the Catholic Church. The sculpture in its character was predominantly artistic. Since 1180 Romanesque stylization begins to transition into a new one when the statue begins to transition into a sense of grace, sinuousness and freedom of movement (a series of sculptures of Chartres Cathedral). In its development, Gothic sculpture was accompanied by the emergence of naturalism.

16. Epoch B. is considered as a transition from the Middle Ages, from feudal to bourgeois society. Manufactures appear, banking and international trade develop. trade. A scientific picture of the world is being formed based on discoveries in the region. astronomy. Scientists of the era: N. Copernicus, D. Bruno, G. Galileo. The Renaissance is an era of great discoveries. Famous discoverers - Columbus, Magellan. 2 rich continents were discovered. Highest point The Renaissance reaches its development in the 16th century. In the approved system of values ​​of the spiritual community as a whole, the ideas of g-zma are put forward. G-zm R. is such thinking, for a cat. characterized by love of freedom and secular individualism. The concept of “g-zm” in f-f literature has 2 meanings: 1) in a broad sense - a system of ideas and views on a person as the highest value; 2) in a narrow - progressive flow to the west European culture era of V., aimed at establishing attention to the dignity of the h-ka. G-zm develops as an ideological movement, captures merchant circles, finds like-minded people in the palaces of tyrants, penetrates into the highest religious spheres, becomes a powerful tool of politicians, leaves a deep mark in folk poetry, architecture, provides rich material for the search for artists and sculptors, takes shape new secular intelligentsia. G-sts introduce freedom of judgment, independence in relation to authorities, a bold critical spirit into the spiritual community, and reveal the limitless possibilities of a person. They oppose church censorship, create an enterprising, active, enterprising person, a person who forges his own destiny. G-zm as a principle is based on an anthropocentric picture of the world. A new center is being established - a powerful and beautiful personality. 1 poet of modern times - Dante Alighieri. The positions of his views were developed by Francesca Petrarca, ph and poet, cat. considered the founder of the r-movement in Italy. Notable influence The movement was influenced by the Italian democrat C. Salutati. Well-known are the works of Gianozzo Manetti (“On the Dignity and Superiority of Man”), Lorenzo Valla (the treatise “On Pleasure”), and Pico della Mirandolla (“On the Dignity of Man”). The Platonic Academy in Florence played an important role in the establishment of these ideas. Mr. V-niy are convinced that man, like God, has freedom of action, he himself controls fate and society, doing right choice. The G-ists paid attention to the study of ancient languages, they founded classical philology. The G-sts criticized all medieval scholasticism. They contrasted the scholastic education system with upbringing, cat. develops a person mentally and physically, forms high moral qualities in her. But the formation and flourishing of g-zma are deeply contradictory. Good and evil intertwined in the most bizarre way. Science, poetry, art, and fine arts are developing. But problems of social relations are solved with dagger and poison, conspiracies and wars. The Borgia family, led by Pope Alexander 7, went down in history - a murderer, robber and libertine, but endowed with brilliant talent as a statesman. Harmony in social the device was not achieved, passions took possession of individuals, prompting them to act without stopping at anything and without thinking about the consequences.

28.Modernism Combining many independent movements (surrealism, futurism, expressionism, cubism, imagism, abstractionism, etc.), this artistic and aesthetic system has become one of the chapters. ways of creative quest of creators of the 20th century. Existence 3 ways of development of M: 1) to the 1st world. wars - origin; 2) wow, peace. wars - strengthening of M. trends in art; 3) after the 2nd world. - intensification of the search for a way out of the spirit. crisis. M-sts were interested in creating new ones. forms opposed to the harmonic forms of class. claim, and also focused on the subjectivity of their worldview. The first m-sts were adherents of the spirit. revolution. Within the M. direction there was the principle of historicism. M-sts deny spiritual and moral “absolutes.” They are trying to revive the myth-making method. The ideas of mystical “conciliarity” and “myth-making” were reflected in symbolism. The Symbolists rejected the traditions of the classes. poetry and built their “new” language on the basis of the ancient ones. archaic images, sought to express the objective in an indirect way. Representatives: Valerie, Eliot, Ivanov, Khlebnikov, early Blok. Dr. groups of m-poetry took the path of a complete break with poetic tradition, a rebellion against the usual norms of poetic speech. Imangenism(image) - conveyed direct epic impressions, a combination of metaphors and images, logically little connected, poems turned into “catalogs of images.” Noun in America and England. Futurism(future) declared people’s feelings, ideals of love, happiness, goodness as “weaknesses”, proclaiming “energy”, “strength”, “speed” as criteria for beauty. Developed in Italy, Russia and France. Expressionism(expression) showed the world in a clash of contrast, exaggerated sharpness of broken lines, replacing the real variety of details and colors of nervous disharmony, unnatural proportions. Expressionism was significantly influenced by the work of Vincent van Gogh. Noun in Germany and Austria. Poets of M.: V. Mayakovsky, Aragon, Becher, Garcia Lorca and others. M-prose - Austrian Franz Kafka. The world seems to him to be hostile, powerless and doomed to suffer. His works: “The Trial”, “Castle”, “America” represent a world where people are subject to the sacred, but inaccessible understanding of the law. The works of existentialists are similar to Kafka's ideas, but they try to make the concept of man, cat mandatory. determines his own standards of behavior and actions. Noun. in France. Representatives: Sartre, Camus, Malereau, Golding. The painting of m-stovs is built “from the opposite”, taking the path opposite to the canons of art. creativity This aesthetics is reflected in the work of Fran. artists nicknamed Matisse cubists. Hood. cubism was Pablo Picasso with his painting “The Maidens of Aven” early. history of cubism. The difference between cubism was the creation of new. concepts of Beauty. Abstractionism as a direction in M-painting, he encouraged me to search for the new, the unknown. The founder, V. Kandinsky, believed that it would help break through the outside. K. Malevich is a leading representative of abstract art (painting “Black Square on a White Background”). M-movement of painting of the 20th century. - surrealism. Representatives: Miro, Ernst, Masson. Surrealism is clearly expressed in Dali's art. His claim is apocalyptic. The harmony was destroyed and mixed in disorder. The ideas of tragedy theater belong to the English. reformer G. Craig. The opposite of this concept of theater is the manifesto. playwright B. Brecht, founder of the epic theater. In the 20s, cinema developed. Significant phenomena experiments rus. film director S. Eisenstein, cat. represented the claim as a replacement of meaning by sign language. Avant-garde. The deepening of the national crisis led to the emergence of new forms of avant-gardeism in the 2nd half of the 20th century, cat. were defined as anti-suit. Conventionally, they can be combined into the concept of “conceptual art,” cat. is considered as a way of demonstrating concepts used in different fields of knowledge. In conceptual art, the following movements are distinguished: body art, land art, performance art, video art. This claim is anti-aesthetic; it abandons the rules of art. logic.

17. There are 3 stages in the evolution of V.: 1) Proto-Renaissance, 2) Early R., 3) High B. The first person to formulate the concept of V. was Giorgio Vasari(“Biographies of famous painters, sculptors and architects”). The first signs of V. begin to appear according to Vasari from the end of the 13th century. in the works Cimabue and Giotto. They abandoned Byzantine methods and returned to ancient traditions. Prerequisite to the emergence of R. there was a profitable geog. position of Italy. In R.'s art, a person became a real and independent value. In architecture, this manifests itself not only in humanizing the proportions of buildings, but also in creating floor ideas. Proto-Renaissance- This is a preparation for V., it was closely associated with the Middle Ages. Forefather new Italian style is considered Cimabue. He managed to go beyond the Byzantine canon and predetermine new pictorial forms. Proto-Renaissance is associated with the name Giotto di Bonde, cat. predetermined the path of development of R.: the dynamics, dramatic nature of the narrative, the transition from planar images to three-dimensional and reliefs. The new concept of painting is based on perspective and volumetric interpretation of the plastic figure. Ch. center itl. ProtoR. was Florence. Characteristic features the worldview of this time is inherent in literature, especially in the works of the humanist poet Dante Alighieri(“New Life” and “The Divine Comedy”). Creativity is widely recognized F. Petrarch, considered the first humanist of Europe (“Canzoniere”). The humanist writer made a significant contribution Giovani Boccaccio, who developed itl. literary language based on the folk language (“Decameron”). Early V.15c. A clearly expressed human personality comes to the fore. Painting and sculpture are separated from art. Painting this period makes a sculptural impression. Masters R.V. sought to restore the objectivity of the world, emphasizing volume and clarity of forms. Hoods 15th century. open laws of perspective, are building multi-figure compositions, but they only use linear composition. Founders. R V. : Masaccio, Donatello, Brunelleschi. The era of R.V. alien, characteristic of V.V. and idealization of people. The main motive of the era is admiration for antiquity. Theoretical research played a significant role in the change from Gothic to R. Brunelleschi. Donatello For the first time, he began to systematically study the human body; he developed an individual portrait in sculpture. Masaccio A reformer of early V., he used light-shadow modeling and developed new perspectives. Completed by R.V. TV Leona Batista Alberti, itl. architect, scientist and writer. He was a theoretical architect. His theoretical treatises (“On Painting” “On the Statue”) were important in V.’s statement. Alberti's work is evidence of the emergence of structural mathematical constructions . V.V. - golden age, etc. claim(1500-1530).Foundations of V.V. represented by works Pomponazzi, cat. developed the doctrine of the connection between thinking and sensory perception. Geometrism R.V. the desire to convey the inner world of a person is added. Aerial perspective and light and shade techniques are being developed. The explosives claim is distinguished by its scale, and there is a tendency towards synthesis and generalizations. In the works of artists, the main place is occupied by the image of an ideal beautiful person, perfect physically and spiritually. Claim V.V. present 3 art pieces: Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo de Buanarroti, Raphael Santi. The founder of VV is considered Leonardo da Vinci. His work is distinguished by its versatility. He pays great attention to the concept of harmony. Naib. famous works by Leonardo: “Madonna of the Rocks”, “Mona Lisa”, “The Last Supper”, “John the Baptist”. An outstanding representative of itl. R. was Santi, creativity cat. left a deep mark on the art. Raphael's art is most expressed by the classic. VR. Naib. His famous work is “The Sistine Madonnas”. The culmination of era B was creativity Michelangelo de Buanarroti. For TV-va Michelangelo har-ren titanism. Peak TV Mick. There was the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel.

24. Epoch Ave. can rightfully be called " golden age of utopia" Under Ave. understand the progressive ideological trend of the era of the formation of capitalism associated with the struggle against feudal orders. The characteristic feature of Pr. there was a desire of its representatives to restructure all social relations on the basis of reason, equality and other principles, which, in their opinion, originate from the “natural rights of man.” The main f-f idea of ​​the 18th century. became the mind. Changes in social and economic sphere of life of the period Pr. influenced the spirits. the world of people influenced their ideals; literature played a huge role in this process. During the period of Pr. The social status of the art has increased. For the era of Pr. har-but the presence of thin. directions, cat. intertwined: Baroque and classicism were preserved, Rococo and romanticism emerged. The main direction in ar-re was classicism- inheritance of the architecture of ancient Greece and Rome. Widely used in England. A famous artist was K. Wren, under his leadership a huge number of buildings were built, his great achievement was St. Paul's Cathedral, cat. The world is considered a masterpiece. ar-ry. Characteristic feature development ar-ry was the construction of huge buildings for state and civil purposes, extends " gallant style in the interior and exterior decoration of palaces, castles, churches. The product of a purely secular society of the era of Pr. became the style " rococo", received the highest perfect embodiment in the region. applied science. Ar-ra and Rococo painting focused on creating comfort for that person, cat. will contemplate their creation. During the French The art revolution in France returns to classicism. This style was especially established during Napoleonic rule. The buildings were created in clear proportions, as in the days of imperial Rome, and military paraphernalia was found everywhere. All this emphasized the power of Napoleon I's empire. French style. ar-ry in the empire of Napoleon 1st century. empire style gardens and parks. They constructed a utopian world, an alternative to the existing one, which corresponded to the ideas of the time about ethical ideals, a happy life, harmony of nature and people, people among themselves, freedom and self-sufficiency of the individual. The composition of parks includes: libraries, art galleries, museums, theaters, temples dedicated not only to the gods, but also to human feelings - love, friendship. Can consider the thin 18th century. as a period of breaking up the grandiose art system that has been erected over centuries, respectively. with cat art created a model of life more significant than earthly life. Opened up for the first time before art-com . It was especially fashionable gallant painting Classicism romanticism strove for the maximum strengthening of the individual personality principle. Both in “gallant painting” and in classicism there is a theme of glorifying emperors and the nobility, and new romanticism focused on the people. Representative romanticism F. Goya. One of the most important characteristics of the era Etc. yavl. the process of replacing religious principles with secular ones, reflecting the everyday observation of art in the real lives of people, it is becoming widespread and strives to occupy the main place in art. The ceremonial portrait gives way intimate portrait, and in landscape painting appears “ landscape of mood" (Watteau, Gainsborough, Guardi). The perception and mood reflected in the sketch establishes a direct connection between the audience and the artist: drawing and engraving are valued more than paintings. In the works of artists decorative understanding of color is enhanced: the painting should decorate the place where it is located. The essential side of the era of Pr. there was an impression of thin. compare the sensations and pleasures of a person. An important place in the hierarchy of spiritual values ​​is occupied by music, which amazes people with the scale and depth of analysis of the most hidden corners of a person’s soul. On the development of music of the era of Pr. influenced by baroque and classicism. The pinnacle of music to-ryepoch Ave. - TV of Bach and Mozart. The founder of classicism in French music was Lully. In France and Italy, opera is flourishing, in Germany and Austria - the oratorio and mass (in the church theater) and the concert (in the secular theater). Opera, ballet, folk song TV, and musical comedy theater are also developing. One of the striking examples of opera art is Yavl. Mozart's opera The Magic Flute. Epoch Ave. is the most important turning point in the spiritual development of Europe, influencing almost all spheres of social and political life. and real life.

