Stages and principles of a systematic approach to management. Basic concepts of the systems approach
Unknown student at the end of the 20th century
Introduction
2. Organizational system: basic elements and types
3. Systems theory
Introduction
As the industrial revolution progresses, the growth
large organizational forms of business stimulated the emergence of new ideas
regarding how businesses operate and how they should be managed.
Today there is a developed theory that gives directions for achieving
effective management. The first theory to emerge is usually called classical
school of management, there is also a school social relations, theory
systematic approach to organizations, probability theory, etc.
In my report I want to talk about the theory of the systems approach
to organizations as ideas for achieving effective management.
1. The concept of a systems approach, its main features and principles
In our time, unprecedented progress in knowledge is taking place, which,
on the one hand, led to the discovery and accumulation of many new facts, information
from various areas of life, and thereby put humanity before
the need to systematize them, to find the general in the particular, the constant in
changing. There is no unambiguous concept of a system. In the most general view
a system is understood as a set of interconnected elements that form
a certain integrity, some unity.
The study of objects and phenomena as systems caused the formation
a new approach in science - a systems approach.
The systems approach as a general methodological principle is used in
various branches of science and human activity. Epistemological basis
(epistemology is a branch of philosophy that studies the forms and methods of scientific knowledge)
is a general systems theory, which was started by the Australian biologist
L.Bertalanffy. In the early 20s, the young biologist Ludwig von Bertalanffy began
study organisms as specific systems, summarizing your view in the book
"Modern Theory of Development" (1929). In this book he developed a system
approach to the study of biological organisms. In the book "Robots, People and Consciousness"
(1967) he transferred general systems theory to the analysis of processes and phenomena of social
life. 1969 - "General Systems Theory". Bertalanffy turns his systems theory into
general disciplinary science. He saw the purpose of this science in searching
structural similarity of laws established in various disciplines, based on
which, it is possible to derive system-wide patterns.
Let's define features systematic approach :
research and creation of objects as systems, and refers only to systems.
studying the subject itself - the “own” level; studying the same subject
as an element of a broader system - a “higher” level; studying this
an object in relation to the elements constituting this object -
"lower" level.
unity of connections with the environment, to comprehend the essence of each connection and
a separate element, to make associations between general and specific goals.
Taking into account the above, we determine concept of a systems approach :
A systematic approach is an approach to the study of an object
(problem, phenomenon, process) as a system in which elements are identified,
internal and external relations that most significantly influence
the studied results of its functioning, and the goals of each of the elements, based on
from the general purpose of the object.
It can also be said that the systems approach -
this is what it is
direction of methodology of scientific knowledge and practical activities, at the core
which lies the study of any object as a complex integral
socio-economic system.
Let's turn to history.
Before its formation at the beginning of the 20th century. management science rulers,
ministers, generals, builders, when making decisions, were guided by intuition,
experience, traditions. Acting in specific situations, they sought to find the best
solutions. Depending on experience and talent, the manager could push
spatial and temporal framework of the situation and spontaneously comprehend your
the object is controlled more or less systematically. But, nevertheless, until the 20th century. V
management was dominated by a situational approach, or management by circumstances.
The defining principle of this approach is the adequacy of management
decisions regarding a specific situation. Adequate in this situation
the solution that is best from the point of view of changing the situation is relied upon directly
after providing appropriate managerial influence on it.
Thus, the situational approach is an orientation towards
the nearest positive result ("and then we'll see..."). It seems that
“next” will again be a search for the best solution in the situation that arises. But
the best decision at the moment may turn out to be completely different from the one
the situation will change or unaccounted for circumstances will be revealed.
The desire to react to every new turn or reversal
(change in vision) of the situation adequately leads to the manager
forced to make more and more new decisions that run counter to the previous ones. He
actually ceases to control events, but floats with their flow.
The above does not mean that management by circumstances
basically ineffective. A situational approach to decision making is necessary and
justified when the situation itself is extraordinary and the use of previous experience
obviously risky when the situation changes quickly and in an unpredictable way,
when there is no time to take into account all the circumstances. For example, rescuers of the Ministry of Emergency Situations
Often you have to look for the best solution within a specific situation.
But, nevertheless, in the general case, the situational approach is not effective enough and
must be overcome, replaced or supplemented by a systematic approach.
- Integrity, allowing us to simultaneously consider the system as
a single whole and at the same time as a subsystem for higher levels. - Hierarchical structure, those. the presence of many (at least
two) elements located on the basis of subordination of elements of the lower level -
elements top level. The implementation of this principle is clearly visible in the example
any specific organization. As you know, any organization represents
is the interaction of two subsystems: the control and the controlled. One
obeys the other. - Structuring, allowing you to analyze the elements of the system and their
relationships within a specific organizational structure. Usually,
the process of system functioning is determined not so much by the properties of its individual
elements, as many properties of the structure itself. - Plurality, allowing the use of many
cybernetic, economic and mathematical models to describe individual
elements and the system as a whole.
2. Organizational system: main elements and types
Any organization is considered as
organizational- economic system, having inputs and outputs, and a certain
number of external connections. The concept of “organization” should be defined. IN
history there have been various attempts to identify this concept.
expedient arrangement of parts of a whole that has a specific purpose.
group, individual).
Any system develops on the basis of the struggle of opposites.
its constituent elements. It is an integer that is always greater or less than the sum
its parts (it all depends on the effectiveness of connections).
management theories): when people come together and formally accept
decision to join forces to achieve common goals, they create
organization.
It was a retrospective. Today an organization can be
defined as a social community that unites a certain set
individuals to achieve a common goal, who (individuals) act on the basis
certain procedures and rules.
Based on the previously given definition of the system, we define
organizational system.
An organizational system is a specific set of
internally interconnected parts of the organization, forming a certain integrity.
The main elements of the organizational system (and therefore
objects organizational management) perform:
The efficiency of using all other resources depends on them.
These elements are the main objects of organizational
management. But there is another side to the organizational system:
People. The manager's job is to facilitate coordination and
integration of human activity.
Goals And tasks. Organizational goal - there is an ideal project
future state of the organization. This goal helps to unite the efforts of people and
their resources. Goals are formed on the basis of common interests, therefore the organization
a tool to achieve goals.
Organizational structure. Structure is a way of unification
elements of the system. Organizational structure is a way of connecting different
parts of the organization into a certain integrity (the main types of organizational
structures are hierarchical, matrix, entrepreneurial, mixed, etc.
d.). When we design and maintain these structures, we are in control.
Specialization And separation labor. This is also an object
management. Crushing complex production processes, operations and tasks on
components that involve specialization of human labor.
Organizational power- this is a right, ability (knowledge + skills)
and the willingness (will) of the leader to pursue his line in preparing, accepting and
implementation of management decisions. Each of these components is necessary for
realization of power. Power is interaction. Coordination function and
integration of people's activities powerless and ineffective manager organize
can not. Organizational power is not only a subject, but also an object of management.
Organizational culture- the system of traditions inherent in the organization,
beliefs, values, symbols, rituals, myths, norms of communication between people.
Organizational culture gives the organization its individuality, its own face.
What is important is that it unites people and creates organizational integrity.
Organizational borders- these are material and
intangible restrictions that fix the isolation of a given organization
from other objects located in the external environment of the organization. The manager must
have the ability to expand (to some extent) boundaries own organization. In moderation
- means taking only what you can hold. Managing boundaries means
outline them in time.
Organizational systems can be divided into closed and
open:
A closed organizational system is one that
which has no connection with its external environment (i.e. does not exchange with the external
environment products, services, goods, etc.). An example is subsistence farming.
An open organizational system has connections with the external
environment, i.e. other organizations, institutions that have connections with the external
environment.
Thus, the organization as a system is
a set of interconnected elements that form an integrity (i.e. internal
unity, continuity, mutual connection). Any organization is open
system, because interacts with the external environment. She gets from the environment
environmental resources in the form of capital, raw materials, energy, information, people, equipment
etc., which become elements of its internal environment. Part of the resources with
using certain technologies is processed, converted into products and
services, which are then transmitted to the external environment.