26. Development of culture in Europe in the 19th century. was associated with 3 artistic directions: classicism, romanticism, realism. Classicism 19th century has new content. His art is expressively rationalistic. In the TV of the classicists, plots prevailed, in the cat. ideas about the need to subordinate individual interests to the interests of the country, society, and politics were embodied. and religious movement. Poets of new classicism - Goethe(“Roman Elegies”, “Egmont”) and Schiller(“Robbers”, “Availability and Love”). In these works one can feel an orientation towards the high ideals of antiquity; the rationalistic expression of images is intertwined with subtle lyricism. The rise of classicism was short-lived; it gradually turned into official art, which lost touch with real life. At the same time, another movement arose in classicism, and later supplanted it - romanticism. The romantics were characterized by a sense of radical renewal of the world, human participation in the secret wealth and limitless possibilities of world existence. Enthusiasm based on faith in the omnipotence of the human spirit is one of the characteristic features of the romantic worldview. The romantics dreamed of solving the problem of the world contradiction of existence. The difference between ideal and reality is clearly expressed in romanticism. Representatives: Lermontov, Byron, Edgar Allan Poe. Romantics discover the depth of the spiritual world of man. The characteristic for romanticism is the defense of freedom, sovereignty, and the manifestation of interest in the problem of nationality. spirit and national to-ry, as well as the originality of different historical eras. The genre of historical novel appeared (works by James Fenimore Cooper, Walter Scott, Hugo). The object of attention of Western European romantics was the history and folklore of Ukraine (the image of Hetman Mazepa). Romanticism is in many ways reminiscent of Baroque culture. The romantics paid attention to folk television, used plots, images, languages ​​inherent in folk songs, ballads, epics (fairy tales by H.H. Andersen, sonatas and etudes by Chopin). Music occupies a special place in romanticism. A critical attitude towards existing general orders, the desire to improve the world, to make it more humane is considered not so much by deepening in fantasy, perfect world in a dream, as much as a realistic understanding of reality with the aim of finding practical ways to change it. Gradually emerges realism. He is gradually gaining major positions in literature, educational art, theater, and music. Realism as a movement is an objective depiction of human characters and living conditions. Realism has fulfilled a critical function regarding existing general orders. In the 40s the direction of critical realism appears. The novel becomes a literary genre of critical realism, which makes it possible to reveal a wide panorama of public life and trace the psychology of heroes in different life situations. The formation of realism was carried out gradually. At first, realism was closely associated with romanticism (“The Shagreen Skin” by Balzac, “The Monastery of Parma” by Stendhal, the novels of Dickens). At the same time, typical romantic motifs increasingly turned into realistic ones (“Red and Black” by Stendhal). Striving in the education of a realistic worldview 2nd floor. 19th century expressed itself in f-fi. In the wake of the scientific revolution, positivism is expanding, which is becoming one of the leading trends in scientific thought. The emergence of positivism is associated with the work of Auguste Comte. He revealed the idea of ​​the French. sociologist Saint Simon about the 3 stages of the intellectual revolution of mankind. Another leader of positivism, English. f-f and sociologist G. Spencer. He considered the basic law of social development to be the law of survival of the fittest societies. Positivism played a significant role in the development of 19th century culture.

25 . Epoch Ave. can rightfully be called " golden age of utopia" Under Ave. understand the progressive ideological trend of the era of the formation of capitalism associated with the struggle against feudal orders. The special place in this historical era is reflected in the epithets it received: “the age of reason,” “the era of the Great.” The spread of the ideals of Protestantism, the rapid development of natural science, the growing interest in scientific and physical knowledge outside the laboratory - these are just some of the most significant signs of the times. 18th century loudly declares itself by putting forward a new understanding of the main dominants of human existence: the attitude towards God, society, the state, other people and a new understanding of man himself. The characteristic feature of Pr. there was a desire of its representatives to restructure all social relations on the basis of reason, equality and other principles, which, in their opinion, originate from the “natural rights of man.” The main f-f idea of ​​the 18th century. became the mind. By prescribing all the sacred properties of human nature to the influence of surrounding circumstances or environment, the philosophy of this era pushed us to think about such conditions of existence, cat. contributed to the triumph of virtue and universal happiness. Changes in social and economic sphere of life of the period Pr. influenced the spirits. the world of people influenced their ideals; literature played a huge role in this process. During the period of Pr. The social status of the art has increased. In her fiction, literature, and art, new trends appear with particular force. The French model is imitated in Spain, Germany, Poland, Russia, and even England recognizes the authority of French culture. Epoch Ave. is the most important turning point in the spiritual development of Europe, influencing almost all spheres of social and political life. and real life. For the era of Pr. har-but the presence of thin. directions, cat. intertwined: Baroque and classicism were preserved, Rococo and Empire emerged. The main direction in ar-re was classicism- inheritance of the architecture of ancient Greece and Rome. Widely used in England. A famous artist was K. Wren, under his leadership a huge number of buildings were built, his great achievement was St. Paul's Cathedral, cat. The world is considered a masterpiece. ar-ry. Distributed " gallant style in the interior and exterior decoration of palaces, castles, churches. The product of a purely secular society of the era of Pr. became the style " rococo", received the highest perfect embodiment in the region. applied science. Ar-ra and Rococo painting focused on creating comfort for that person, cat. will contemplate their creation. During the French revolution of art in France returns to classicism. This style was especially established during Napoleonic rule. The buildings were created in clear proportions, as in the days of imperial Rome, and military paraphernalia was found everywhere. All this emphasized the power of Napoleon I's empire. French style. ar-ry in the empire of Napoleon 1st century. empire style(empire). French masterpiece classicism - Liberty Square in Paris (Gabriel). The visible embodiment of “better worlds” for the people of the era of Pr. were gardens and parks. Opened up for the first time before art-com possibility of freedom of observation and TV-TV. It was especially fashionable gallant painting", cat. depicted society ladies and gentlemen, portraits of outstanding educators (J.B. Grez). Claim of the era of Pr. used old stylistic forms of classicism, reflecting with their help a completely different content. Classicism meant the subordination of a person to the general system. Developing romanticism strove for the maximum strengthening of the individual personality principle. Representative romanticism F. Goya. Classicism also influenced the development of music of the era of St. The pinnacle of music to-ryepoch Ave. - TV of Bach and Mozart. The founder of classicism in French music was Lully. Epoch Ave. is the most important turning point in the spiritual development of Europe, influencing almost all spheres of social and political life. and real life.

29. In the 9th-19th centuries. An early feudal state was formed in Eastern Europe - K.R. With the intensification of social development, paganism ceases to fulfill its main function and is replaced by Christianity. In Rus', even before the advent of Christianity, writing was born, moral and legal norms were formed, art and sculpture developed. Ancient Rus' famous for its wooden sculptures, in Kyiv the Sophia Cathedral was built from oak, jewelers (bracelets, rings, coral necklaces) have reached sophistication. Music was popular, especially TV shows of buffoons. By the 12th-13th centuries. Old Russian culture reached its highest level and spread widely over the vast territory of the East. Europe. In K.R. a special genre of literature arose - the chronicle. Famous historian. work and an outstanding chronicle among those that have survived is “The Tale of Bygone Years” (1113 by Nestor). Russian cities became accomplices in the creation of a pan-European Romanesque artistic style. These achievements are based on successes in the development of material and spiritual culture of the previous period. Russian craft received outstanding development. Pagan Rus' did not know temple construction. After the adoption of Christianity, stone construction began in cities by order of the state and princes. Rus' left us majestic monuments of ancient architecture: the Virgin Mary of the Tithes, St. Sophia Cathedrals in Kiev, Novgorod, Polotsk, the Golden Gate in Kiev, Vladimir. The principles of temple construction were borrowed from Byzantium. The temple was like a smaller display of the world order. Attention to vaulted arches was determined by the tradition associated with the grandiose symbol of the sky - the dome. The entire central space of the temple in plan formed a cross. Features of the architecture of K.R. manifested itself, on the one hand, in following Byzantine traditions, on the other - there was immediately a departure from Byzantine canons, a search for independent paths in art. Thus, in 1 stone church - the Decimal Church - such features uncharacteristic for Byzantium as multi-domed, pyramidal were outlined - this is a purely Russian heritage of wooden architecture transferred to stone. The inside of the temples was decorated with frescoes and mosaics. Icons were a necessary element of decoration. Wherever Russian artists studied, they adopted only technique and were interested in style. Already in the 12th century. Russian icon painters create original artistic compositions, unknown in Byzantium. The most revered icon in Rus' was the image of the Mother of God with a baby in her arms. This icon has become a kind of symbol of Rus'. Hood. legacy of K.R. remained important in the quality of the models that they tried to follow. Local schools arose, in whose work the techniques and forms of Kiev art received independent development. In general, the ancient Russian civilization of the Kyiv period in its typological features was not much different from the early feudal civilizations of the West. Europe. They were brought together by the prevailing technologies of material production, the urban character of culture, the uniformity of many value orientations. The Orthodox character of Russian Christianity and close ek-skie, political, k-rny ties with Byzantium determined the stylistic specificity of the civilization of Dr. Rus'. In the first centuries K.R. in many cultural, value-oriented features it can be considered as a “daughter” zone of Byzantine culture, although in most forms of social structure and life it was rather closer to the Center. Europe.

23. Profound changes in social and political and the spiritual life of Europe, associated with the origin and formation of bourgeois ec-relationships, determined the main dominants of the culture of the 18th century. The special place in this historical era is reflected in the epithets it received: “the age of reason”, “the era of the Great”. the spread of the ideals of Protestantism, the rapid development of natural science, the growing interest in scientific and physical knowledge outside the laboratory - these are just some of the most significant signs of the time. 18th century loudly declares itself by putting forward a new understanding of the main dominants of human existence: the attitude towards God, society, the state, other people and a new understanding of man himself. Epoch Ave. can rightfully be called the “golden age of utopia.” Etc. first of all, it included faith in the possibility of changing a person for the better, “rationally” transforming water. and social foundations. By prescribing all the sacred properties of human nature to the influence of surrounding circumstances or environment, the philosophy of this era pushed us to think about such conditions of existence, cat. contributed to the triumph of virtue and universal happiness. Never before has European culture given birth to such a number of novels and treatises describing ideal societies and the ways of their construction and establishment. Even in the most pragmatic writings of that time, features of utopia are visible. Proposed by thinkers of the 18th century. the ideal of a social order was used for a crushing criticism of the existing order of things. in the 18th century France becomes the hegemon of the spiritual life of Europe. In her fiction, literature, and art, new trends appear with particular force. The French model is imitated in Spain, Germany, Poland, Russia, and even England recognizes the authority of French culture. 18th century relegates both religious and national ones to the background. differences, turning to the purely human content of culture. Lawsuit 18th century. strive to move away from the sublime to the simple, commensurate with a person in his everyday life. This “commensurability” appears in philosophy and science. Private life, intimate feelings and emotions are contrasted with cold formality, false solemnity and pretentious sublimity. For the thinkers of the era of Pr. there was a universalism of TV and life interests. They combined literary thoughts with youthful love for poetry, passion for natural science and mathematical research - with constant participation in social and political affairs. life of their countries. Epoch Ave. is the most important turning point in the spiritual development of Europe, influencing almost all areas of social life. -polit. and real life.

21. The term “Baroque” (chimera) was introduced by the Swiss historian and professor Burckhardt at the end of the 19th century. This is a direction of Western European culture that was formed after the crisis of the Renaissance. Baroque signifies a general trend in dynamism, reflecting the world in variability and movement. The 17th century moves from classical perception to a predominantly pictorial one, from the aspect of stability of stay to the aspect of mobility, flowing through time. The Baroque is characterized by an artistic style that is characterized by affective dynamics, pathos; it is characterized by theatricality, entertainment, illusionism, the clash of fantasy and reality, the widespread use of antitheses, hyperboles, complex metaphors, the desire for the exotic, for the unprecedented and unusual. Baroque aesthetics affirmed metaphors. Baroque entered art and music, construction and literature, and decorative arts. Widely distributed in Italy, Spain, Germany, Flanders. Rome is most of all a Baroque city. A characteristic feature of a Baroque architecture is a façade oriented towards a picturesque connection with the external environment (division into tiers, semi-columns, columns); the architectural façade creates the impression of flow and density of forms. There is an unusual complexity in the buildings of the style, the plans are dominated by curved lines, the walls of the buildings are arched, cornices seem to grow from them, the windows are decorated with various shapes, the niches are decorated with statues. The general splendor and richness are complemented by sculpture, mainly allegorical groups, painting, marble and bronze decoration. Perspective, anatomy and camera angles ceased to be a problem for Baroque art. The most used Baroque effect is the optical illusion effect. An outstanding sculptor and Baroque artist is Bernini Lorenzo (the square in front of St. Peter's Basilica), who made the first attempt to depict dynamics in statics. Another representative of the Baroque was Caravaggio, who was not accepted by the Catholic Church, but was recognized by the aristocracy. A whole movement in art, Caravaggism, emerged, which influenced the 18th and 19th centuries. A characteristic feature of the Baroque were fountains. At the same time, gardening art is expanding, and gardens are being laid out around houses. Many examples of Baroque architecture have been preserved in Lviv. These are the Jesuit Church (Jacobo Briano) and the Dominican Church (Jan de Witte), the Royal Arsenal (Paul Grodzicki). The formation and spread of Baroque culture was marked by the establishment of views on life as drama. If life seems like a drama, then it is necessary to embellish every moment of it, to make it not only spiritual, but also sensually rich, therefore the tragedy of the Baroque worldview was intertwined with hedonism to a limited extent.