3. Systems theory
Let me remind you that systems theory was developed by Ludwig von
Bertalanffy in the 20th century. Systems theory deals with the analysis, design and
functioning of systems - independent economic units that
are formed by interacting, interconnected and interdependent parts.
It is clear that any organizational form of business meets these criteria and can
studied using the concepts and tools of systems theory.
Any enterprise is a system that turns a set
resources invested in production - costs (raw materials, machines, people) - in goods and
services. It operates within a larger system - foreign policy,
economic, social and technical environment in which it constantly enters
into complex interactions. It includes a series of subsystems that also
interconnected and interacting. Malfunction in one part
system causes difficulties in other parts of it. For example, a large bank is
system that operates within a wider environment, interacts and
associated with it, and also experiences its influence. Bank departments and branches
are subsystems that must interact without conflict in order to
The bank as a whole worked efficiently. If something is violated in the subsystem, it
will ultimately (if left unchecked) affect performance
the bank as a whole.
Basic concepts and characteristics of general systems theory:
from openness, is determined through its composition. These components and the connections between them
create the properties of the system, its essential characteristics.
limiters that distance the system from the external environment. From a general point of view
systems theory, each system is part of a larger system (which
called supersystem, supersystem, supersystem). In turn, each
a system consists of two or more subsystems.
used to describe phenomena in which the whole is always greater or less,
than the sum of the parts that make up the whole. The system operates until
until the relationship between the components of the system becomes antagonistic
character.
appears as three processes. Their interaction produces a cycle of events.
Any open system has an event cycle. With a systematic approach, it is important
It becomes important to study the characteristics of the organization as a system, i.e.
characteristics of “input”, “process” (“transformation”) and characteristics of “output”.
In a systematic approach based on marketing research, the
"output" parameters , those. goods or services, namely what
produce, with what quality indicators, at what costs, for whom, in
what terms to sell and at what price. The answers to these questions should be
clear and timely. The “output” should ultimately be competitive
products or services. Then determine "input" parameters , those.
the need for resources (material, financial, labor and
information), which is determined after a detailed study
organizational and technical level of the system under consideration ( state of the art,
technology, features of the organization of production, labor and management) and
parameters of the external environment (economic, geopolitical, social,
environmental, etc.). And last but not least, it becomes important
study "process" parameters, transforming resources into finished
products. At this stage, depending on the object of study,
production technology or management technology is considered, and
also factors and ways to improve it.
emergence of the formation of the functioning of the crisis of the
collapse
the functioning of all other elements and
viability of the system as a whole.
Characteristics of open organizational systems
organizations to death;
necessary resources from the external environment can counteract this tendency.
This ability is called negative entropy;
entropy, and, thanks to this, some of them live for centuries;
d) for commercial organization main criterion
negative entropy is its sustainable profitability at a significant
time interval.
Feedback. Feedback means
information that is generated, collected, used by an open system
for monitoring, evaluation, control and correction of own activities.
Feedback allows the organization to obtain information about possible or
real deviations from the intended goal and make timely changes to the process
its development. Lack of feedback leads to pathology, crisis and collapse
organizations. People in an organization who collect and analyze information
interpreting it, systematizing information flows, have
colossal power.
Open organizational systems are characterized by dynamic
homeostasis. All living organisms exhibit a tendency towards internal
equilibrium and balance. The process of maintaining a balanced
state and is called dynamic homeostasis.
Open organizational systems are characterized by
differentiation- a tendency towards growth, specialization and division of functions
between the various components that form a given system.
Differentiation is the system's response to changes in the external environment.
Equifinality. Open organizational systems
are capable, unlike closed systems, of achieving their goals
in different ways, moving towards these goals from different starting conditions. No and
there cannot be a single and best method of achieving a goal. The goal can always
be achieved different ways, and you can move towards it with different
speeds.
Let me give you an example: let’s consider a bank from the point of view of systems theory.
The study of a bank from the point of view of systems theory would begin with
clarifying goals to help understand the nature of the decisions that need to be made
take to achieve these goals. It would be necessary to explore the external environment,
to understand the ways in which the bank interacts with its wider environment.
The researcher would then turn to the internal environment. To
try to understand the main subsystems of the bank, interaction and connections with the system in
In general, the analyst would analyze the decision-making paths, the most important
information necessary for their adoption, as well as the communication channels through which this
information is transmitted.
Decision making, information system, communication channels especially
important to the systems analyst because if they perform poorly, the bank
will be in a difficult position. In each area, a systematic approach has led to the emergence
new useful concepts and techniques.
Making decisions
Information systems
Communication channels
Making decisions
In the area of decision making, systems thinking has contributed to
classifications various types decisions. The concepts of certainty were developed
risk and uncertainty. Logical approaches to accepting complex
decisions (many of which had mathematical basis), which had a big impact
Helping managers improve the process and quality of decision making.
Information systems
The nature of the information at the disposal of the recipient
decision has an important impact on the quality of the decision itself, and it is not surprising that
This issue received a lot of attention. Those who develop systems
management information, try to provide relevant information
to the appropriate person at the appropriate time. To do this they need
know what decision will be made when the information is provided, and
also how quickly this information will arrive (if speed is an important element
decision making). Providing relevant information that improved
quality of decisions (and would eliminate unnecessary information, simply increasing
costs) is a very significant circumstance.
Communication channels
Communication channels in an organization are important elements
in the decision-making process because they convey the required information.
Systems analysts provided many useful examples of deep process understanding
relationships between organizations. Significant progress has been made in the study
and solving problems of “noise” and interference in communications, problems of transition from one
systems or subsystems from another.
4. The importance of a systems approach in management
The importance of the systems approach is that managers
can more easily coordinate their specific work with the work of the organization as a whole,
if they understand the system and their role in it. This is especially important for the general
director, because the systematic approach encourages him to maintain the necessary
balance between the needs of individual departments and the goals of the entire
organizations. It makes him think about the flow of information passing through all
system, and also emphasizes the importance of communications. Systems approach
helps to identify the reasons for making ineffective decisions, it also provides
tools and techniques to improve planning and control.
A modern leader must have systems thinking,
because:
the amount of information and knowledge that is necessary to make management decisions
decisions;
correlate one area of activity of your organization with another, do not
allow quasi-optimization of management decisions;
everyday life and realize what place his organization occupies in the external
environment, how it interacts with another, larger system of which it is part
is;
implement its main functions: forecasting, planning,
organization, leadership, control.
Systems thinking not only contributed to the development of new
ideas about the organization (in particular, special attention was paid to
integrated nature of the enterprise, as well as the paramount importance and
importance of information systems), but also provided the development of useful mathematical
means and techniques that significantly facilitate management decision making,
use of more advanced planning and control systems. Thus,
a systematic approach allows us to comprehensively evaluate any
production and economic activities and management system activities at
level of specific characteristics. This will help analyze any situation in
within a single system, identify the nature of input, process and
exit. The use of a systematic approach allows the best way organize
decision-making process at all levels in the management system.
Despite all the positive results, systems thinking
still has not fulfilled its most important purpose. The statement that it
will allow the application of modern scientific methods to management, which is still not
implemented. This is partly because large-scale systems are very
complex. It is not easy to understand the many ways in which the external environment
affects internal organization. Interaction of many subsystems within
enterprise is not entirely understood. System boundaries are very difficult to establish,
a definition that is too broad will lead to the accumulation of costly and unusable
data, and too narrow - to a partial solution to problems. It won't be easy
formulate the questions that the enterprise will face, determine
accuracy of information needed in the future. Even if the best and most
a logical solution will be found, it may not be feasible. Nevertheless,
A systematic approach makes it possible to gain a deeper understanding of how an enterprise operates.
Systems approach- direction of the methodology of scientific knowledge, which is based on the consideration of an object as a system: an integral complex of interconnected elements (I. V. Blauberg, V. N. Sadovsky, E. G. Yudin); sets of interacting objects (L. von Bertalanffy); sets of entities and relationships (Hall A.D., Fagin R.I., late Bertalanffy)
Speaking about a systems approach, we can talk about a certain way of organizing our actions, one that covers any type of activity, identifying patterns and relationships in order to use them more effectively. At the same time, the systems approach is not so much a method of solving problems as a method of setting problems. As they say, "Correct asked question- half the answer." This is a qualitatively higher way of cognition than just an objective one.
Basic principles of the systems approach
Integrity, which allows us to simultaneously consider the system as a single whole and at the same time as a subsystem for higher levels.
Hierarchical structure, that is, the presence of a set (at least two) elements arranged on the basis of the subordination of lower-level elements to higher-level elements. The implementation of this principle is clearly visible in the example of any specific organization. As you know, any organization is an interaction of two subsystems: the managing and the managed. One is subordinate to the other.
Structuring, allowing you to analyze the elements of the system and their relationships within a specific organizational structure. As a rule, the process of functioning of a system is determined not so much by the properties of its individual elements as by the properties of the structure itself.
Plurality, which allows the use of many cybernetic, economic and mathematical models to describe individual elements and the system as a whole.
Systematicity, the property of an object to have all the characteristics of a system.
Features of the systems approach
Systems approach- this is an approach in which any system (object) is considered as a set of interconnected elements (components), having an output (goal), input (resources), connection with the external environment, feedback. This is the most complex approach. The systems approach is a form of application of the theory of knowledge and dialectics to the study of processes occurring in nature, society, and thinking. Its essence lies in the implementation of the requirements of the general theories systems, according to which each object in the process of its research should be considered as a large and complex system and at the same time as an element of a more general system.
A detailed definition of a systems approach also includes the mandatory study and practical use of the following its eight aspects:
- system-element or system-complex which consists in identifying the elements that make up a given system. In all social systems one can find material components (means of production and consumer goods), processes (economic, social, political, spiritual, etc.) and ideas, scientifically-conscious interests of people and their communities;
- systemic-structural which consists in clarifying the internal connections and dependencies between the elements of a given system and allowing one to get an idea of the internal organization (structure) of the system under study;
- system-functional, which involves identifying the functions for which the corresponding systems have been created and exist;
system-target, meaning the need for scientific determination of the goals and subgoals of the system, their mutual coordination with each other;
- system-resource, which consists in carefully identifying the resources required for the functioning of the system, for the system to solve a particular problem;
- system-integration, which consists in determining the totality of qualitative properties of the system, ensuring its integrity and distinctiveness;
- system-communication, meaning the need to identify external connections of a given system with others, that is, its connections with the environment;
- systemic-historical, which makes it possible to find out the conditions during the emergence of the system under study, the stages it has passed through, the current state, as well as possible prospects for development.
Almost everything modern sciences built on a systemic principle. An important aspect of the systems approach is the development of a new principle for its use - the creation of a new, unified and more optimal approach (general methodology) to cognition, for applying it to any cognizable material, with the guaranteed goal of obtaining the most complete and holistic understanding of this material.
The need to use a systematic approach to management has become more acute due to the need to manage objects that are large in space and time in conditions of dynamic changes in the external environment.
As economic and social relations become more complex in various organizations, problems increasingly arise that cannot be solved without using an integrated systems approach.
The desire to highlight the hidden relationships between various scientific disciplines was the reason for the development of general systems theory. Moreover, local decisions without taking into account an insufficient number of factors, local optimization at the level of individual elements, as a rule, lead to a decrease in the efficiency of the organization’s activities, and sometimes to a result that is dangerous in terms of consequences.
Interest in the systems approach is explained by the fact that with its help it is possible to solve problems that are difficult to solve using traditional methods. The formulation of the problem is important here, since it opens up the possibility of using existing or newly created research methods.
The systems approach is universal method research based on the perception of the object under study as something whole, consisting of interconnected parts and at the same time being part of a higher order system. It allows you to build multifactor models characteristic of the socio-economic systems to which organizations belong. The purpose of the systems approach is that it forms the systems thinking necessary for organizational leaders and increases the effectiveness of decisions made.
The systems approach is usually understood as part of dialectics (the science of development), which studies objects as systems, that is, as a whole. Therefore, in general terms, it can be represented as a way of thinking in relation to organization and management.
When considering the systems approach as a method of researching organizations, one should take into account the fact that the object of research is always multifaceted and requires a comprehensive, integrated approach, therefore specialists of various profiles should be involved in the research. Comprehensiveness in an integrated approach expresses a particular requirement, and in a systemic approach it represents one of the methodological principles.
Thus, an integrated approach develops strategy and tactics, and a systematic approach develops methodology and methods. In this case, there is a mutual enrichment of integrated and systemic approaches. The systematic approach is characterized by formal rigor, which the integrated approach does not have. The systems approach considers the organizations under study as systems consisting of structured and functionally organized subsystems (or elements). An integrated approach is used not so much for considering objects from the standpoint of integrity, but for a comprehensive consideration of the object under study. The features and properties of these approaches are discussed in detail by V.V. Isaev and A.M. Nemchin and are given in table. 2.3.
Comparison of integrated and systemic approaches
Table 2.3
|
Characteristic approach |
A complex approach |
Systems approach |
|
Installation implementation mechanism |
The desire for synthesis on the basis of various disciplines (with subsequent summation of the results) |
The desire for synthesis within one scientific discipline at the level of new knowledge of a system-forming nature |
|
Object of study |
Any phenomena, processes, states, additive (summative systems) |
Only system objects, i.e. complete systems, consisting of regularly structured elements |
|
Interdisciplinary - takes into account two or more indicators that affect efficiency |
A systematic approach in space and time takes into account all indicators that affect efficiency |
|
|
Conceptual |
Basic version, standards, examination, summation, relations for determining the criterion |
Development trend, elements, connections, interaction, emergence, integrity, external environment, synergy |
|
Principles |
None |
Systematicity, hierarchy, feedback, homeostasis |
|
Theory and practice |
There is no theory and practice is ineffective |
Systemology - systems theory, systems engineering - practice, systems analysis - methodology |
|
general characteristics |
Organizational and methodological (external), approximate, versatile, interconnected, interdependent, forerunner of a systematic approach |
Methodological (internal), closer to the nature of the object, purposefulness, orderliness, organization, as the development of an integrated approach on the way to the theory and methodology of the object of study |
|
Peculiarities |
Breadth of problem coverage with deterministic requirements |
Breadth of the problem, but in conditions of risk and uncertainty |
|
Development |
Within the framework of existing knowledge of many sciences, acting separately |
Within the framework of one science (systemology) at the level of new knowledge of a system-forming nature |
|
Result |
Economic effect |
Systemic (emergent, synergistic) effect |
Renowned specialist in the field of operations research R.L. Ackoff, in defining a system, emphasizes that it is any community that consists of interconnected parts.
In this case, the parts can also represent a lower level system, which are called subsystems. For example, an economic system is a part (subsystem) of the system public relations, and the production system is a part (subsystem) of the economic system.
The division of the system into parts (elements) can be performed in various ways and an unlimited number of times. Important factors here are the researcher's goal and the language used to describe the system under study.
Systematicity lies in the desire to explore an object from different sides and in connection with the external environment.
The systematic approach is based on principles, among which the most prominent are:
- 1) the requirement to consider the system as a part (subsystem) of some more general system located in the external environment;
- 2) dividing this system into parts, subsystems;
- 3) the system’s possession of special properties that individual elements may not have;
- 4) manifestation of the value function of the system, which consists in the desire to maximize the efficiency of the system itself;
- 5) the requirement to consider the totality of elements of the system as one whole, in which the principle of unity is actually manifested (considering systems both as a whole and as a collection of parts).