22. In the 17th century an ideological revolution is taking place, the traditional picture of the universe is collapsing. Great itl. Mechanical physicist and astronomer Galileo designed a telescope and with its help saw a new huge universe. German the astronomer Kepler summarized astronomical observations in mathematics. formulas, discovered 3 laws of planetary motion, cat. received the name Kepler's laws. English played an important role in solving problems of methods of scientific knowledge. f-f and state figure F. Bacon, cat. contrasted scholasticism with new methods of scientific knowledge, cat. is based on a rational analysis of experimental data. Most ch. general cultural heritage of the scientific revolution of the 17th century. - change from scholastic world knowledge to experienced and mat-skoe. The differences between science and religion have deepened. At the same time, religion remained ch. spirit. regulator of mass traditional folk culture and science. There comes development and rise of thinness. to-ry. Centenary, beginning of the cat. associated with the works of Shakespeare and Cervantes, represented by the names Lope de Vega, Pedro Calgeron de la Barca, Pierre Calnel and John Milton, Moliere. Of great importance at this stage belongs to the painter Caravaggio, cat. is considered one of the founders of the realistic movement in European art. Caravanjism was admired by Rubens, Velazquez, and Rembrandt. In the then Itl. Sculpture and art are developing rapidly. The overall picture of the development of art is very complex. The art coexists Caravaggio’s rebellious break with traditions in the name of affirming vital, sometimes rough realism and the rational-mystical art of Bernini, the extraordinary sensuality of Rubens’s images and the complex. the ethical problematics of Poussin, the tragedy of Rembrandt and the gravitas of Velazquez. New searches in art were colorfully embodied in their work by Rubens and Rembrandt. The Netherlands split into Flanders and the Low Countries. Flemish art is cheerful. Flemish art is primarily the works of Rubens. In his work, artistic expressions merged into a single whole. traditions of the north and south of Europe, itl. And Flemish painting . His works: “The Union of Earth and Water”, “Perseus and Andromeda”, “Allegory of the World”. He used mythological subjects to depict strong and beautiful people, cat. was characterized by spiritual power. Rubens had a high cut and wide knowledge. He instilled in the Baroque a relative freedom of morals, a simple-minded, rough sensuality. Rubens - art of color. The work of Van Dyck, a student of Rubens, is very colorful. He managed to follow the path of his genius. In Dutch art, a classification of genres has been established: household (room) painting; landscape, portrait and still life genres. Representatives of indoor painting were Pieter de Hooch (discovers the paradox of the frame as a technique), Terbarch. Dutch art is represented by the works of Rembrandt. The novelty of Rembrandt's paintings lay in the realistic depiction of people, the deep depiction of their inner spiritual world. He introduced new techniques into painting - a combination of colorful color reflections and wide shadows; chiaroscuro in Rembrandt is a radiance in the darkness. The shadow creates the impression of not only spatial depth, but also temporal depth. His masterpieces: “The Return of the Prodigal Son”, “Danae”, “The Man in Red”. But his work was recognized only after his death. In Spain there is a school of Caravaggists. The art is a combination of Gothic style with features of Gothic art. The Plateresque style (jewelry style) appears - borrowing from Arabic art. The Spanish culture is represented by the TV show of the great Spaniard Diego Velazquez (“Name Day”), court painter of the Spanish monarch. Rembrandt places the figures in a light-air environment, from which the outlines of the volumes, reality appears as it appears to the eye. Worldview and moral disagreements of the era, aggravation of politics. and ideological struggle - all this was expressed in the spread and confrontation of the two dominant ones in the 17th century. artistic and aesthetic movements - baroque and classicism. Expansion of classicism in France in the 17th century. was associated with the literary and dramatic activities of Moliere, Corneille, Rossi. This style was embodied in the poems and satires of Boalo, La Fontaine and others. One of the first representatives of classicism was F. Molerbe, who contributed to the development of French standards. Literary language. As an art style, classicism received its most colorful expression in the residence of the French. kings of Versailles - a single ensemble of palaces, pavilions, alleys, canals, statues, fountains. Famous artists worked on its construction: Levo, Hardouin-Mansart, Gabriel and others. In 17th century painting. the ideas of classicism were fully embodied in the works of Poussin and Lorrain.

18 . Epoch V.- a time of great discoveries, great masters and their outstanding works. This is the time of transition from feudal society to bourgeois society. In the emerging system of values ​​and spiritual values, the ideas of humanism come to the fore. Culture V.- this is an appeal to antiquity, a revival of the ancient ideal of man, an understanding of beauty as harmony and proportion, a transition to plasticity from medieval symbolism. Anthropocentrism and the glorification of a beautiful person were close to European humanism. K-ra R. was formed as a negation of medieval dogmas, but the influence of medieval culture could not help but manifest itself in it. This is the predominance of biblical themes in the plots, the influence of scholasticism, most of the orders for the craftsmen were made by the church. IN. A characteristic feature of R. there was a close connection between science and art. This led to titanism personalities of V.: the masters of R., especially Vysoky, combined artists, poets, engineers, and musicians. The most striking examples of V. titans can be called Leonardo and Michelangelo . These masters represent the two poles of V. They are similar only in that after them there was and could not be a continuation within the framework of the R. style; after them there was a new era, a new direction both in culture and in worldview. As for the rest, these are 2 opposites, both in lawsuit and in character and fate. If M-lo has all his plans, no matter how ingenious and grandiose they may be, they remain within the limits of his physical capabilities, feasible even at the cost of superhuman efforts. In most cases they were implemented because For M-lo, not doing something was a huge mental torment. Materialization and plastic definition were most important to him. But in TV M-lo there is an internal incompleteness. For L-do, incompleteness is not a tragedy at all, it does not call into question his TV genius. He was more interested in starting, finding a solution to a problem, and when he saw a way out, finishing the job ceased to interest him. M-lo was not only a great artist, but also a poet and politician. activist Being an insecure melancholic, slovenly and gloomy, very withdrawn and sickly, in his TV he appears as a titan both physically and spiritually. According to Vasari, M-lo was burdened by his genius, and the desire for completeness forced him to work until exhaustion. There is no thinner thing more material than M-lo, because the excess of the spirit rushes to be realized in the excess of flesh, swelling the muscles, expanding the torsos from the inside. L-do was the complete opposite of M-lo. Although he was not so rich, he was always elegantly dressed, handsome, and won over hearts. For L-do, the main thing is to comprehend everything in the world to the last limit. By its structure, TV thinking is a detached, observing mind. He was unable to limit himself to painting and art in general. He was an engineer and designer. When meeting King Francis 1, L-do designed a mechanical lion, which walked 200m across the hall, and when it stopped in front of the king, lilies, a symbol of the power of the French kings, fell from his chest. If M-lo can be called the most brilliant artist of V, then L-do is the greatest idea of ​​the artist R. M-lo materialized the spirit, and L-do spiritualized nature. If L-do and M-lo can be represented as 2 poles of V., then its middle can be called Raphael. It was his TV that most fully expressed all the principles of V., it fit within R. R.’s art for all times became a symbol of “harmony”, embodied it in itself. But titanism of personality applies to many V. figures, such as the founder and largest representative of northern V. A. Durer, Italian. historian, poet, scholar and diplomat Machiavelli, humanist Pico della Mirandolla and others.

19. Epoch V.- a time of great discoveries, great masters and their outstanding works. This is the time of transition from feudal society to bourgeois society. In the emerging system of values ​​and spiritual values, ideas come to the forefront humanism. Culture B. - this is an appeal to antiquity, a revival of the ancient ideal of man, an understanding of beauty as harmony and proportion, a transition to plasticity from medieval symbolism. Anthropocentrism and the glorification of a beautiful person were close to European humanism. K-ra R. was formed as a negation of medieval dogmas, but the influence of medieval culture could not but manifest itself in it. This is the predominance of biblical themes in the plots, the influence of scholasticism, most of the orders for the craftsmen were made by the church. IN.- this is the time of promotion to the 1st plane of painting due to the desire of R. art to know and display real world, its beauty and diversity. A characteristic feature of R. there was a close connection between science and art. The north had a peculiar character. V. (Germany, the Netherlands, France). It lags behind Italian by a whole century. In the north. V. more medieval worldview, influence of religion, symbolism. F-fskoy basis of the north. R. was pantheism, which, without denying God, seems to dissolve him in nature. The founder and largest representative of the North. V. was Albrecht Durer. He was an art theorist and the first in Germany to create a work on perspective. Dürer was the author of many paintings, engravings, woodcuts, drawings and watercolors. The influence of pantheism led to the emergence of landscape as an independent genre. German landscape painters - A. Durer, L. Cranach. In the north. V. also developed a portrait. German portrait painters were indifferent to beauty; the main thing for them was to convey character, to achieve emotional expressiveness of the image, sometimes at the expense of beauty and ideal. The largest portrait painters: in Germany - Durer, Holbein, in the Netherlands - Jan van Eyck, van der Weyden, in France - Fouquet. Within the framework of the northern V. arises and develops (primarily in the Netherlands) household painting. The greatest master of this genre was Pieter Bruegel, who painted scenes from peasant life. Dutch artists were distinguished by extreme care in their writing. All in. V. the main place was occupied by issues of religious improvement, renewal of the Catholic Church and its teachings. North humanism led to the Reformation and Protestantism.

30. The crisis of the Renaissance is being replaced by baroque. The term "baroque"( chimera) was introduced by the Swiss historian and professor Burckhardt at the end of the 19th century. This is a direction of Western European culture that was formed after the crisis of the Renaissance. Baroque means the general trend in dynamism, reflects the world in variability and movement. The Baroque is characterized by an artistic style that is characterized by affective dynamics, pathos; it is characterized by theatricality, entertainment, illusionism, the clash of fantasy and reality, the widespread use of antitheses, hyperboles, complex metaphors, the desire for the exotic, for the unprecedented and unusual. Baroque aesthetics asserted metaphors. Baroque entered art and music, construction and literature, and decorative arts. A characteristic feature of a Baroque architecture is a façade oriented towards a picturesque connection with the external environment (division into tiers, semi-columns, columns); the architectural façade creates the impression of flow and density of forms. There is an unusual complexity in the buildings of the style, the plans are dominated by curved lines, the walls of the buildings are arched, cornices seem to grow from them, the windows are decorated with various shapes, the niches are decorated with statues. The general splendor and richness are complemented by sculpture, mainly allegorical groups, painting, marble and bronze decoration. The most used Baroque effect is the optical illusion effect. Second floor. 17th century - this is a period of development in Ukrainian. to the Baroque style. In literary life, dialogues, debates, and pamphlets stood out. Representatives baroque there were church leaders, writers, scientists, such as L. Baranovich, I. Gisel, I Galyatovsky, F Safonovich, Vyasinsky. Oratorical prose developed (K. Zinoviev, G. Skovoroda, I. Kotlyarevsky). In development Ukrainian Baroque style can be divided into 3 stages: early, mature and final. Ukr. baroque absorbed all the richness of European art, skillfully combining it with its own aesthetic foundations. Example early stage Ukrainian Baroque was a complex composition of volumes of complex structures. Second phase characterized by the addition of expression, drawings and decorative expressiveness. At this time, painting, modeling and color were actively spreading. Sophia of Kiev was built in this period (Shedel). 3 final period development of Ukrainian style Baroque is represented by architectural monuments in Lviv: the Jesuit Church (Jacobo Briano) and the Dominican Church (Jan de Witte), the royal arsenal (Paul Grodzitsky).. Huge contribution in the development of this period, artists of the European school were made (B. Meretin, Rastrelli, Meretin and Grigorovich-Barsky). Architectural structures developed under the influence, on the one hand, of the architectural aesthetics of the European Baroque, and on the other, people. traditions. From 2nd half. 17th century monumental construction is expanding, which finds its expression in the architecture of religious construction. All Ukrainian baroque is represented by pretentious forms and imagination. Baroque music different with iridescence. Baroque in painting represented by numerous ornaments, splendor in clothing, the saints wear a lot of gold, embroidered outfits. A bright representative of the Ukrainian painting was I. Rudkovich. During this period, Ukrainian language developed. portrait style, portrait was a genre of secular art and had a national character. peculiarity: for all his vitality, he retained a close connection with icon painting. The Baroque style is represented by the bell tower of the Kiev Pechersk Lavra, St. Andrew's Church and the Mariinsky Palace in Kiev (Michurin). Hotel "Ukraine" was built in the eclectic style: Gothic (vertical) + Baroque (ornament of colored tiles and white ornamental molding, a combination of white with blue and gold flowers), planned by Rastrelli. Ukrainian baroque is often Cossack - the cathedral in Novomoskovsk (Yakov Pogrebnyak).

27. Naturalism(nature) strived for objective, accurate images of a person’s character, and paid great attention to the environment. Formed in France. Naturalism is characterized by the achievements of the natural sciences. It is based on Comte's philosophy. Naturalism introduces the concept of “natural determinism”. Later, this concept was expanded by the French writer E. Zola (“Doctor Pascal”, “The Animal Man”) in the work “Experimental Novel”, cat. substantiates new directions in literature and wants to apply discoveries natural sciences in lit. In the 60s A school of naturalists is emerging: Maupassant, Daudet, which exists until the end of the 80s, and by the end of the 90s it loses its theoretical clarity. The subject of study by naturalists is. people In artistic works, people are expressed as heads. criterion. Everyday life is depicted in all details, the physiological basis of the psyche is substantiated. The study of material life made it possible to focus on the social characteristics of a person, how much the environment influences a person. Interest in psychology prevails. fundamentals of the psyche, distrust of abstract ideas, cat. Romantics were inclined. For writers, it is typical to imagine the conditionality of a person’s fate. E Zola believed in science and progress. Naturalists rejected moralizing. Literature, like science, did not have the right to choose a plot; there were no canons. In the 60-70s. New themes have opened up, showing the life of the humiliated and insulted. The theory of naturalism by E. Zola is the refusal of any evaluative category when depicting facts, absolute objectivism, impartiality, the appeal of literature and science to forbidden topics. Zola in his novel creates a complete family tree with detailed characteristics, populates the novel with a large number of characters (“Rougon-Majcars” 1200 characters), and chooses a period of shame and madness for the novel. After the tragedy of the Paris Commune, Zola's views changed greatly, and the social line gradually strengthened. In Russia, naturalism is represented by the Russian naturalist school (Belinsky, Turgenev, Dostoevsky). For the 19th century. characteristic appearance impressionism, associated with the names of Monet, Renoir and Degas. The origins of impressionism are associated with the name of Monet, a creator striving to convey his impressions (“Sunrise”, “Breakfast on the Grass”). The impressionists used a new way of seeing the world. In their paintings, the world is presented in motion, nature is represented in variety, the main attention is focused on light and color, and they abandon the traditional understanding of the plot in favor of motive. Symbolism. Born in France in the 60s and 70s. in the TV of Baudelaire, Verlaine and Rimbaud in the depths of literature and penetrates into all spheres of literature. Symbolists turn to the spiritual religious world of man; they considered intuition to be the main thing in TV. They defined the problem of a symbol, which in their opinion unites the earthly, temporary with other worlds, with the depths of the soul, with the eternal and absolute. The symbolistic image marked the existence of the “kingdom of secrets.” The symbolists dreamed of a combination of art and religion, which should become a renewal of the free spirit. Symbolism made an important contribution to the development of the 20th century, especially to the art of surrealism and expressionism. Gaupzman, O. Wilde, Materlin, and the artist Edward Muik are fond of symbolism (the painting “The Scream”, with which the beginning of symbolism is associated).