At the same time, consistency is determined by the following principles:
- development (changeability of the system as information received from the external environment accumulates);
- target orientation (the resulting target vector of the system is not always a set of optimal goals of its subsystems);
- functionality (the structure of the system follows its functions and corresponds to them);
- decentralization (as a combination of centralization and decentralization);
- hierarchy (subordination and ranking of systems);
- uncertainty (probabilistic occurrence of events);
- organization (degree of implementation of decisions).
The essence of the systems approach as interpreted by Academician V. G. Afanasyev looks like a combination of such descriptions as:
- morphological (what parts the system consists of);
- functional (what functions the system performs);
- informational (transfer of information between parts of the system, method of interaction based on connections between parts);
- communication (the interconnection of the system with other systems both vertically and horizontally);
- integration (change of the system in time and space);
- description of the history of the system (emergence, development and liquidation of the system).
IN social system Three types of connections can be distinguished: internal connections of the person himself, connections between individuals and connections between people in society as a whole. There is no effective management without well-established connections. Communication unites the organization into a single whole.
Schematically, the systematic approach looks like a sequence of certain procedures:
- 1) determination of the characteristics of the system (integrity and multiple divisions into elements);
- 2) study of the properties, relationships and connections of the system;
- 3) establishing the structure of the system and its hierarchical structure;
- 4) fixation of the relationship between the system and the external environment;
- 5) description of the system behavior;
- 6) description of the goals of the system;
- 7) determination of the information necessary to manage the system.
For example, in medicine, a systems approach is manifested in the fact that some nerve cells perceive signals about the emerging needs of the body; others search in memory for how this need was satisfied in the past; still others orient the body in the environment; fourth - they form a program for subsequent actions, etc. This is how the organism functions as a whole, and this model can be used in the analysis of organizational systems.
Articles by L. von Bertalanffy on the systems approach to organic systems in the early 1960s. were noticed by the Americans, who began to use systemic ideas, first in military affairs, and then in economics - to develop national economic programs.
1970s have been marked by widespread use of the systems approach throughout the world. It was used in all spheres of human existence. However, practice has shown that in systems with high entropy (uncertainty), which is largely due to “non-system factors” (human influence), a systematic approach may not give the expected effect. The last remark indicates that “the world is not as systemic” as the founders of the systems approach imagined it.
Professor Prigozhin A.I. defines the limitations of the systems approach as follows:
"1. Consistency means certainty. But the world is uncertain. Uncertainty is essentially present in the reality of human relationships, goals, information, and situations. It cannot be completely overcome, and sometimes it fundamentally dominates certainty. The market environment is very mobile, unstable and only to some extent modelable, knowable and controllable. The same is true for the behavior of organizations and employees.
- 2. Systematicity means consistency, but, say, value orientations in an organization and even in one of its participants are sometimes contradictory to the point of incompatibility and do not form any system. Of course, various motivations introduce some consistency into work behavior, but always only partly. We often find this in the totality of management decisions, and even in management groups and teams.
- 3. Systematicity means integrity, but, say, the client base of wholesale, retail firms, banks, etc. does not form any integrity, since it cannot always be integrated and each client has several suppliers and can change them endlessly. Information flows in the organization also lack integrity. Isn’t that the case with the organization’s resources?” .
Nevertheless, a systematic approach allows you to streamline thinking in the life of an organization at all stages of its development - and this is the main thing.
Applied to management activities, according to the definition of the famous scientist A.I. Berg, a system should be understood as “an organized set of structural elements that are interconnected and perform certain functions.” It follows that the system as a category of control theory is characterized by: a) the presence of components (elements, subsystems); b) the presence of close connections between them; c) integrity, which is determined by the interrelation and interaction of individual structural elements; d) a combination of the relative independence of each individual element of the system with the mandatory performance by it of functions necessary for the existence of the system as a whole.
For management and managers, civil servants, social systems that form a special class of systems are of particular interest. The emergence and integrity, features of the functioning and development of social systems are determined by the interaction of people. The main element of these systems of any degree of complexity (from family to country and humanity as a whole) is a person with his own needs and interests, his own vision of the world, his own value orientations. That is why, to the general conditions of formation and existence of systems, the presence of conscious goals or coinciding interests is added, which is crucial for the joint activities of people.
Taking these circumstances into account, we can determine the general features (system-forming factors) of any social system, including labor and economic organizations, as follows:
· a specific common goal of the entire set of elements;
· subordination of the tasks of each element to the overall goal of the system;
· awareness of each element of its tasks and understanding of the common goal;
· performance by each element of its functions arising from the assigned task;
· the existence of specific relationships between elements of the system;
· presence of a governing body;
· existence of mandatory feedback.
It should be emphasized that the commonality of goals in a social system is not just their mechanical coincidence, but something more complex. It must be borne in mind that, having united due to some of their interests and, in connection with this, having the intention to solve their specific problem, people are forced to solve a common problem for the entire association, that is, to achieve something that directly , might not be directly in their personal interests. This is precisely one of the the most important features social system: creating it for one purpose, we are forced to solve some other problems.
“Consolation” can be, firstly, that without realizing a common goal it is impossible to achieve your goals. Secondly, the capabilities of the system are wider than simple sum capabilities of its constituent elements. This property determines the special effect for which most systems are created. It is called, as already mentioned, the emergence effect. The effect of integrity can be especially significant in large industrial and territorial organizations.
Both theorists and practitioners of the systems approach are quite unanimous that its merits and advantages have received such wide confirmation and recognition that it is unnecessary to provide additional arguments in its favor.
Famous American scientist Nobel laureate Vasily Leontiev, in one of his speeches on the problems of improving management, emphasized: “To predict economic development, a systematic approach is needed. The economy of each country is a large system in which there are many different types activities, and each of them produces something - industrial products, services, etc., which are transferred to other industries. Each link, component of the system can exist only because it receives something from others.”
The systems approach can be used when solving socio-economic, socio-political, engineering, technological and other problems that involve the study or creation of system objects of high complexity, as well as their management.
As for the systems approach in management research, it can be presented as a set of principles that must be followed and which reflect both the content and features of the systems approach.
1. Principle of integrity consists in highlighting the object of research as a holistic entity, i.e., delimiting it from other phenomena and from the external environment. This can only be done by identifying and evaluating the distinctive properties of a phenomenon and comparing these properties with the properties of its elements. In this case, the object of research does not necessarily have to bear the name of the system. For example, a management system, a personnel management system, etc. This could be a mechanism, a process, a solution, a goal, a problem, a situation, etc. Let us recall that a systems approach is an orientation to study, it is a set of principles and research methods. Integrity is not an absolute characteristic; it can be expressed to a certain extent. A systematic approach involves establishing this measure. This is how it differs from aspectual, multidimensional, complex, conceptual and other approaches, within the framework of which integrity acts not as a real and objective property, but as a certain condition for its study. Here integrity is conditional.
2. The principle of compatibility of elements of the whole. The whole can only exist as a whole when its constituent elements are compatible with each other. It is their compatibility that determines the possibility and presence of connections, their existence or functioning within the framework of the whole. A systematic approach requires evaluating all elements of the whole from these positions. In this case, compatibility should be understood not simply as a property of an element as such, but its property in accordance with its position and functional status in this whole, its relationship to system-forming elements. The system-forming element for the socio-economic system is man. His relationships with other people for a variety of reasons (technique, technology, information, social affiliation, psychology, cost, money, etc.) characterize both the connections in the socio-economic system and its integrity. Management, as well as production, society, company, etc., i.e. a certain community of people united by one of their needs is a socio-economic system. In the study of this system, both aspect and system approaches can be used.
3. The principle of the functional-structural structure of the whole is that when studying control systems it is necessary to analyze and determine the functional structure of the system, that is, to see not only the elements and their connections, but also the functional content of each of the elements. In two identical systems with the same set of elements and their identical structure, the content of the functioning of these elements and their connections for certain functions may be different. This often has an impact on management efficiency. For example, the management system may have undeveloped functions of social regulation, functions of forecasting and planning, and functions of public relations. A special factor in the use of this principle is the factor of development of functions and the degree of their isolation, which to a certain extent characterizes the professionalism of its implementation. The study of the functional content of the control system must necessarily include the identification of dysfunctions that characterize the presence of functions that do not correspond to the functions of the whole and thereby can disrupt the stability of the control system and the necessary stability of its functioning. Dysfunctions are, as it were, superfluous functions, sometimes outdated, having lost their relevance, but due to inertia they still exist. They need to be identified during research.
4. Development principle . Any management system that is the object of research is at a certain level and stage of development. All its characteristics are determined by the characteristics of the level and stage of development. And this cannot be ignored when conducting research. How can this be taken into account? Obviously, through a comparative analysis of its past condition, present and possible future. Of course, information difficulties arise here, namely: the availability, sufficiency and value of information. But these difficulties can be reduced with a systematic study of the management system, which allows one to accumulate the necessary information, determine development trends and extrapolate them for the future.
5. The principle of labalization of functions. When assessing the development of the management system, one cannot exclude the possibility of changing it general functions, its acquisition of new functions of integrity, with relative stability of internal ones, i.e. their composition and structure. This phenomenon characterizes the concept of lability of control system functions. In reality, one often observes the lability of control functions. It has certain limits, but in many cases it can reflect both positive and negative phenomena. Of course, this should be in the field of view of the researcher.
6. The principle of multifunctionality. The control system may have multifunctional functions. These are functions connected according to a certain characteristic to obtain a special effect. It can otherwise be called the principle of interoperability. But the compatibility of functions is determined not only by its content, as is often believed, but also by the goals of management and the compatibility of performers. After all, a function is not just a type of activity, but also a person who implements this function. Often functions that seem to be incompatible in their content turn out to be compatible in the activities of a certain specialist. And vice versa. When studying multifunctionality, we must not forget about the human factor of management.
7. The principle of iteration. Any research is a process that involves a certain sequence of operations, the use of methods, and the evaluation of preliminary, intermediate and final results. This characterizes the iterative structure of the research process. Its success depends on how we choose these iterations and how we combine them.
8. The principle of probabilistic assessments. In research, it is not always possible to accurately trace and evaluate all cause-and-effect relationships, in other words, to present the object of research in a deterministic form. Many connections and relationships are objectively probabilistic in nature, many phenomena can only be assessed probabilistically, if we take into account the current level, modern possibilities for studying socio-economic and socio-psychological phenomena. Therefore, management research should be oriented towards probabilistic assessments. This means the widespread use of statistical analysis methods, probability calculation techniques, normative assessments, flexible modeling, etc.
9. The principle of variation follows from the principle of probability. The combination of probabilities gives various options reflection and understanding of reality. Each of these options can and should be the focus of the researcher’s attention. Any research can be focused either on obtaining a single result, or on identifying possible options for reflection real situation cases followed by analysis of these options. The variability of the study is manifested in the development of not a single, but several working hypotheses or various concepts at the first stage of the study. Variation can also manifest itself in the choice of aspects and research methods, in various ways, say, modeling phenomena.
These systematic principles can only be useful and effective and reflect a truly systematic approach when they themselves are taken into account and used systematically, i.e. in interdependence and in connection with each other. The following paradox is possible: the principles of the systems approach do not provide systematicity in the research, because they are used sporadically, without taking into account their connection, subordination, and complexity. Systematic principles must also be used systematically.
Management based on the application of a systematic approach includes four successive stages (stages):
1. At the first stage, the scope of the systems approach is determined, the area and scale of activity of the management subject are clarified, information needs (approximately) adequate to the area, area and scale of activity are established;
2. At the second stage, the necessary research is carried out (system analysis);
3. At the third stage, alternative solutions to certain problems are developed, and the optimal option for each problem is selected (using expert assessments, including independent examination).
Of course, in each specific case, the systems approach must be implemented in the form of some specific (adapted to the characteristics of the system) system method (analysis, information retrieval), i.e. a set of rules, procedures, instructions, standards, research techniques and technologies for preparing and making decisions, taking into account the qualitative uniqueness of the object and subject of management.
With a systems approach, the study of the characteristics of an organization as a system becomes important, i.e. “input”, “process”, and “output” characteristics.
Based on marketing research, the “output” parameters are first examined, i.e. goods or services, namely what to produce, with what quality indicators, at what costs, for whom, in what time frame to sell and at what price. Answers to these questions must be clear and timely. The “output” should ultimately be competitive products or services.
Then the “input” parameters are determined, i.e. the need for resources (material, financial, labor and information) is examined. It is determined after a detailed study of the organizational and technical level of the system under consideration (level of equipment, technology, features of the organization of production, labor and management) and the parameters of the external environment (economic, geopolitical, social, environmental, etc.). And finally, no less important is the study of the parameters of the process that transforms resources into finished products. At this stage, depending on the object of study, production technology or management technology, as well as factors and ways of improvement, are considered.
Thus, the systems approach allows us to comprehensively assess any production and economic activity and the activity of the management system at the level of specific characteristics. This will help to analyze any situation within a single system, to identify the nature of the “input”, process and “output” problems. The use of a systems approach allows us to best organize the decision-making process at all levels in the management system.
Now let's look at other approaches used in the study of control systems.
A complex approach involves taking into account both the internal and external environment of the organization when analyzing. This means that it is necessary to take into account not only internal, but also external factors– economic, geopolitical, social, demographic, environmental, etc. Factors are important aspects when analyzing organizations and, unfortunately, are not always taken into account. For example, social issues are often not taken into account or postponed when designing new organizations. When introducing new technology, ergonomic indicators are not always taken into account, which leads to increased fatigue of workers and, ultimately, to a decrease in labor productivity. When forming new labor collectives Social and psychological aspects, in particular, problems of labor motivation, are not properly taken into account. Summarizing the above, it can be argued that an integrated approach is a necessary condition when deciding to analyze an organization.
To study functional connections information support Management systems use an integration approach, the essence of which is that research is carried out both vertically (between individual elements of the management system) and horizontally (at all stages of the product life cycle).
Integration is understood as the unification of management subjects to strengthen the interaction of all elements of the management system of a particular organization. With this approach, stronger connections appear between individual subsystems of the organization and more specific tasks. For example, the management system sets specific indicators for the services and divisions of the organization in terms of quality, quantity, resource costs, deadlines, etc. Based on the implementation of these indicators, the set goals are achieved.
Horizontal integration across stages of the product life cycle requires the formation of a unified and clear information management system, which should include, first of all, indicators of quality and quantity of costs at the stages of research, design and technological preparation of production, as well as indicators of production, implementation, and operation itself and discontinuation of products.
Such consistency of indicators across the stages of the product life cycle allows you to create a management structure that ensures efficiency and flexibility of management.
Vertical integration is the unification of legally independent organizations to best achieve their goals. This is ensured, firstly, by combining the efforts of people, i.e. a synergistic effect, secondly, the creation of new scientific and experimental bases, the introduction of new technologies and new equipment. This, in turn, creates conditions for improving vertical connections between federal and municipal authorities and individual organizations, especially in the production and social spheres of activity. Such integration provides the best control and regulation in the process of implementing new decrees, regulations and other regulatory documentation. Integration provides organizations with additional opportunities to improve their competitiveness through increased collaboration. There is greater scope for the development and implementation of new ideas, the release of more quality products, efficiency in implementing decisions made.
The use of an integration approach creates conditions for the best implementation of strategic objectives at all levels in the management system: at the level of the holding, individual companies and specific organizations.
Essence situational approach lies in the fact that the incentive to conduct analysis is specific situations, a wide range of which significantly affects the effectiveness of management. With this approach, the control system, depending on the nature of the situation, can change any of its characteristics.