13. Visa Empire arose at the turn of two eras: the death of late antiquity and the birth of the medieval society, subsequently the collapse of the Roman Empire. It existed until the mid-15th century. Throughout its thousand-year history, V. has been a center of its own. k-ry, formed under the influence of Roman, Greek. and Hellenistic traditions. Arose. visa to-ry happened. in the conditions of opposition to the ideological life of early V. This was the establishment of the ideology of the visa society, the formation of a system of the Christian worldview. Visa society- a kind of system, cat. relies on the traditions of pagan Hellenism and Christianity, cat. was declared the official religion. IN There are 2 currents of Christian ideology: aristocratic folk(formed on the religious and ethical views of the masses). The entire spiritual life of the community is developing intensely: in all spheres of knowledge, in literature, art, there is a mixture of pagan and Christian ideas, images, views, a colorful combination of pagan mythology and Christian mysticism. At all history of the Visa Empire came from emperor cult, the ruler of V. combines spiritual and secular principles in one post. First there was a mosaic, then a fresco, then an icon. Ideas about mosaics in Ravenna have reached us. 3 category B. aesthetics: 1) true, 2) beauty, 3) good. Light system and color system used in aesthetics. Light system- this is a golden system, i.e. gold backgrounds, rays. A system of warm light colors created a gentle, picturesque shimmer, neutralizing real light sources. Gold turned into a source of unreal light, cat. elevates the icon into out-of-space, into a temporary environment, increasing its isolation from its surroundings. environment. The association of color symbolism is complex and diverse (in iconography there is a canon): purple color in the robe of Jesus Christ combines red and blue, i.e. incompatible, Christ unites the earthly and the heavenly, a new God-man arises (all schisms are based on clarification of the first nature). In the iconography of the Mother of God: purple, brown and green. White color- purity, detachment from the earthly (a special shading of the face, i.e. a certain radiance) is associated with eternal silence. Black color- completion of an act, a sign of sorrow. Green color- youth and flowering. Dark blue - incomprehensible mysteries, strong spiritual charm. The category of beauty must be organized, the system of light and color reflects the internal state of a person.

12. Arose. visa requirements origin in the conditions of opposition to the ideological life of early V. This was the establishment of the ideology of the visa society, the formation of a system of the Christian worldview. Visa society- a kind of system, cat. is based on the traditions of pagan Hellenism and the monastery, cat. was declared official. religion. IN There are 2 currents of Christian ideology: aristocratic(connected with the ruling church and the imperial court) and folk(formed on the religious and ethical views of the masses). The entire spiritual life of the community is developing intensely: in all spheres of knowledge, in literature, art, there is a mixture of pagan and Christian ideas, images, views, a colorful combination of pagan mythology and Christian mysticism. Polit. and the ideological resonance was caused by the church reforms of the first emperors from the Isaurian dynasty. First in the history of V. the state and the church collided. Iconoclasm- the struggle of landowners and some traders and artisans to limit the power of the church. This struggle led to a compromise between the state and the church: the land holdings of the church were reduced, and the visa emperor became the recognized head Orthodox Church. In general, the history of the Visa Empire proceeded from cult of the emperor, the ruler of V. combines spiritual and secular principles in one post. Christ appears to be the emperor of heaven, in contrast to the emperor of the earth. The first hrs were not collected in the catacombs. Hr-tvo originated as an ascetic trend, but the cult of the emperor was mixed into V. The construction of temples glorified the emperors. Iconoclasm destroyed the monuments of art and brought significant harm to the national development of V. During the times of iconoclasm, the influence of Muslim architecture penetrated into the art. Features of the temple: one god, this god is the supermundane creator and ruler of the world. Khr-kaya k-ra reveals and substantiates the importance of human personality, creativity and freedom. Christ's origins are in Judaism(religion of the ancient Jews). IN based on HR-TV lies the idea that a person was created by God in “his own image and likeness,” a person possessing freedom and the ability to create. The highest religious goal of the Church is Yavl. the rescue. Khr-skaya morality comes from the self-worth of the individual and the inextricable connection between goodness, truth and freedom. IN Christian moral standards are addressed not to external affairs and not to external manifestations of faith, but to the “inner person.” The highest moral authority - conscience. Belief in the immortality of the soul plays a huge role in the church; it is designed to give a person not only knowledge, but also a direct feeling of the strength of the moral norms of the church. The most important component of the archive is Yavl. eschatology- doctrine of the end of the world, Last Judgment etc. The Church formed a new meaning of nature and human existence, cat. stimulated the development of new art and became the basis of natural science and humanitarian knowledge.

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Artistic culture of civilizations of the Ancient World (except Antiquity)

Ancient Eastern civilizations left not only valuable scientific knowledge, but also a unique artistic culture: architectural monuments, sculptures, decorative and applied arts. The Egyptian pyramids undoubtedly occupy a special place in this series. As the Eastern proverb says, “everything in the world is afraid of time, only time is afraid of the pyramids.” The ancient pyramids embodied the idea of ​​eternity and divine harmony of the Universe. Grandiose structures have stood for forty-five centuries, but time is unable to disturb the ideally stable monolithic form of these “houses of eternity.” Individual stone blocks weighing about 2.5 tons each are fitted so tightly to each other that even today it is impossible to insert even a knife blade between them. In total, about 80 pyramids have survived in Egypt. In the Cairo suburb of Giza there are three largest pyramids (of the pharaohs Cheops, Khafre and Menkaure), classified by the Greeks as the seven wonders of the world.

The art of Ancient Egypt was strongly associated with the cult and expressed the basic ideas of religion: the unlimited power of the gods, including the god-pharaoh, the theme of death, preparation for it and further afterlife.

Sculptors embodied their ideas in canonical forms. Their statues are always strictly proportional, frontal and static. Among ancient Egyptian sculptures, the great sphinx is especially famous - a creature with the body of a lion and the head of a man, who bears a portrait resemblance to Pharaoh Khafre. The Sphinx, 20 m high and 57 m long, carved from a whole rock, guarded the peace of the world of the dead.

Archaeological excavations indicate that in Ancient Egypt architecture reached a high level of development, clearly manifested in monumental temple buildings. The most famous architectural monuments of this period are the majestic temples of Amun-Ra in Karnak and Luxor. The famous avenue of sphinxes, almost 2 km long, led from Luxor to Karnak.

Along with architecture, fine art reached a high level of development. In the 15th century BC. During the reign of the reformer pharaoh Amenhotep IV (Akhenaton), elegant reliefs, images of everyday scenes, and sculptural portraits appeared, striking in their psychological authenticity. These are the portraits of Pharaoh Akhenaten and his wife Nefertiti in a high headdress. They differ from the traditional Egyptian canon, as they are imbued with secular motives and love of life.

Unlike the Egyptian sculpture of the ancient states of Mesopotamia, it is less known. Mostly small figurines made from various types of stone have been preserved. The sculptural images do not have a portrait resemblance to the original: Sumerian sculpture is characterized by exaggeratedly shortened, and Akkadian - elongated proportions of figures. Sumerian figurines have prominently large ears, which were considered the receptacle of wisdom. Often there are figurines with emphatically feminine and maternal forms, embodying the concept of earthly fertility.

In Sumerian art, the leading place was occupied by painted ceramics with geometric patterns and glyptics. Glyptics is the plastic art of creating amulets-seals made in the form of a convex or deep relief intended for imprinting on clay.

Plastic art reached a special flowering in the Neo-Assyrian era (VIII-VII centuries BC). During this period, the famous Assyrian reliefs appeared, with which the royal chambers were decorated. The reliefs depicted with great subtlety and detailed decoration the scenes of military campaigns, the capture of cities, and hunting scenes.

The highest achievements of the culture of Ancient Mesopotamia of this period include successes in the construction of palace and temple complexes. Even in the Sumerian period, a certain type of temple architecture was formed, associated with the use of artificial platforms on which the central temple was installed. There were such temple towers - ziggurats - in every Sumerian city. Sumerian ziggurats consisted of three platform steps in accordance with the triad of deities (Anu-Enke-Enlil) and were built from mud brick. This architectural technique was adopted from the Sumerians by the Akkadians and Babylonians. Famous tower of babel- this is a seven-tiered ziggurat, on the top of which was the sanctuary of the supreme god Marduk. And the famous hanging gardens, called the wonder of the world in ancient times, were artificial terraces made of mud bricks of various sizes and resting on stone ledges. They contained land with various exotic trees. The Hanging Gardens were a feature of the palace of the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar II (605-562 BC). It is a pity that they have not survived to this day.

One of the greatest achievements of Babylonian and Assyrian culture was the creation of libraries and archives. Even in the ancient cities of Sumer - Ur and Nippur, for many centuries, scribes (the first educated people and the first officials) collected literary, religious, scientific texts and created repositories and private libraries. One of the largest libraries of that period is the library of the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal (669-ca. 633 BC), which contained about 25 thousand. clay tablets with a record of the most important historical events, laws, literary and scientific texts. It was really a library: the books were placed in a certain order, the pages were numbered. There were even unique index cards that outlined the contents of the book, indicating the series and number of tablets in each series of texts.

So, the cultural heritage of the ancient civilizations of the East is extremely diverse and extensive. We have only looked at a small part of it. But even such a brief and fragmentary acquaintance with the culture of Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia amazes with its uniqueness, artistic perfection, and depth of content. Here, in the East, the most important practical knowledge was accumulated in the fields of mathematics, astronomy, medicine, construction technology, architecture, and art long before they became known to Europeans.

The achievements of the ancient Egyptians, Assyrians, and Babylonians were adopted, processed and adopted by other peoples, including the Greeks and Romans, who created ancient civilization.

Thus, transforming and remelting, the heritage of the ancient “pre-axial civilizations” of the East was able to survive to this day, being integral part world culture.

One of the most ancient cultures, along with the Egyptian one, was the culture created by the peoples of Western Asia. In the fertile valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates (Mesopotamia), as well as the coastal regions of the Mediterranean Sea and the mountainous regions of central Asia Minor, centers of ancient culture arose at the dawn of civilization. Over the course of three millennia (from the end of the 4th millennium BC), such early slave states as Sumer, Akkad, Babylon, Syro-Phenicia, Assyria, the Hittite states, Urartu and others. Each of these states made its own remarkable contribution not only to the culture of the Ancient East, but also to the history of world art in general. Within the brief framework of a textbook, it is impossible to trace the path of art of all the peoples who inhabited the territory of Western Asia in ancient times. Therefore, only the most important stages in the development of the artistic life of such leading states of Mesopotamia as Sumer, Akkad, Assyria and Babylon are considered here.

Western Asia can be called a kind of cradle of world civilization. The diverse peoples that made up Sumer, Babylon, Assyria and other states, due to their geographical location, were in contact with both the Asian continent and Southeast Asia, and Cretan-Mycenaean world. That is why a number of artistic discoveries of antiquity became the property of many countries.

The diverse culture of Western Asia was, however, not homogeneous. Successive peoples, bringing with them new trends, often mercilessly destroyed what was created by their predecessors. And yet, in their development they inevitably relied on the experience of the past.

In the art of Western Asia, the same types of fine art developed as in Egypt. Monumental architecture also played a dominant role here. In the states of Mesopotamia, an important role belonged to round sculpture, relief, small sculptures, and jewelry.

But many features significantly distinguish the art of Western Asia from Egyptian art. Other natural conditions determined the features of the architecture of Mesopotamia. River floods necessitated the construction of buildings on higher ground. The lack of stone led to construction from a less durable material - mud brick. As a result, not only the peculiarities of the architectural form with its simple cubic volumes and the absence of curvilinear outlines developed, but also a different understanding of ornamentation. The introduction of vertical division of wall planes with niches and projections, the use of sonorous color accents contributed not only to the destruction of the monotony of brickwork, but also to the enrichment of the architectural image.

Due to the underdevelopment of the funeral cult in Mesopotamia, monumental sculpture of large forms did not receive such intensive development as in Egypt.

6.1. Culture and its understanding in the East

If we could look at a map of the Old World around the 1st millennium BC. e., then three belts of cultures could be discovered: the first belt would be formed by the cultures of the civilizations of the Ancient East. They formed a strip of states stretching from west to east from Ancient Egypt to China. As a rule, the beginning of their formation dates back to the VI-IV millennia BC. e. The end falls at the beginning of our era. The second belt would consist of cultures of “barbarian” societies - peoples who are at the tribal stage of development, who have switched to agriculture or cattle breeding, but have not yet created their own statehood. These cultures adjoined the belt of cultures of civilizations from the south and north. All of them, some earlier, some later, also switch to the civilizational path of development. Above the second belt, to the north and below it, to the south, stretches the third belt - archaic cultures of pre-agricultural communities, peoples who used stone tools and were mainly engaged in hunting, gathering and fishing. These are the tribes of Siberia, the Far East, the coast of the Arctic Ocean, on the one hand, and the peoples of the southern countries, the Pacific Islands, the Indian Ocean, the tribes of Tropical and South Africa. Most of them survived until the 19th and early 20th centuries, and some of them will probably enter the 21st century.

The cultures of the civilizations of the Ancient East are the most ancient civilizations known to us. S. N. Kramer published the book “History Begins in Sumer” in 1965 - and he was close to the truth. In many ways, we can judge the culture of ancient civilizations from written sources left to us by the Sumerians. But no less material is provided by data from archeology, philology and other sources. Researchers have long been attracted to the culture of the East in general, and ancient East- especially. A unique culture has developed here, which differs from the European one. In the twentieth century, we got used to looking at the East “condescendingly”, from top to bottom, believing that this is a catching-up type of culture, doomed to lag behind the culture of the West and undergo periodic modernization. But this state is the result of development over the last 3-4 centuries - a short moment in history. For most of historical time, the culture of the East was ahead of the West. The East “gave”, Europe “took”. No wonder the saying appeared: “Light from the East.” And whether this situation will return again, in the 21st century - who knows? At least, the role of Eastern culture now, at the turn of 2000, is clearly increasing, and interest in Eastern culture is also growing. Therefore, it would be impossible to avoid the question of the peculiarities of the emergence of this culture.

The culture of the East differs from the West in many ways. Even the concept of “culture” in the West and East carries different meanings. The European understanding of culture comes from the concepts of “cultivation”, change, transformation of a product of nature into a human product. The Greek word "paideia" (from the word "pais" - child) also means "transformation". But the Chinese word (hieroglyph) “wen”, similar to the concept of “culture”, pictographically goes back to the outline of the symbol “decoration”; "decorated man" Hence the main meaning of this concept - decoration, color, grace, literature. “Wen” is opposed to “zhi” - something untouched, aesthetically rough, spiritually unrefined.

Thus, if in the West culture is understood as the totality of both material and spiritual products of human activity, then in the East culture includes only those products that make the world and man “decorated”, “refined” internally, “aesthetically” decorated.

6.2. Formational uniqueness of the culture of the East

What formational type is Eastern culture classified as?