Objects of analysis in in this case can be:
· Management structure: depending on the situation and based on the volumetric calculations carried out, a management structure with a predominance of either vertical or horizontal connections is selected;
· Management methods;
· Leadership style; depending on the professionalism, number and personal qualities of employees, a leadership style is selected, focused either on tasks or on human relations;
· External and internal environment of the organization;
· Organization development strategy;
· Technological features of the production process.
Marketing approach involves conducting an analysis of organizations based on the results of marketing research. The main goal with this approach is to focus the control system on the consumer. The implementation of this goal requires, first of all, the improvement of the organization’s business strategy, the goal of which is to provide its organization with a sustainable competitive advantage. The marketing approach is designed to identify these competitive advantages and the factors that determine them.
As research practice has shown, these factors include the following:
· Quality of products or services;
· Quality of management of the organization itself;
· Marketing quality, i.e. the property of a product to meet the real needs of the population.
It is important to take into account the competitive position, i.e. the position of the organization under study in the industry for a given period of time, since competition is an expensive undertaking, and the market is characterized by high entry barriers.
Thus, the importance of the marketing approach is to provide the organization with all the necessary information, the knowledge of which will allow it to maintain its competitive position in the industry for a long time.
Innovative approach based on the organization’s ability to quickly respond to changes dictated by the external environment. This concerns the introduction of innovations, new technical solutions, and the steady resumption of production of new goods and services to best meet the needs of the sales market. The key to the successful functioning of any organization is that it must not only keep up with technological progress, but also be ahead of it.
The introduction of innovation also requires a system analysis, namely, determining the organization’s capabilities for introducing a particular innovation. The analysis process in an innovative approach is very complex and covers all stages of the product life cycle.
Let's look at these stages:
Analysis of the possibility of conducting scientific experimental research and - design work. Here it is necessary to determine whether the organization has the necessary financial resources, as the costs of developing innovative ideas and their implementation are increasingly increasing. Typically, funding is provided by investment companies, private and public foundations, and finances a specific project or new scientific idea. Funding is carried out in several stages: first applied research, then experimental development and final stage– financing of mass production. Finding reliable financial investors is of no small importance, since knowledge-intensive production is fraught with great uncertainty. Many innovations do not reach mass production because they are rejected by the market, and the financial risk here is quite high.
At this stage it is also necessary to find out whether the implementation team has a special group of people who will be involved in the development and implementation innovative projects and what is their professional training.
Analysis of the possibility of introducing R&D results into production. Here it is necessary to determine the technical, organizational and economic feasibility of introducing new equipment or technology;
Analysis of the possibility of introducing a new product to the market. The marketing approach should play a special role here. It is necessary to study the market requirements, the nature of products of this type that are in demand, determine where they are produced and in what quantity.
Your own competitive position also plays an important role. It is at this stage of analysis that the business (competitive) strategy of the organization should manifest itself to the greatest extent, on which the life expectancy of the product depends - from the first sales to saturation of demand and exit from the market.
With an innovative approach, it is necessary to remember: in order to successfully compete in the market, it is necessary to give inventors the opportunity to create new things, create freely and bring their inventions to successful implementation. To do this, the team of inventors needs a certain freedom of creativity: the right to make decisions and be responsible for the final results. The management of the organization should be aimed at encouraging initiative and entrepreneurial invention.
Essence normative approach is as follows. The analysis of any management system with the aim of improving it is associated with taking into account the totality of the most important standards that guide the company’s apparatus in its activities. These include standards established for each industry, for example controllability standards and standards developed by the designers themselves. (Regulations on the organization, job descriptions, staffing, etc.). Standards can have a target, functional and social orientation. Target standards include everything that ensures the implementation of the goals set for the organization. These are, first of all, indicators of product quality, resource intensity of products, ergonomic indicators, reliability indicators, as well as the technical level of production.
Functional standards include the quality and timeliness of plans, clear organization of departments, operational accounting and control, strict distribution of functional responsibilities in each structural unit of the organization.
Standards in social environment must provide optimal conditions for the special development of the team. This includes indicators of incentives and labor protection, indicators of the provision of all employees with the necessary technical means for successful work. This also includes the need for systematic professional development, good motivation, legal and environmental standards. Thus, the normative approach when conducting analysis requires taking into account the entire set of standards when managing resources, process and product. The more scientifically based standards there are for all aspects of the organization’s activities, the sooner success will come in achieving its goals.
Purpose behavioral approach is to create all the necessary conditions for the realization of the creative abilities of each employee, for realizing their own importance in managing the organization. It is important for managers to study the various behavioral approaches recommended by general management and explore the possibility of their application in the process of analyzing the organization. It must be remembered that a person is the most important element in a management system. A successfully selected team of like-minded people and partners who are able to understand and implement the ideas of their leader - the most important condition economic success.
Concept, tasks and stages of a systems approach.
The systems approach is used in all areas of knowledge, although it manifests itself differently in different areas. So, in technical sciences we're talking about about systems engineering, in cybernetics - about control systems, in biology - about biosystems and their structural levels, in sociology - about the possibilities of a structural-functional approach, in medicine - about the systemic treatment of complex diseases (collagenosis, systemic vasculitis, etc.) by therapists general practitioners (system doctors).
The very nature of science lies in the desire for unity and synthesis of knowledge. Identifying and studying the features of this process is the task of modern research in the field of the theory of scientific knowledge.
Essence the systems approach is both simple and complex; both ultra-modern and ancient, like the world, for it goes back to the origins human civilization. The need to use the concept of “system” has arisen for objects of various physical natures since ancient times: Aristotle drew attention to the fact that the whole (i.e., the system) is irreducible to the sum of the parts that form it.
The need for such a concept arises in cases where it is impossible to depict, imagine (for example, using a mathematical expression), but it is necessary to emphasize that it will be large, complex, not completely immediately understandable (with uncertainty) and whole, unified. For example, " solar system", "machine control system", "circulatory system", "education system", "information system".
Very well, the features of this term, such as orderliness, integrity, the presence of certain patterns, are manifested to display mathematical expressions and rules - “system of equations”, “number system”, “system of measures”, etc. We do not say: “a set of differential equations” or “a set of differential equations” - namely, “a system of differential equations” in order to emphasize order, integrity, and the presence of certain patterns.
Interest in system representations manifests itself not only as a convenient generalizing concept, but also as a means of posing problems with great uncertainty.
Systems approach– this is a direction in the methodology of scientific knowledge and social practice, which is based on the consideration of objects as a system. The systematic approach guides researchers towards revealing the integrity of an object, identifying diverse connections and bringing them together into a single theoretical picture.
A systems approach appears to be “the only way to bring together the pieces of our fragmented world and achieve order instead of chaos.”
The systems approach develops and shapes a specialist’s holistic dialectical-materialistic worldview and, in this regard, is fully consistent with the modern tasks of our society and the country’s economy.
Tasks, which are solved by a systematic approach:
o plays the role of an international language;
o allows you to develop methods for researching and designing complex objects (for example, an information system, etc.);
o develops methods of cognition, research and design methods (design organization systems, development management systems, etc.);
o allows you to combine the knowledge of various, traditionally separated disciplines;
o allows you to deeply, and most importantly, in conjunction with the created information system, explore the subject area.
A systematic approach cannot be perceived as a one-time procedure, as the implementation of a sequence of certain actions that gives a predictable result. A systems approach is usually a multi-cycle process of cognition, searching for causes and making decisions to achieve a certain goal, for which we create (select) some artificial system.
It is obvious that the systematic approach is a creative process and, as a rule, it does not end with the first cycle. After the first cycle, we are convinced that this system is not functioning effectively enough. Something is in the way. In search of this “something,” we enter a new cycle of a spiral search, again analyze prototypes (analogues), consider the systemic functioning of each element (subsystem), the effectiveness of connections, the validity of restrictions, etc. Those. We are trying to eliminate this “something” through levers within the system.
If the desired effect cannot be achieved, it is often advisable to return to the choice of system. Perhaps it is necessary to expand it, introduce other elements into it, provide for new connections, etc. In the new, expanded system, the possibility of obtaining a wider range of solutions (outputs) increases, among which the desired one may be found.