K. A. Vitfogel characterized “Eastern society” as a primitive communal system with an exploitative state. F. Tokei believed that Han China (from the 2nd century BC) was already feudal and remained so until the 19th century. F. Teukei, and after him J. Chenault, believed that the “atypical” line of historical development was already formed by the culture of Ancient Greece, and, consequently, by European culture. While the rest of the world, including eastern cultures and civilizations, followed the natural path. Similar theses were defended by E. S. Varga and L. A. Sedov.

In order to justify the correct existence of the “Asian mode of production”, and therefore a special “Asian”, “Eastern” type of culture, it was necessary to justify four parameters:

special, Asian, level of development of productive forces;

a special system of property relations;

special methods of appropriation of surplus product by exploiters;

a non-slavery, but at the same time, non-feudal class structure.

In general, it was not possible to identify these parameters.

Thus, there is no need to talk about a special “Asian” type of culture of the East, but we can and should talk about the uniqueness of the culture of the East. After all, one and the same basis “can reveal infinite variations and gradations in its manifestation.”

Yu. V. Kachanovsky identified five main features in which the uniqueness of the historical development of the East is manifested:

1. a stronger tendency to preserve community structures;

2. important economic role of the state;

3. establishment of supreme ownership of land;

4. the tendency for the development of feudalism without a large landowner economy;

5. centralized, despotic power.

The characteristic features of “Asian” society and its culture include:

to characterize the productive forces - the level due to their artificial non-increase;

as a special system of property relations - a system of state-bureaucratic, hierarchical relations;

as special methods of appropriating surplus product - the method of exploitation of knowledge, preventive redistribution of surplus product due to the possession of knowledge;

as a non-slave-owning and, at the same time, non-feudal class structure - a specific class-caste, hierarchical division of society with a special place in it for a colossal layer of bureaucrats, engineers and scientists.

Despite some common cultural features of the civilizations of the Ancient East:

the early transition to bronze as the main material of culture (although stone tools were also preserved for a long time) and

the spread of slavery, which exists alongside the communal peasantry, the confrontation between the state-temple and communal-private sectors of the economy, etc.,

These cultures retain the differences that give rise to three models of civilizations.

6.3. Models of culture of civilizations of the Ancient East

The first model of the culture of civilizations takes shape in Mesopotamia. The culture of Mesopotamia is preceded by the civilization of Jericho (6th millennium BC), Tochal-Kiyuk (6-5th millennium BC). In the 5th-4th millennium BC. e. civilization arises in upper Mesopotamia. Initially, statehood in this area arises in the foothills, and only later descends into the valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. In the 4th-3rd millennia BC. e. civilization also covers the lower Mesopotamia - Sumer appears.

On the flooded lands in the valley of the Euphrates River, agricultural peoples began to receive a huge surplus product for those times. But the need for its conservation and distribution, as well as the organization of community joint work to regulate water flows and create irrigation structures, very early led to the creation of the state. This state included both the city and the surrounding territory. It was proposed to call it a nome, in contrast to the polis, the city-state. Nomes in ancient Sumer were located on a river or irrigation canal, and not on a trade route, which indicates the weak development of trade.

The temple was the center for organizing work and storing surplus product. The temple was the center of the city, the state. That is why such a state is called a “temple” state. The rulers of the "ensi" - the state - called themselves not by the name of the territory or city, but by the name of the god of this or that temple. Temples were the main owners of the land, the priesthood performed both secular functions - control and organization of work, and sacred ones - holding religious events. The priests of the temple were both government officials and employees of the city administration.

The gods are the owners of the territory, its guardians. But they are also personified forces of nature, astral bodies, cosmic elements. Each nome had its own gods. There was a struggle between the nomes; the victory of the nome led to the victory of the patron god. He occupied a dominant place in the pantheon of gods. Ancient Eastern religion is communal. Dogmas have not yet formed here; they have not yet been united into a system. The main thing in such a religion is ritual, rite, cult, and not faith, feeling, mental conversion, love. The feeling of faith and love for God will appear later. By the middle of the 3rd millennium BC. e. (XXIV century BC) the nomes are united into a single state. It resembled a military alliance and remained fragile. The ancient Sumerians spoke a language unknown to us. It did not belong to the Semitic group of languages. But it was they who invented writing, first patterned - pictography, then syllabic - cuneiform.

Sumer was at enmity with the Akkadian kingdom, which was formed by Semitic tribes. It was located in the middle Mesopotamia. As a result of a long struggle, Sumer was conquered and a state was formed that united the middle and lower Mesopotamia under the rule of Sargon the Ancient. In the XXII century. BC e. the kingdom of the Sargonids disintegrates under the pressure of the Zagros tribes, and in the 21st century, the newly centralized state “Ur of the Chaldeans” is formed, where Abraham comes from. Hundreds of thousands of clay tablets-documents remained from the Ur dynasty, huge ziggurats - temple complexes - decorated the cities, a strict reporting system developed, which was monitored by the bureaucracy. All the king's subjects were called slaves. A report has been preserved - a sign from a shepherd, in which he reports where he grazed his cattle. There is a sign about the decommissioning of two pigeons for the royal kitchen. But all this has passed. A new state is being created - Babylon. The story continued. The second model of the culture of civilization took shape in Ancient Egypt, in the Nile Valley. In terms of language, the population of Ancient Egypt belongs to the Semitic-Hamitic group, that is, it is related to the Hebrew, Aramaic, Akkadian languages, but there is a certain relationship with the Berber-Libyan, Kumite, and Gadic languages. On the territory of Egypt, archaeologists have found traces of Paleolithic cultures, but it is impossible to associate them with one or another ethnic group. Copper products appeared in this area very early - in the V-IV millennia BC. e., but the period of systematic spread of bronze begins later - in the 2nd millennium BC. e. and only among the elite. Until the Ptolemies, farmers used stone products. Hence the well-known conservatism of culture. The annual floods of the Nile brought rich harvests even without the improvement of tools.

The formation of civilization in Ancient Egypt occurs in the 4th-3rd millennia BC. e., around the same time as in Sumer. Initially, there were up to 40 nomes in Egypt - centers, in all likelihood, of tribal principalities. The borders of the nomes were quite stable and remained throughout history. The entire territory was divided into two parts: Upper and Lower Egypt. This division is also quite stable. Pharaoh was called "Lord" of "both lands." Initially, nomes were formed, then the nomes united into two kingdoms, and then the unification of kingdoms and lands into a single state took place. The state plays a leading role in unifying the country. The pharaoh combined the functions of a “king” - the head of the executive and judicial powers, a “leader” - a leader in war, and a high priest performing religious functions. The main cult, reflecting the idea of ​​state unity, was the cult of the pharaoh. Pharaoh is a living god on earth. The well-being of the country and the productivity of the fields were associated with the activities of the pharaoh and his health. The hepset ritual existed for a very long time. It was a ritual run of the pharaoh, during which the ruler demonstrated his strength, health and, as it were, was reborn again - renewed. The ritual had religious significance, as it symbolized the high productivity of the fields. By order of Pharaoh, the Nile flooded. The entire population of Ancient Egypt was called the “slaves” of the pharaoh, although there were also free community members, artisans, etc. But they were obliged to work a certain amount of time for the state. Here the state-temple sector very quickly absorbed and subjugated the community-private sector.

The third model of civilization culture is the Hittite-Achaean one. It arises later, after the addition of Mesopotamian and Egyptian and in other geographical and climatic conditions. Here the state-temple sector does not form a single whole. The state-temple complex does not concentrate the bulk of the surplus product in its hands; it remains in the hands of the communal-private sector, we would say “civil society”. As a result, this model of culture is not characterized by the unlimited power of the king. Among the Hittites, royal power was limited to the council of the nobility, and an oligarchy dominated in Trier. The states of this model had the character of military alliances, rather than unitary states. The culture of the Achaean, Hittite, Mittani, and Egyptian empires in Syria during the New Kingdom, etc., developed according to this model.

One of the cases of such a variant of the development of culture and civilization is ancient culture. In this case, a special version of the community-private sector arises - policy property, while state property receives weak development.

In the future, we will talk about the first two models of culture of the ancient civilizations of the East, because it was they who determined the specifics of its development for many years.

6.4. Specifics of the development of Eastern culture: from antiquity to modernity

Research by paleoanthropologists shows that during the Stone Age, "from the African savannas to the Czechoslovakian hills and east of China itself, people formed a single giant genetic community... in which... there was an ongoing exchange of physical and behavioral traits." Thus, the culture during the Paleolithic and Mesolithic periods was more or less uniform and homogeneous among all peoples.

But the transition to barbarism and then civilization leads to unevenness in the development of cultures.

The first civilizations arise in the East: China, India, Sumer, Egypt. Thus, Eastern culture is ahead of Western culture. “Oh Solon, Solon, you Greeks are like children...” says the Egyptian priest in Plato’s “Dialogues” and this is true. In both the first and fifteenth centuries of our time, the “new era,” the Chinese “in general were far ahead of Europe.” And not only the Chinese. The same can be said about other peoples of the East, for example, the Arabs of the 8th-13th centuries. Moreover, some researchers believe that the Neolithic, Hellenistic and Renaissance periods most closely brought together the cultures of the East and West.

At the same time, the East lags behind the West in many areas of culture in modern times, which laid the foundations of industrial culture.

Why is there this lag?

For example, the reason for the East's lag is the lack of its own Mediterranean Sea. But why did this circumstance not influence the lag of the East during the Neolithic period? That is, the geographical, natural factor does not apply.

Maybe scientific, technical?

There is a widespread opinion about the “cultural” lag of the East (in particular, China). But is it? Until the 15th century. The East was ahead of Europe in its cultural development: some talk about the “Eastern Renaissance”. For example, gunpowder was invented in China in the 9th century. BC e., mechanical watches - in the 8th century. BC e. (that is, 6 centuries earlier than in Europe). Paper was invented in 105 AD. e. (that is, they were almost 1000 years ahead of Europe), printing text from a board - in the 9th century. n. e. (that is, 600 years earlier than in Europe), and the printing method has been known in China 400 years longer than in Europe. In 130 AD e. Chinese Chang Heng invented the seismograph. Already in the 7th century. n. e. arched-segment bridges are being built. 15 centuries earlier, iron production began in China and iron-smelting technology was discovered. In the 1st century BC e. Chinese astronomers discover sunspots. After 1700 years they will be “discovered” by Galileo. The first porcelain factory appeared in China in 1369. Porcelain production here was based on a high degree of division of labor. China is the birthplace of silk and the compass. It is in China that the gateway is invented and the largest canals are built. The Chinese invented the stern rudder and were the first to master sailing on tacks, etc. Europe did not yet know this.

By the Renaissance, the East was ahead of the West in cultural development. Why is there a lag? It cannot be explained either by geographical or natural factors, or by scientific or technical factors.

We can discover certain parallels in the development of culture in the East and West. The emergence of the first civilizations began in the 3rd millennium BC. e. In the II-V centuries. n. e. There were clashes with “barbarians” (the Romans called them “barbari”, the Chinese - “hu”, “huzhen”). Feudalism began to develop around the same time - I-VII centuries. n. e. By the VII-VIII centuries. n. e. powerful states-empires are emerging.

The development of spiritual culture begins. As in the West, in China it takes place under the slogan of turning to the “ancient” “gu wen” - in China, in Europe - the Carolingian Renaissance. But the term itself - “fugu” (return to antiquity) appears later, just like the term “Rinascimento” by Giorgio Vasari (XVI century). Moreover, not all Chinese antiquity is taken as a model, but only “classical.” In China, thinkers appealed to the authorities of the 1st century: Sima Qian, Simo Xiangzhu, Yang Xiong. served as treatises: "Yijing" ("Book of Changes"), "Shijing" ("Book of Songs"), "Shujing" ("Book of History"), the works of Confucius. It is interesting that in Europe the peak of the Renaissance does not fall in Italy, where it originated, but in England. In eastern culture - in Japan, during the period of Genroku (1688-1704) (Fig. 6.8), and not in China. Subsequent cultural eras, for example, the Enlightenment, are very similar in content. A galaxy of enlighteners appears in Japan , there is a promotion into the arena of “enlightened monarchs”: Kangxi, Yong-cheng, Qiang-Long, etc. In the Chinese monument of the 14th century “History of the Song” the times of “Wei” and “Liuchao” - from the 3rd century. until the 7th century - are assessed as "Middle Ages".

At this time, cultural elements similar to European ones appeared here. By the 7th century Yan Shi-chu gives an edition of five ancient texts: “I Ching”, “Shi Jing”, “Shu Jing”, “Chunqiu”, “Liji”. They constitute the canon, the “approved text” - “dingben”. Then the comments that Kung Ying-da considered “correct” were selected - “zhenyi”, that is, canonization occurs.

Canonization also occurs in literature: a “select in literature” - “Wensuan” - appears, therefore a closed, dogmatic system of texts is formed, which are sanctioned by political and religious authorities.

In Europe at this time, Thomas Aquinas's Summa Theologica and other Summa... were published. The practice of interpreting texts, phrases, words is also emerging - it is called “shungu”, in the West - exegesis.

Thus, medieval culture has a lot in common:

1. dogmatism as a worldview;

2. interpretation of texts as a method of knowledge;

3. scholasticism as a form of pseudoscience.

There is also a desire to overcome these outdated phenomena.

Nakamura Tekisai in the preface to “Jinsi Mu” wrote: “It is believed that in the ideological world of Confucianism, with the onset of the Song period (10th century, it serves as a dating for a new era) new era. ...They proclaimed the teaching in nature... For the scientists of the Han and Tang times considered it most important to give as many interpretations as possible."

But the same thing happened in Europe! Francis Bacon wrote that we are given two books: the Book of Scripture, in which the will of God is revealed, and the Book of Nature, in which the power of God is revealed. Thus, this is not yet a rejection of the text, authority, faith, but a step to the side.

In the East, this process of secularization proceeded faster. Acquiring knowledge is the very first, but not the most important; the most important thing is to achieve moral and intellectual human heights,” the philosophers of the Sung school believed. Thus, knowledge and morality are considered in unity. Moreover, morality is considered a higher value.

The main thing in the culture of the civilization of the Ancient East is the preservation and restoration - if something is broken - of order, organization, law. Subjects must support the law - they must pay taxes on time, pay taxes, and fulfill duties. Courtiers and courtiers must also know the law - the ritual, the ceremonial to which court life was subject. If order was violated, for example, taxes were not received, this was perceived as the wrath of the gods, as the death of culture. World order urgently needed to be restored.

From the need to preserve the established world order, a science was born: if the boundaries of the fields were washed away by a flood, they must be restored in the same form in which they existed before the destruction. If the yard, the owner, pays a tax, then it is necessary to calculate whether he pays it correctly. The progress of field work, river floods, and dry seasons are cyclical. We need to know the pattern of these cycles, and for this we need astronomy: “The great Sothis sparkles in the sky - the Nile overflows its banks.”

But art also affirms and reflects the existing order, the cosmos. In the cultures of ancient kingdoms, art plays a very important role: it is a means of maintaining the universe, implementing law and order. If at the archaic stage art connected and brought a person together with others, now it puts him in front of the world of the gods, allows him to see their life, to participate in the ritual of maintaining the existence of this world. The interest of the artist of the ancient world revolves exclusively around the life of the gods and the figure of the king. But the king is both a divine being (like, for example, the Egyptian pharaoh - the living god of the sun Ra), and the head of state (empire), and an ordinary person. Therefore, the ancient Egyptian artist depicts the pharaoh not only in the world of the gods (where he, as it were, supports with world order by other gods). The pharaoh is depicted in war - he races in a chariot, crushing enemies, while hunting he kills lions with a bow, in his palace he receives foreign embassies, in everyday life he rests with his wife. Since the pharaoh has associates and servants, and they, in turn, have their own etc. until the slaves, who no longer have anything, the divine power spreads through the sacred king to all his people. Therefore, in the center of the ancient drawing and painting of the canonical type there is always the figure of the sacred king; from it to the periphery, images of other people diverge in waves - the queen, the king’s entourage, military leaders, scribes, farmers, artisans, slaves, prisoners. The task facing the ancient painter and in general art - to maintain world order and law - contributed to the development of a pictorial canon: the formation of a stable, unchanging composition, preference for peace over movement, ritual poses over ordinary, natural ones; variety of scales of the depicted figures (the king was depicted on one scale, the largest, and the rest, in accordance with the position, on increasingly smaller scales); highlighting preferential viewing directions (crowd in front of the temple, front of troops or work). The last point explains why the multilateral traversal, depiction and vision of objects, as if in different projections, was replaced by a different method of depiction - all types united around the main thing.

But the Ancient East left its mark on the culture of civilization, giving it specific features that distinguish it from the culture of the West.

6.5. Features of “Eastern” culture in comparison with “Western”

1. The basis of the written culture of the West is the alphabet - a set of signs expressing sounds. Eastern culture is characterized by a hieroglyph that fixes meaning.

The West is characterized by an atomic system of alphabetic writing, analysis as the main method of recognizing sounds and further synthesis of meanings. Independent meaning and semantic load are carried by individual parts of the word: root, suffix, prefixes, etc. They convey the grammatical meaning to the whole - the word. Behind the word there is a concept - a form of thinking. The figurative content of the object in the concept is actually absent, reduced.

European concepts, for example, “man” or “individual” are perceived purely atomically. But the Japanese concept of “NINGEN” (person) means both the social relations that are established between individuals and the individual himself.

2. The use of synonyms in Western culture is based on the conceptual content of words, regardless of the graphic shell of the word. True, in Old Scandinavian poetry the technique of sound alliteration was widely used

In Eastern culture, the branching of meanings is built according to the type of visual image. Here the symbol and metaphor are defined by graphic figurative identities characterized by a hieroglyphic symbol. The shell of the concept itself is not an external form, but a meaningful form.

3. In Western culture, language is assigned the role of a means of expression, translation of meaning. In Eastern culture, a hieroglyph not only conveys meaning, but contains it within itself. The hieroglyph is the unity of purpose (concept) and means (image).

4. In Western culture, therefore, it is possible that there is a discrepancy between “goals” and “means”. In the East, means are understood as the unfolded content of the goal.

5. In Western culture, this is the basis for the difference between goals and means, the difference, the contradiction between technology, technology and values, morality, and the personal and emotional world of man. In Eastern culture, the development of technology, technology and morality, values ​​are inseparable. Hence the special role assigned to nature conservation.

6. In Western culture, science is aimed at transforming nature, hence nature is perceived as a force alien to man. “Experience” is a method of modern science, derived from the word “torture”. Man “tortures” nature, forcing it to reveal its secrets through violence. In Eastern culture, science seeks identity, the unity of nature and man, nature and culture.

7. For European culture, “understand” means to give a repeatable result, that is, to “reproduce.” Hence we have a specific world of transformed forms generated by our culture - both not natural and not social. For example, scientific language. For Eastern culture, “understanding” means getting used to this world, feeling your human involvement in this natural world. Therefore, the cultural world is as close as possible to the natural world. Example - "Rock Garden". Characterized by the desire to preserve nature as much as possible, on a larger scale. For example, the art of creating bouquets is ikebana.

8. Western culture is characterized by anthropocentrism, while Eastern culture is characterized by nature-centrism. Man is not the center, not the starting point, but an element of the integral system “nature - culture”.

9. Western culture is characterized by “materialism”, “commodity fetishism” - “buy, buy, buy”, the instinct of the owner. For the eastern one - “minimization” of needs. For example, in the decoration of a traditional Japanese house.

10. The West is characterized by the recognition of an impersonal, anonymous perception of culture: “everyone is a consumer.” Eastern culture is characterized by the personal nature of culture formation: there is a “Teacher”. This is explained by the fact that the linguistic translation of the text coincides with the transmission of meaning: there is no need for an intermediary, interpreter, or commentator. In Eastern culture, a situation persists where, without commentary, a translation loses some of its content. For example, the Koran has seven layers of commentary.

11. Extra-textual silence means absence of meaning - in Western culture. In Eastern culture, silence is a way to comprehend meaning.

12. In Western culture, the goal of science is truth. It has practical benefits. In the East, the goal of knowledge is the development of values ​​that go beyond utilitarianism.

13. In Western culture, knowledge and morality are separated. The main question of science is: “truth - untruth.” In Eastern culture, knowledge is a means of moral improvement. The main question is the relationship between good and evil.

14. In Western culture, comprehension of the universal and laws is the main goal. The individual is inexpressible directly in language, in science. In Eastern culture, the focus is on individuality, the singular.

For example, European medicine copes well with epidemics, with mass diseases, but fails in the treatment of mental illnesses, when in contact with a specific person, oriental medicine, on the contrary, is more powerful when influencing an individual, say, through acupuncture.

15. The interpretation of “humanism” is also different in the East. The term "humanism" was introduced in Italy by Coluccio Salutati and Leonardo Bruni. They borrowed it from Cicero. In China, Han Yu introduces the term "REN", distinguishing his path from the path before him. But the content of this term (“Paths”) is different. Confucius preached love for man, Han Yu preached love for everything, for the world, understood pantheistically and spiritually.

Thus, Eastern humanism was not anthropocentric. Zhang Ming-dao said: “My soul is the same as the soul of grass, trees, birds, animals. Only a person is born having accepted the middle Heaven-Earth.” Thus, this is a kind of ecological worldview, “nature-centrism.”

An increasing number of people are realizing that familiarization with the historical past is not only an acquaintance with the masterpieces of world civilization and unique monuments ancient art and literature, not only a school of moral and artistic education, but also an integral part of modern life, to a certain extent an assessment of the present and even the “discovery” of the future through the prism of historical experience.

New research has largely changed previous ideas about the early stages of human history and its culture. Archaeological and linguistic research, modern technique Scientific research has significantly delayed the transition to agriculture and metal processing, the emergence of writing, and the formation of urban civilizations back into the depths of thousands of years. But here’s a paradox: time distances are increasing, chronological boundaries are noticeably moving apart, and ancient civilizations themselves are becoming closer to us. Closer because it is more necessary.

Without the achievements of ancient civilizations, our world is not conceivable in any of its links. This simultaneously connects us with ancient civilizations with a strong thread of continuity, and separates us from antiquity, for it did not have much of what it obtained for its descendants, only preparing for further progress. It is precisely because of their fruitfulness that ancient civilizations seem to us, although natural, but a unique, inimitable stage of world-historical development.

Many extremely important discoveries in material and spiritual culture go back to ancient civilizations. Humanity today gratefully draws from this rich source. By creating something new, it involuntarily and necessarily turns to the heritage of previous civilizations. And this appeal is a search for essential knowledge and experience, the desire to understand the wisdom of our distant ancestors, the reasons for their successes and insights, mistakes and misconceptions, the motives for noble and immoral actions.

Despite all the dissimilarities and contrasts, ancient civilizations are united by a totality the most important signs, which give them fundamental differences both from primitive cultures and from the civilizations that came to replace them.

Firstly, ancient civilizations are civilizations, a kind of unity opposing what is not yet a civilization - the pre-class and pre-state, pre-urban and pre-civil, and finally, and very importantly, the pre-literate state of society and culture. Until relatively recently, primitive society was called prehistoric. Now that science has achieved important results in the study of the period of development that preceded civilization, this definition had to be abandoned. And rightly so. However, this approach had its reasons, especially if we understand history in the original, Herodotus sense of the word: as an interrogation of oral tradition.

We admire the wonders of preliterate culture - from cave and rock art to megaliths (in Great Britain), study them, comprehending the secrets hidden in them, and at the same time we realize that the people who created these masterpieces will never “speak” to us and will not tell , what words they used to call the events that marked the time of their lives, what they bequeathed to their contemporaries and future generations.

Meanwhile, the rise to power is already known to us from written documents as a drama with a plot, with “intrigue”, we have an idea of ​​the personality and, we understand the true motives of the declarations, we hear living voices and, not to mention the heroes and events of the history of the Greco-Roman world, about ancient characters whose intonations can be guessed almost unmistakably. And the point is not simply that historical knowledge about societies that left a written tradition is becoming more complete. It is important that it takes on a fundamentally different meaning. The object of knowledge itself is incomparably richer. Compared to primitive times, the transition to civil society marked a qualitatively new stage in the development of culture and other aspects human activity. The world of classes and class struggle, cities and urban civilizations, the world of written traditions creates such a meaningful fullness of the very process of historical time that has not existed before.

And on this basis, the most archaic civilization is closer to Athens and Rome than to the seemingly “yesterday” and still so recent primitiveness. This is the lower limit of unity. But at the same time, we must not forget: the upper limit is determined by the fact that ancient civilizations are ancient not so much in terms of time, but in their very essence. They inherited from primitive cultures the mythological patterns of thought, speech and action characteristic of the latter much more directly than later civilizations.

No less impressive are the geographical boundaries - the “expanses” of ancient civilizations. These are not only classical civilizations, but also cultures, civilizations. They are strikingly different from each other and at the same time surprisingly organically united. More familiar stereotypes of ancient societies, well-known events of their political history, myths and legends familiar almost from childhood, seemed to overshadow other civilizations, which have not yet been studied in such detail, but unraveling the mysteries of which will certainly bring its own surprises to science. These surprises will not be inferior in significance and sensationalism to the discovery of Troy or Pompeii.

Let us turn, for example, to the early cultures of Africa - Northern and Tropical. Their appearance is unusually different, not only the time is varied, but also the pace of the formation and development of civilizations here - along with Meroe, Aksum and Ife there is a brilliant Swahili civilization. Every year the African origins in the country are becoming more and more clearly visible. Similarities between the Paleolithic and Mesolithic cultures of Egypt and the Arabian desert, the culture of Upper Egypt and Northern Nubia from the era of the most ancient (Karruba, Bu Alem, Jebel Seba, Zenaga, Tassili, etc.) and the Arabian desert () with images of sacred animals, cult boats and hunting scenes, reminiscent of the paintings of pre-dynastic Egyptian pottery - all this makes ancient Egyptian culture similar to the North African world. Egypt was connected with him by particularly close ties, and he had a tremendous influence on her during his heyday. On the other hand, the ease and depth of perception of elements of Egyptian civilization by neighboring African peoples- clear evidence of Egypt’s original inclusion in the single world of the most ancient cultures of Africa.

Completely different events took place in the New World. When the legions subjugated the rebellious Romans, and from the endless Asian steppes moved west, to the Danube, hordes of nomads, on the other half globe the first ones arose. They were born independently, on local soil, without experiencing significant influences from the ancient peoples of the Old World, and even before the arrival of European conquerors in the 16th century. managed to go through a long and difficult path of evolution.

The “meeting” of two worlds and two cultures, so different from each other, can certainly be classified as one of the amazing historical paradoxes: if the most developed civilizations of the American aborigines corresponded in their general level to the most archaic forms of statehood of the ancient East, then Europe had already passed and stood on the threshold of anti-feudal revolutions.

Of course, it is far from easy to reveal the essence of the differences, the main reasons, points of similarity, and rapprochement of ancient civilizations - scientists from various humanities and even natural sciences are working on solving this problem. Any attempt to ignore the laws of human development, general and special in historical process reveals its inadequacy. The path traversed by ancient civilizations, united by ties of continuity and cultural exchange, is unusually long and diverse.

This is the path from the most ancient forms of verbal and artistic creativity, still inseparably linked with a common ritual, to developed poetry, rhetoric, refined art, which presupposes both individual authorship and the exactingness of a connoisseur, to the theory of poetics, to the psychology of fine art.

This is the path from doubts about the truth of traditional ideas to the search for independent concepts of the universe and the “structure” of the Universe, to philosophical teachings and, and

In order to more fully appreciate the enormous scale and unique specificity of the contribution of ancient civilizations to the cultural treasury of humanity, it is important to more clearly distinguish the rationalism that was born then, on the one hand, from pre-scientific knowledge, and on the other, from the new European rationalism, which arose on new grounds in the era and.

The era of antiquity is associated not only with the birth of such world religions as and, but also with the emergence of Platonic-Aristotelian metaphysics, the level of which European philosophy did not reach until the Confucian code of conduct, which prevailed in China until the recent past. A world emerging from the bosom of ancient civilizations, where people are divided not so much along ethnic, geographical and cultural lines, but rather along confessional lines - into Orthodox and Catholics, into Shiites and Sunnis, etc.; where the new category of religious affiliation itself makes sense; where Platonic models of thought widely enter through the scholasticism and mysticism of Christianity and Islam into the lives of the masses who have not read Plato or even heard of him, and the Confucian tradition freezes in Sung neo-Confucianism; where the spirit of metaphysical constructions can materialize in the most concrete professional practice of the fine arts, for example, in Byzantine-Russian icons or Chinese landscape painting of the Song era (960-1279), standing under the sign of Chan Buddhism, this is already a different world , the world of the Middle Ages.

These are just some of the most general outlines of the problems, subjects, and phenomena discussed on the site. One can hardly doubt the constant growth of interest in this topic - fascinating, necessary, grateful. Each era perceived ancient cultures in its own way; Obviously, the generations coming to replace us will approach their assessment differently, but the wealth of material and spiritual culture that was inherited from ancient civilizations will forever be imprinted in the memory of peoples.