When studying any object or phenomenon, a systematic approach is required, which can be presented as a sequence of the following stages:
o identifying the object of study from the total mass of phenomena and objects. Determination of the contour, limits of the system, its main subsystems, elements, connections with the environment.
o Establishing the purpose of the study: determining the function of the system, its structure, control mechanisms and functioning;
o determination of the main criteria characterizing the purposeful action of the system, the main restrictions and conditions of existence (functioning);
o identifying alternative options when choosing structures or elements to achieve given goal. If possible, it is necessary to take into account factors affecting the system and options for solving the problem;
o drawing up a model of the system’s functioning, taking into account all significant factors. The significance of factors is determined by their influence on the defining criteria of the goal;
o optimization of the functioning model or operation of the system. Selection of solutions based on efficiency criteria in achieving the goal;
o designing optimal structures and functional actions of the system. Determination of the optimal scheme for their regulation and management;
o monitoring the operation of the system, determining its reliability and performance.
o Establishing reliable feedback on performance results.
The systems approach is inextricably linked with materialist dialectics and is a concretization of its basic principles at the present stage of development. Modern society did not immediately recognize the systems approach as a new methodological direction.
In the 30s of the last century, philosophy was the source of the emergence of a generalizing direction called systems theory. The founder of this direction is considered to be L. von Bertalanffy, an Italian biologist by primary profession, who, despite this, made his first report at a philosophical seminar, using the terminology of philosophy as the initial concepts.
It is necessary to note the important contribution to the formation of systemic ideas of our compatriot A.A. Bogdanov. However, due to historical reasons, the universal organizational science “tectology” he proposed did not find distribution and practical application.
System analysis.
Birth systems analysis (SA) - the merit of the famous company "RAND Corporation" (1947) - US Department of Defense.
1948 - Weapon Systems Evaluation Group
1950 - weapons cost analysis department
1952 - The creation of the B-58 supersonic bomber was the first development delivered as a system.
System analysis required information support.
The first book on systems analysis, not translated here, was published in 1956. It was published by RAND (authors A. Kann and S. Monk). A year later, “Systems Engineering” by G. Good and R. Makol appeared (published here in 1962), which sets out the general methodology for designing complex technical systems.
The SA methodology was developed in detail and presented in the book “Military Economics in the Nuclear Age” published in 1960 by C. Hitch and R. McKean (published here in 1964). In 1960, one of the best textbooks on systems engineering was published (A. Hall “Experience in Methodology for Systems Engineering”, translated in 1975), presenting the technical development of problems in systems engineering.
In 1965, a detailed book by E. Quaid “Analysis complex systems to solve military problems" (translated in 1969). It presents the foundations of a new scientific discipline - systems analysis (the method of optimal choice when solving complex problems under conditions of uncertainty -> a revised course of lectures on systems analysis, read by employees of the RAND Corporation for senior specialists of the US Department of Defense and Industry).
In 1965, S. Optner’s book “System Analysis for Solving Business and Industrial Problems” was published (translated in 1969).
Second phase historical development systematic approach(company problems, marketing, audit, etc.)
o Stage I - research final results systematic approach
o Stage II - initial stages, selection and justification of goals, their usefulness, conditions
implementation, connections with previous processes
Systems research
o Stage I - Bogdanov A.A. - 20s, Butlerov, Mendeleev, Fedorov, Belov.
o Stage II - L. von Bertalanffy - 30s.
o Stage III - The birth of cybernetics - systems research received a new birth on a solid scientific basis
o Stage IV - original versions of the general theory of systems, having a common mathematical apparatus - 60s, Mesarovich, Uemov, Urmantsev.
Belov Nikolai Vasilievich (1891 - 1982) - crystallographer, geochemist, professor at Moscow State University - methods for deciphering the structures of minerals.
Fedorov Evgraf Stepanovich (1853 – 1919) mineralogist and crystallographer. Modern structures of crystallography and mineralogy.
Butlerov Alexander Mikhailovich – structural theory.
Mendeleev Dmitry Ivanovich (1834 – 1907) – Periodic table elements.
The place of systems analysis among other scientific areas
System analysis is considered the most constructive of the applied areas of systems research. Regardless of whether the term “system analysis” is applied to planning, developing the main directions of development of an industry, enterprise, organization, or to the study of the system as a whole, including goals and organizational structure, work on system analysis is distinguished by the fact that it always a methodology for conducting, researching, and organizing the decision-making process is proposed; an attempt is made to highlight the stages of research or decision-making and propose approaches to performing these stages in specific conditions. In addition, these works always pay special attention to working with the goals of the system: their emergence, formulation, detailing, analysis and other issues of goal setting.
D. Cleland and V. King believe that system analysis should provide “a clear understanding of the place and meaning of uncertainty in decision making” and create a special apparatus for this. the main objective system analysis- detect and eliminate uncertainty.
Some define systems analysis as “formalized common sense.”
Others do not see the meaning even in the very concept of “systems analysis”. Why not synthesis? How can you disassemble a system without losing the whole thing? However, worthy answers to these questions were instantly found. Firstly, the analysis is not limited to dividing uncertainties into smaller ones, but is aimed at understanding the essence of the whole, identifying factors that influence decision-making on the construction and development of the system; and secondly, the term “systemic” implies a return to the whole, to the system.
Systems research disciplines:
Philosophical and methodological disciplines
Systems theory
Systems approach
Systemology
System analysis
Systems Engineering
Cybernetics
Operations research
Special disciplines
System analysis is located in the middle of this list, since it uses approximately equal proportions of philosophical and methodological concepts (characteristic of philosophy, systems theory) and formalized methods and models (for special disciplines). Systemology and systems theory make more use of philosophical concepts and qualitative concepts and are closer to philosophy. Operations research, systems engineering, cybernetics, on the contrary, have a more developed formal apparatus, but less developed means of qualitative analysis and formulation of complex problems with great uncertainty and with active elements.
The areas under consideration have much in common. The need for their use arises in cases where the problem (problem) cannot be solved by individual methods of mathematics or highly specialized disciplines. Despite the fact that initially the directions were based on different basic concepts (operations research - “operation”, cybernetics - “control”, “feedback”, systemology - “system”), later they operate with many of the same concepts elements, connections, goals and means, structure. Different directions also use the same mathematical methods.
System analysis in economics.
When developing new areas of activity, it is impossible to solve a problem using only a mathematical or intuitive method, since the process of their formation and development of procedures for setting problems often drags on for a long period. As technology and the “artificial world” develop, decision-making situations have become more complex, and the modern economy is characterized by such features that it has become difficult to guarantee the completeness and timeliness of setting and solving many economic design and management problems without the use of techniques and methods for setting complex problems, which develop the generalized directions discussed above, and in particular, system analysis.
In the method of systems analysis, the main thing is the process of setting the problem. In economics, you do not need a ready-made model of an object or a decision-making process (mathematical method); you need a methodology that contains tools that allow you to gradually form a model, justifying its adequacy at each step of formation with the participation of decision-makers. Problems whose solution was previously based on intuition (the problem of development management organizational structures), is now unsolvable without system analysis.
To make “weighted” design, management, socio-economic and other decisions, a wide coverage and comprehensive analysis of factors that significantly influence the problem being solved is required. It is necessary to use a systematic approach when studying a problem situation and use systems analysis tools to solve this problem. It is especially useful to use the methodology of a systems approach and systems analysis when solving complex problems - putting forward and choosing a concept (hypothesis, idea) of a company's development strategy, developing qualitatively new markets for products, improving and bringing the company's internal environment into line with new market conditions, etc. .d.
To solve these problems, specialists in preparing decisions and developing recommendations for their selection, as well as persons (group of persons) responsible for making decisions, must have a certain level of culture of systems thinking, a “systems view” to cover the entire problem in a “structured » view.