TOPIC 5. CULTURE OF ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS

If we look at a map of the world and mentally plot on it the states that existed in ancient times, then before our eyes there will be a gigantic belt of great cultures, stretching from northern Africa, through the Middle East and India to the harsh waves of the Pacific Ocean.

There are different hypotheses about the reasons for their occurrence and long-term development. The theory of Lev Ivanovich Mechnikov, expressed by him in his work “Civilizations and Great Historical Rivers,” seems to us the most substantiated.

He believes that the main reason for the emergence of these civilizations were rivers. First of all, a river is a synthetic expression of all the natural conditions of a particular area. And secondly, and this is the main thing, these civilizations arose in the bed of very powerful rivers, be it the Nile, Tigris and Euphrates or Yellow River, which have one interesting feature, explaining their great historical mission. This peculiarity lies in the fact that such a river can create all the conditions for growing absolutely amazing crops, but it can overnight destroy not only crops, but also thousands of people living along its bed. Therefore, in order to maximize the benefits of using river resources and minimize the damage caused by the river, collective, hard work of many generations is necessary. Under pain of death, the river forced the peoples who fed near it to unite their efforts and forget their grievances. Everyone performed their clearly established role, sometimes not even fully realizing the overall scale and focus of the work. Perhaps this is where the fearful worship and abiding respect felt for rivers comes from. In Ancient Egypt, the Nile was deified under the name Hapi, and the sources of the great river were considered the gateway to the other world.

When studying a particular culture, it is very important to imagine the picture of the world that existed in the minds of a person of a given era. The picture of the world consists of two main coordinates: time and space, in each case specifically refracted in the cultural consciousness of a particular ethnic group. Myths are a fairly complete reflection of the picture of the world, and this is true both for antiquity and for our days.

In Ancient Egypt (the self-name of the country is Ta Kemet, which means “Black Land”) there was a very branched and rich mythological system. Many primitive beliefs are visible in it - and not without reason, because the beginning of the formation of ancient Egyptian civilization dates back to the middle of the 5th - 4th millennium BC. Somewhere at the turn of the 4th - 3rd millennium, after the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt, an integral state was formed led by Pharaoh Narmer and the famous countdown of dynasties began. The symbol of the reunification of the lands was the crown of the pharaohs, on which together were a lotus and papyrus - respectively, signs of the upper and lower parts of the country.

The history of Ancient Egypt is divided into six central stages, although there are intermediate positions:

Predynastic period (XXXV - XXX centuries BC)

Early Dynastic (Early Kingdom, XXX - XXVII centuries BC)

Ancient Kingdom (XXVII - XXI centuries BC)

Middle Kingdom (XXI - XVI centuries BC)

New Kingdom (XVI - XI centuries BC)

Late Kingdom (8th - 4th centuries BC)

All of Egypt was divided into nomes (regions), each nome had its own local gods. The central gods of the entire country were proclaimed to be the gods of the nome where the capital was currently located. The capital of the Ancient Kingdom was Memphis, which means the supreme god was Ptah. When the capital was moved south, to Thebes, Amon-Ra became the main god. For many centuries of ancient Egyptian history, the following were considered the fundamental deities: the sun god Amon-Ra, the goddess Maat, who was in charge of laws and world order, the god Shu (wind), the goddess Tefnut (moisture), the goddess Nut (sky) and her husband Geb (earth), the god Thoth (wisdom and cunning), the ruler of the afterlife kingdom Osiris, his wife Isis and their son Horus, the patron saint of the earthly world.

Ancient Egyptian myths not only tell about the creation of the world (the so-called cosmogonic myths), about the origin of gods and people (theogonic and anthropogonic myths, respectively), but are also full of deep philosophical meaning. In this regard, the Memphis cosmogonic system seems very interesting. As we have already said, at its center is the god Ptah, who was originally the earth. Through an effort of will, he created his own flesh and became a god. Deciding that it was necessary to create some kind of world around himself, Ptah gave birth to gods who helped in such a difficult task. And the material was earth. The process of creating the gods is interesting. In the heart of Ptah the thought of Atum (the first generation of Ptah) arose, and in the tongue - the name “Atum”. As soon as he uttered this word, Atum was born from the Primordial Chaos. And here the first lines of the “Gospel of John” immediately come to mind: “In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God” (John 1-1). As we see, the Bible has powerful cultural roots. Indeed, there is a hypothesis that Moses was an Egyptian, and, having led the people of Israel to the Promised Land, retained many of the customs and beliefs that existed in Ancient Egypt.

We find an interesting version of the origin of people in the Heliopolis cosmogony. God Atum accidentally lost his children in the primordial darkness, and when he found them, he cried with happiness, the tears fell to the ground - and from them people emerged. But despite such a reverent history, the life of an ordinary person was completely subject to the gods and pharaohs, who were revered as gods. A person had a clearly assigned social niche, and it was difficult to go beyond it. Therefore, just as there were dynasties of pharaohs above, so below there were centuries-old dynasties, for example, of artisans.

The most important in the mythological system of Ancient Egypt was the myth of Osiris, which embodied the idea of ​​an ever-dying and ever-resurrecting nature.

A vivid symbol of absolute submission to the gods and their governors, the pharaohs, can be the scene of the trial in the afterlife kingdom of Osiris. Those who came to the posthumous trial in the halls of Osiris had to pronounce the “Confession of Denial” and renounce 42 mortal sins, among which we see both mortal sins recognized as such by the Christian tradition, and very specific ones, associated, for example, with the sphere of trade. But the most remarkable thing was that to prove one’s sinlessness it was enough to utter a renunciation of sins, accurate to the point of a comma. In this case, the scales (the heart of the deceased was placed on one bowl, and the feather of the goddess Maat on the other) would not move. The feather of the goddess Maat in this case personifies the world order, strict adherence to the laws established by the gods. When the scales began to move, the balance was upset, a person was faced with non-existence instead of continuing life in the afterlife, which was the most terrible punishment for the Egyptians, who had been preparing for an afterlife all their lives. By the way, this is precisely the reason Egyptian culture did not know heroes, in the sense that we find among the ancient Greeks. The gods created a wise order that must be obeyed. Any change is only for the worse, so the hero is dangerous.

The ancient Egyptians’ ideas about the structure of the human soul, which has five components, are interesting. The main ones are Ka (astral double of a person) and Ba (vital force); then come Ren (name), Shuit (shadow) and Ah (shine). Although, of course, Egypt did not yet know the depth of spiritual self-reflection that we see, suppose, in the culture of the Western European Middle Ages.

So, the time and space of ancient Egyptian culture turned out to be clearly divided into two parts - “here,” that is, in the present, and “there,” that is, in the other world, the afterlife. “Here” is the flow of time and the finiteness of space, “there” is eternity and infinity. The Nile served as the road to the afterlife kingdom of Osiris, and the guide was the “Book of the Dead,” excerpts from which can be found on any sarcophagus.

All this served the cult of the dead, which steadily occupied a leading position in ancient Egyptian culture. An important component of the cult was the funeral process itself, and, of course, the ritual of mummification, which was supposed to preserve the body for subsequent afterlife.

The relative immobility of cultural consciousness served as one of the important reasons the strange immutability of ancient Egyptian culture for about 3 millennia. And conservation of customs, beliefs, norms of art, etc. has intensified over the course of history, despite serious external influences. For example, the main features of ancient Egyptian art, both in the Ancient and New Kingdoms, remained canonicity, monumentality, hieraticism (sacred abstraction of images), and decorativeness. For the Egyptians, art played an important role precisely from the point of view of the afterlife cult. Through art, a person, his image, life and deeds were immortalized. Art was the “road” to eternity.

And, probably, the only person who seriously shook not only the foundations of the state system, but also cultural stereotypes, was the pharaoh of the 18th dynasty named Akhenaten, who lived in the 14th century BC during the era of the New Kingdom. He renounced polytheism and ordered to worship only one god, Aten, the god of the solar disk; closed many temples, instead of which he built others dedicated to the newly proclaimed deity; being under the name of Amenhotep IV, he took the name Akhenaten, which translated means “Pleasing to Aten”; erected a new capital Akhetaten (Heaven of Aten), built according to completely different criteria than before. Inspired by his ideas, artists, architects, and sculptors began to create new art: open, bright, reaching towards the sun, full of life, light and solar warmth. Akhenaten's wife was the beautiful Nefertiti.

But this “sacrilege” did not last long. The priests were sullenly silent, the people grumbled. And the gods were probably angry - military luck turned away from Egypt, its territory was greatly reduced. After Akhenaten’s death, and he reigned for about 17 years, everything returned to normal. And Tutankhaten, who ascended the throne, became Tutankhamun. And the new capital was buried in the sands.

Of course, the reasons for such a sad ending are deeper than the simple revenge of the gods. Having abolished all the gods, Akhenaten still retained the title of god, so monotheism was not absolute. Secondly, you cannot convert people to a new faith in one day. Thirdly, the implantation of a new deity took place by violent methods, which is completely unacceptable when it comes to the deepest layers of the human soul.

Ancient Egypt experienced several foreign conquests during its long life, but always kept its culture intact, however, under the blows of the armies of Alexander the Great, it completed its centuries-old history, leaving us a legacy of pyramids, papyri and many legends. And yet, we can call the culture of Ancient Egypt one of the cradles of Western European civilization, whose echoes are found in the ancient era and are noticeable even during the Christian Middle Ages.

For modern culture, Egypt became more open after the work of Jean-François Champollion, who in the 19th century solved the mystery of ancient Egyptian writing, thanks to which we were able to read many ancient texts, and above all, the so-called “Pyramid Texts”.

Ancient India.

A characteristic feature of ancient Indian society is its division into four varnas (from Sanskrit “color”, “cover”, “sheath”) - brahmans, kshatriyas, vaishyas and sudras. Each varna was a closed group of people occupying a certain place in society. Belonging to Varna was determined by birth and inherited after death. Marriages took place only within a single varna.

Brahmins (“pious”) were engaged in mental work and were priests. Only they could perform rituals and interpret sacred books. Kshatriyas (from the verb “kshi” - to own, rule, as well as destroy, kill) were warriors. Vaishyas (“devotion”, “dependence”) made up the bulk of the population and were engaged in agriculture, crafts, and trade. As for the Shudras (the origin of the word is unknown), they were at the lowest social level, their lot was hard physical labor. One of the laws of Ancient India says: a sudra is “a servant of another, he can be expelled at will, killed at will.” For the most part, the Shudra varna was formed from local aborigines enslaved by the Aryans. The men of the first three varnas were introduced to knowledge and therefore, after initiation, they were called “twice-born.” This was prohibited for Shudras and women of all varnas, because, according to the laws, they were no different from animals.

Despite the extreme stagnation of ancient Indian society, in its depths there was a constant struggle between the varnas. Of course, this struggle also involved the cultural and religious sphere. Over the centuries, one can trace the clashes, on the one hand, of Brahmanism - the official cultural and religious doctrine of the Brahmins - with the movements of Bhagavatism, Jainism and Buddhism, behind which stood the Kshatriyas.

A distinctive feature of ancient Indian culture is that it does not know names (or they are unreliable), therefore the individual creative principle has been erased in it. Hence the extreme chronological uncertainty of its monuments, which are sometimes dated within the range of a whole millennium. The reasoning of the sages is concentrated on moral and ethical problems, which, as we know, are the least amenable to rational research. This determined the religious and mythological nature of the development of ancient Indian culture as a whole and its very conditional connection with scientific thought itself.

An important component of ancient Indian culture were the Vedas - collections of sacred songs and sacrificial formulas, solemn hymns and magical spells during sacrifices - “Rigveda”, “Samaveda”, “Yajurveda” and “Atharvaveda”.

According to the Vedic religion, the leading gods were considered: the sky god Dyaus, the god of heat and light, rain and storms, the ruler of the universe Indra, the god of fire Agni, the god of the divine intoxicating drink Soma, the sun god Surya, the god of light and day Mithra and the god of the night, the keeper of eternal order Varuna. The priests who performed all the rituals and instructions of the Vedic gods were called brahmins. However, the concept of “Brahman” in the context of ancient Indian culture was broad. Brahmanas also called texts with ritual, mythological explanations and commentaries on the Vedas; Brahman also called the abstract absolute, the highest spiritual unity, which ancient Indian culture gradually came to understand.

In the struggle for hegemony, the Brahmins tried to interpret the Vedas in their own way. They complicated the rituals and order of sacrifices and proclaimed a new god - Brahman, as the creator god who rules the world along with Vishnu (later “Krishna”), the guardian god and Shiva, the destroyer god. Already in Brahmanism a characteristic approach to the problem of man and his place in the world around him crystallizes. Man is a part of living nature, which, according to the Vedas, is completely spiritualized. There is no difference between man, animal and plant in the sense that they all have a body and a soul. The body is mortal. The soul is immortal. With the death of the body, the soul moves into another body of a person, animal or plant.

But Brahmanism was the official form of the Vedic religion, while others existed. Ascetic hermits lived and taught in the forests, creating forest books - the Aranyakas. It was from this channel that the famous Upanishads were born - texts that brought to us the interpretation of the Vedas by ascetic hermits. Translated from Sanskrit, the Upanishads mean “to sit near,” i.e. near the teacher's feet. The most authoritative Upanishads number about ten.

The Upanishads lay down a tendency towards monotheism. Thousands of gods are first reduced to 33, and then to a single god Brahman-Atman-Purusha. Brahman, according to the Upanishads, is a manifestation of the cosmic soul, the absolute, cosmic mind. Atman is the individual-subjective soul. Thus, the proclaimed identity “Brahman is Atman” means the immanent (internal) participation of man in the cosmos, the original kinship of all living things, affirms the divine basis of all things. This concept would later be called “pantheism” (“everything is God” or “God is everywhere”). The doctrine of the identity of objective and subjective, bodily and spiritual, Brahman and Atman, world and soul is the main position of the Upanishads. The sage teaches: “That is Atman. You are one with him. You are that.”

It was the Vedic religion that created and substantiated the main categories of religious and mythological consciousness that have passed through the entire history of the cultural development of India. In particular, from the Vedas the idea was born that there is an eternal cycle of souls in the world, their transmigration, “samsara” (from the Sanskrit “rebirth.” “passing through something”). At first, samsara was perceived as a disorderly and uncontrollable process. Later, samsara was made dependent on human behavior. The concept of the law of retribution or “karma” (from Sanskrit “deed”, “action”) appeared, meaning the sum of actions performed by a living being, which determines the present and future existence of a person. If during one life the transition from one varna to another was impossible, then after death a person could count on a change in his social status. As for the highest varna - brahmanas, it is even possible for them to liberate themselves from samsara by achieving the state of “moksha” (from Sanskrit “liberation”). The Upanishads record: “As rivers flow and disappear into the sea, losing name and form, so the knower, freed from name and form, ascends to the divine Purusha.” According to the law of samsara, people can be reborn into a variety of beings, both higher and lower, depending on their karma. For example, yoga classes help improve karma, i.e. practical exercises aimed at suppressing and controlling everyday consciousness, feelings, and sensations.

Such ideas gave rise to a specific attitude towards nature. Even in modern India There are sects of Digambaras and Shvetambaras, who have a special, reverent attitude towards nature. When the first ones walk, they sweep the ground in front of them, and the second ones carry a piece of cloth near their mouths so that, God forbid, some midge does not fly in there, because it could once have been a person.

By the middle of the first millennium BC, great changes were taking place in the social life of India. By this time, there are already a dozen and a half large states, among which Magatha rises. Later, the Maurya dynasty unites all of India. Against this background, the struggle of the kshatriyas, supported by the vaishyas, against the brahmanas is intensifying. The first form of this struggle is associated with bhagavatism. “Bhagavad Gita” is part of the ancient Indian epic tale Mahabharata. The main idea of ​​this book is to identify the relationship between a person’s worldly responsibilities and his thoughts about the salvation of the soul. The fact is that the question of the morality of social duty was far from idle for the kshatriyas: on the one hand, their military duty to the country obliged them to commit violence and kill; on the other hand, the death and suffering that they brought to people cast doubt on the very possibility of liberation from samsara. God Krishna dispels the doubts of the kshatriyas, offering a kind of compromise: every kshatriya must fulfill his duty (dharma), fight, but this must be done with detachment, without pride and fanaticism. Thus, the Bhagavad Gita creates a whole doctrine of renounced action, which formed the basis of the concept of Bhagavatism.

The second form of struggle against Brahmanism was the Jain movement. Like Brahmanism, Jainism does not deny samsara, karma and moksha, but believes that merger with the absolute cannot be achieved only through prayers and sacrifices. Jainism denies the sanctity of the Vedas, condemns blood sacrifices and ridicules Brahmanical ritual rites. In addition, representatives of this doctrine deny the Vedic gods, replacing them with supernatural creatures - genies. Later, Jainism split into two sects - moderate (“dressed in white”) and extreme (“dressed in space”). They are characterized by an ascetic lifestyle, outside the family, at temples, withdrawal from worldly life, and contempt for their own physicality.

The third form of the anti-Brahmanical movement was Buddhism. The first Buddha (translated from Sanskrit - enlightened), Gautama Shakyamuni, from the family of Shakya princes, was born, according to legend, in VI BC from the side of his mother, who once dreamed that a white elephant entered her side. The childhood of the prince's son was cloudless, and moreover, they did everything they could to hide from him that there was any kind of suffering in the world. Only after reaching the age of 17 did he learn that there are sick, weak and poor people, and the end of human existence is miserable old age and death. Gautama embarked on a search for truth and spent seven years wandering. One day, having decided to rest, he lay down under the Bodhi tree - the Tree of Knowledge. And in a dream four truths appeared to Gautama. Having known them and become enlightened, Gautama became Buddha. Here they are:

The presence of suffering that rules the world. Everything that is generated by attachment to earthly things is suffering.

The cause of suffering is life with its passions and desires, because everything depends on something.

It is possible to escape from suffering into nirvana. Nirvana is the extinction of passions and suffering, the breaking of ties with the world. But nirvana is not the cessation of life and not the renunciation of activity, but only the cessation of misfortunes and the elimination of the causes of a new birth.

There is a way by which one can achieve nirvana. There are 8 steps leading to it: 1) righteous faith; 2) true determination; 3) righteous speech; 4) righteous deeds; 5) righteous life; 6) righteous thoughts; 7) righteous thoughts; 8) true contemplation.

The central idea of ​​Buddhism is that a person is able to break the chain of rebirths, break out of the world cycle, and stop his suffering. Buddhism introduces the concept of nirvana (translated as “cooling, fading”). Unlike Brahmanical moksha, nirvana does not know social boundaries and varnas; moreover, nirvana is experienced by a person on earth, and not in the other world. Nirvana is a state of perfect equanimity, indifference and self-control, without suffering and without liberation; a state of perfect wisdom and perfect righteousness, for perfect knowledge is impossible without high morality. Anyone can achieve nirvana and become a Buddha. Those who achieve nirvana do not die, but become arhats (saints). A Buddha can also become a bodhisattva, a holy ascetic who helps people.

God in Buddhism is immanent to man, immanent to the world, and therefore Buddhism does not need a creator god, a savior god, or a manager god. At the early stage of its development, Buddhism came down primarily to the identification of certain rules of behavior and moral and ethical problems. Subsequently, Buddhism tries to cover the entire universe with its teachings. In particular, he puts forward the idea of ​​​​the constant modification of everything that exists, but takes this idea to the extreme, believing that this change is so rapid that one cannot even talk about being as such, but one can only talk about eternal becoming.

In the 3rd century BC. Buddhism is accepted by India as an official religious and philosophical system, and then, breaking up into two large directions - Hinayana (“small vehicle”, or “narrow path”) and Mahayana (“big vehicle”, or “broad path”) - spreads far outside India, in Sri Lanka, Burma, Kampuchea, Laos, Thailand, China, Japan, Nepal, Korea, Mongolia, Java and Sumatra. However, it must be added that the further development of Indian culture and religion followed the path of transformation and departure from “pure” Buddhism. The result of the development of the Vedic religion, Brahmanism and the assimilation of beliefs that existed among the people was Hinduism, which undoubtedly borrowed a lot from previous cultural and religious traditions.

Ancient China.

The beginning of the formation of ancient Chinese culture dates back to the second millennium BC. At this time, many independent states-monarchies of an extremely despotic type were emerging in the country. The main occupation of the population is irrigation farming. The main source of existence is land, and the legal owner of the land is the state represented by the hereditary ruler - the van. In China there was no priesthood as a special social institution, the hereditary monarch and sole landowner was at the same time the high priest.

Unlike India, where cultural traditions developed under the influence of the highly developed mythology and religion of the Aryans, Chinese society developed on its own basis. Mythological views weighed much less heavily on the Chinese, but nevertheless, in a number of positions, Chinese mythology almost literally coincides with Indian and the mythology of other ancient peoples.

In general, unlike ancient Indian culture, which was subject to the colossal influence of mythology, which struggled for centuries to reunite spirit with matter, atman with brahman, ancient Chinese culture is much more “down to earth”, practical, coming from everyday common sense. It is less concerned with general problems than with problems of social and interpersonal relations. Magnificent religious rituals are replaced here by a carefully developed ritual for social and age purposes.

The ancient Chinese called their country the Celestial Empire (Tian-xia), and themselves the Sons of Heaven (Tian-tzu), which is directly related to the cult of Heaven that existed in China, which no longer carried an anthropomorphic principle, but was a symbol of a higher order. However, this cult could only be performed by one person - the emperor, therefore, in the lower strata of ancient Chinese society, another cult developed - the Earth. According to this hierarchy, the Chinese believed that a person has two souls: material (po) and spiritual (hun). The first one goes to the ground after death, and the second one goes to heaven.

As mentioned above, an important element of ancient Chinese culture was the understanding of the dual structure of the world, based on the relationship of Yin and Yang. The symbol of Yin is the moon; it is feminine, weak, gloomy, dark. Yang is the sun, the masculine principle, strong, bright, light. In the ritual of fortune telling on a mutton shoulder or turtle shell, common in China, Yang was indicated by a solid line, and Yin by a broken line. The result of fortune telling was determined by their ratio.

In the VI-V centuries BC. Chinese culture gave humanity a wonderful teaching - Confucianism - which had a huge influence on the entire spiritual development of China and many other countries. Ancient Confucianism is represented by many names. The main ones are Kun Fu Tzu (in Russian transcription - “Confucius”, 551-479 BC), Mencius and Xun Tzu. Teacher Kun came from an impoverished aristocratic family in the kingdom of Lu. He went through a stormy life: he was a shepherd, taught morality, language, politics and literature, and at the end of his life he achieved a high position in the public sphere. He left behind the famous book “Lun-yu” (translated as “conversations and hearings”).

Confucius cares little about the problems of the other world. “Without knowing what life is, how can you know what death is?” - he liked to say. His focus is on man in his earthly existence, his relationship with society, his place in the social order. For Confucius, a country is a big family, where everyone must remain in his place, bear his responsibility, choosing the “right path” (“Tao”). Confucius attaches particular importance to filial devotion and respect for elders. This respect for elders is reinforced by appropriate etiquette in everyday behavior - Li (literally “ceremonial”), reflected in the book of ceremonies - Li-ching.

In order to improve order in the Middle Kingdom, Confucius puts forward a number of conditions. Firstly, it is necessary to honor old traditions, because without love and respect for its past, the country has no future. It is necessary to remember ancient times, when the ruler was wise and intelligent, officials were selfless and loyal, and the people prospered. Secondly, it is necessary to “correct names”, i.e. the placement of all people in places in a strictly hierarchical order, which was expressed in the formula of Confucius: “Let the father be the father, the son the son, the official the official, and the sovereign the sovereign.” Everyone should know their place and their responsibilities. This position of Confucius played a huge role in the fate of Chinese society, creating a cult of professionalism and skill. And finally, people must acquire knowledge in order, first of all, to understand themselves. You can ask a person only when his actions are conscious, but there is no demand from a “dark” person.

Confucius had a unique understanding of social order. The highest goal of aspiration ruling class he determined the interests of the people, in whose service the sovereign and officials were. The people are even higher than the deities, and only in third place in this “hierarchy” is the emperor. However, since the people are uneducated and do not know their true needs, they need to be controlled.

Based on his ideas, Confucius defined the ideal of a person, which he called Junzi, in other words, it was the image of “ cultured person” in ancient Chinese society. This ideal, according to Confucius, consisted of the following dominants: humanity (zhen), sense of duty (yi), loyalty and sincerity (zheng), decency and observance of ceremonies (li). The first two positions were decisive. Humanity meant modesty, justice, restraint, dignity, selflessness, and love for people. Confucius called duty moral obligation which a humane person, by virtue of his virtues, imposes on himself. Thus, the ideal of Junzi is an honest, sincere, straightforward, fearless, all-seeing, understanding, attentive in speech, careful in deeds person, serving high ideals and goals, constantly seeking the truth. Confucius said: “Having learned the truth in the morning, you can die in peace in the evening.” It was the ideal of Junzi that Confucius laid as the basis for the division of social strata: the closer a person is to the ideal, the higher he should stand on the social ladder.

After the death of Confucius, his teaching split into 8 schools, two of which - the school of Mencius and the school of Xun Tzu - are the most significant. Mencius proceeded from the natural kindness of man, believing that all manifestations of his aggressiveness and cruelty are determined only by social circumstances. The purpose of teaching and knowledge is “to find the lost nature of man.” The state system should be carried out on the basis of mutual love and respect - “Van must love the people as his children, the people must love Wang as their father.” Political power, accordingly, should have as its goal the development of the natural nature of man, providing it with maximum freedom for self-expression. In this sense, Mencius acts as the first theorist of democracy.

His contemporary Xunzi, on the contrary, believed that man is naturally evil. “The desire for profit and greed,” he said, “are innate qualities of a person.” Only society through appropriate education, the state and the law can correct human vices. In fact, the goal state power- to remake, re-educate a person, to prevent his natural vicious nature from developing. This requires a wide range of means of coercion - the only question is how to use them skillfully. As can be seen, Xunzi actually substantiated the inevitability of a despotic, totalitarian form of social order.

It must be said that Xunzi’s ideas were supported not only theoretically. They formed the basis of a powerful socio-political movement during the reign of the Qin dynasty (3rd century BC), which was called legalists or “legists”. One of the main theoreticians of this movement, Han Fei-tzu, argued that the vicious nature of man cannot be changed at all, but can be limited and suppressed through punishments and laws. The legalists' program was almost completely implemented: uniform legislation was introduced for all of China, a single monetary unit, a single written language, a single military-bureaucratic apparatus, and the construction of the Great Wall of China was completed. In a word, the state was unified, and the Great Chinese Empire was formed in place of the warring states. Having set the task of unifying Chinese culture, the legalists burned most of the books, and the works of philosophers were drowned in outhouses. For concealing books, they were immediately castrated and sent to build the Great Wall of China. They were rewarded for denunciations, and executed for non-denunciations. And although the Qin dynasty lasted only 15 years, the bloody rampage of the first “cultural revolution” in China brought many victims.

Along with Confucianism, Taoism became one of the main directions of the Chinese cultural and religious worldview. After the penetration of Buddhism into China, it entered the official religious triad of China. The need for a new teaching was due to the philosophical limitations of Confucianism, which, being a socio-ethical concept, left unanswered questions of a global ideological nature. Lao Tzu, the founder of the Taoist school, who wrote the famous treatise “Tao Te Ching” (“Book of Tao and De”) tried to answer these questions.

The central concept of Taoism is Tao (“right path”) - the fundamental principle and universal law of the universe. The main features of the Tao, as defined by Yang Hing Shun in the book “The Ancient Chinese Philosophy of Lao Tzu and His Teachings”:

This is the natural way of things themselves. There is no deity or “heavenly” will.

It exists forever as the world. Infinite in time and space.

This is the essence of all things, which manifests itself through its attributes (de). Without things, Tao does not exist.

As an essence, Tao is the unity of the material basis of the world (qi) and its natural path of change.

This is an inexorable necessity of the material world, and everything is subject to its laws. It sweeps away everything that interferes with it.

The basic law of Tao: all things and phenomena are in constant motion and change, and in the process of change they all turn into their opposite.

All things and phenomena are interconnected, which is carried out through a single Tao.

Tao is invisible and intangible. Inaccessible to the senses and cognizable in logical thinking.

Knowledge of Tao is available only to those who are able to see harmony behind the struggle of things, peace behind movement, and non-existence behind being. To do this, you need to free yourself from passions. “He who knows does not speak. The one who speaks does not know.” From here the Taoists derive the principle of non-action, i.e. prohibition on actions contrary to the natural flow of Tao. “He who knows how to walk leaves no traces. He who knows how to speak does not make mistakes.”