Logical systems analysis is used to solve “weakly structured” problems, the formulation of which has a lot of vagueness and uncertainty and therefore cannot be presented in a completely mathematical form.
This analysis is complemented by mathematical analysis of systems and other methods of analysis, such as statistical and logical. However, the scope of its application and implementation methodology differ from the subject and methodology of formal mathematical systems research.
The concept “systemic” is used because the research is based on the category “system”.
The term "analysis" is used to characterize the research procedure, which consists of dividing a complex problem into separate, simpler subproblems, using the most appropriate special methods for solving them, which then allow constructing, synthesizing common decision Problems.
System analysis contains elements inherent in scientific, in particular quantitative, methods, as well as an intuitive-heuristic approach, which depends entirely on the art and experience of the researcher.
According to Allen Enthoven's definition: “Systems analysis is nothing more than enlightened common sense, at the service of which analytical methods are put in place. We apply a systematic approach to the problem, trying to explore the task facing us as widely as possible, determine its rationality and timeliness, and then provide the decision maker with the information that will best help him choose his preferred path to solving the problem."
The presence of subjective elements (knowledge, experience, intuition, preferences) is associated with objective reasons that arise from the limited ability to apply precise quantitative methods to all aspects of complex problems.
This side of the system analysis methodology is of significant interest.
First of all, the main and most valuable result of system analysis is recognized not as a quantitative solution to the problem, but as an increase in the degree of its understanding and the essence of various solutions. This understanding and various alternatives for solving the problem are developed by specialists and experts and presented to decision-makers for constructive discussion.
System analysis includes the methodology for conducting research, identifying the stages of research and a reasonable choice of methods for performing each of the stages in specific conditions. Particular attention in these works is paid to defining the goals and model of the system and their formalized representation.
Systems research problems can be divided into analysis problems and synthesis problems.
The objectives of the analysis are to study the properties and behavior of systems depending on their structures, parameter values and characteristics of the external environment. The tasks of synthesis are to select the structure and such values of the internal parameters of systems so that, given the characteristics of the external environment and other restrictions, the specified properties of the systems are obtained.
System analysis- a set of methodological tools used to prepare and justify decisions on complex problems of a political, military, social, economic, scientific and technical nature. It relies on a systems approach, as well as a number of mathematical disciplines and modern methods management. The main procedure is the construction of a generalized model that reflects the relationships of the real situation: the technical basis of system analysis is computers and information systems.
Where does the system start?
Need research
Philosophers teach that everything starts with a need.
Needs research is that before developing a new system, it is necessary to establish whether it is needed? At this stage, the following questions are raised and resolved:
o whether the project satisfies a new need;
o Is its effectiveness, cost, quality, etc. satisfactory?
Growing needs determine the production of more and more new technical means. This growth is determined by life, but it is also determined by the need for creativity inherent in man as a rational being.
The field of activity whose task is to study the living conditions of man and society is called futurology. It is difficult to argue against the point of view that the basis of futurological planning should be carefully verified and socially justified needs, both existing and potential.
Needs give meaning to our actions. Failure to satisfy a need causes a state of tension aimed at eliminating the discrepancy.
When creating the technosphere, establishing needs acts as a conceptual task. Establishing a need leads to the formation of a technical problem.
Formation should include a description of the set of conditions necessary and sufficient to satisfy the need.
Clarification of the task (problem)
Seeing that a situation requires research is the first step of the researcher. A problem that has not been solved before, as a rule, cannot be formulated precisely until the answer is found. However, you should always look for at least a tentative formulation of a solution. Eat deep meaning in the thesis that “a well-posed problem is half solved,” and vice versa.
Understanding what the problem is means making significant progress in research. And vice versa - to misunderstand the problem means to direct the research along the wrong path.
This stage of creativity is directly related to the fundamental philosophical concept goals, i.e. mental anticipation of the result.
The goal regulates and directs human activity, which consists of the following basic elements: goal determination, forecasting, decision, implementation of action, control of results. Of all these elements (tasks), defining the goal comes first. Formulating a goal is much more difficult than following an accepted goal. The goal is specified and transformed in relation to performers and conditions. The transformation of the goal involves its further definition due to the incompleteness and delay of information and knowledge about the situation. A higher order goal always contains an underlying uncertainty that must be taken into account. Despite this, the goal must be specific and unambiguous. Its staging should allow for the initiative of the performers. "It is much more important to choose the 'right' goal than the 'right' system," pointed out Hall, author of a book on systems engineering; choosing the wrong goal means solving the wrong problem; and choosing the wrong system simply means choosing a suboptimal system.
Achieving goals in complex and conflict situations is difficult. The surest and shortest path is to find a new progressive idea. The fact that new ideas can refute previous experience does not change anything (almost according to R. Ackoff: “When the path forward is forbidden, the best way out is the reverse”).
State of the system.
In general, the values of the system outputs depend on the following factors:
o values (states) of input variables;
o initial state of the system;
o system functions.
This leads to one of the most important tasks of system analysis - establishing cause-and-effect relationships between the system's outputs and its inputs and state.
1. System state and its assessment
The concept of state characterizes an instantaneous “photograph” of a time “slice” of the system. System status in certain moment time is the set of its essential properties at this moment in time. In this case, we can talk about the state of the inputs, internal state and state of the outputs of the system.
The state of the system inputs is represented by a vector of input parameter values:
X = (x1,...,xn) and is actually a reflection of the state of the environment.
The internal state of the system is represented by a vector of values of its internal parameters (state parameters): Z = (z1,...,zv) and depends on the state of the inputs X and the initial state Z0:
Z = F1(X,Z0).
Example. Status parameters: car engine temperature, psychological condition people, wear and tear of equipment, level of qualifications of work performers.
The internal state is practically unobservable, but it can be estimated from the state of the outputs (values of the output variables) of the system Y = (y1...ym) thanks to the dependence
Y= F2(Z).
In this case, we should talk about output variables in a broad sense: not only the output variables themselves, but also the characteristics of their change - speed, acceleration, etc. can act as coordinates reflecting the state of the system. Thus, the internal state system S at time t can be characterized by a set of values of its output coordinates and their derivatives at this point in time:
Example. State financial system Russia can be characterized not only by the ruble to dollar exchange rate, but also by the rate of change of this exchange rate, as well as the acceleration (deceleration) of this speed.
However, it should be noted that the output variables do not completely, ambiguously and untimely reflect the state of the system.
Examples.
1. The patient has a high temperature (> 37 °C). but this is typical for different internal states.
2. If an enterprise has low profits, then this can happen in different states of the organization.
2. Process
If a system is capable of transitioning from one state to another (for example, S1→S2→S3...), then it is said to have behavior - a process occurs in it.
In the case of a continuous change of states, the process P can be described by a function of time:
P=S(t), and in the discrete case - by a set: P = (St1 St2....),
In relation to the system, two types of processes can be considered:
external process - a sequential change of influences on the system, i.e. a sequential change of environmental states;
internal process - a sequential change in system states, which is observed as a process at the output of the system.
The discrete process itself can be considered as a system consisting of a set of states connected by the sequence of their changes.
3. Static and dynamic systems
Depending on whether the state of the system changes over time, it can be classified as a static or dynamic system.
A static system is a system whose state remains virtually unchanged over a certain period.
A dynamic system is a system that changes its state over time.
So, we will call dynamic systems those systems in which any changes occur over time. There is one more clarifying definition: a system whose transition from one state to another does not occur instantly, but as a result of some process, is called dynamic.
Examples.
1. Panel house - a system of many interconnected panels - a static system.
2. The economy of any enterprise is a dynamic system.
3. In what follows, we will be interested only in dynamic systems.
4. System function
The properties of the system are manifested not only by the values of the output variables, but also by its function, therefore, determining the functions of the system is one of the first tasks of its analysis or design
The concept of “function” has different definitions: from general philosophical to mathematical.
Function as a general philosophical concept. General concept function includes the concepts of “purpose” (purpose) and “ability” (to serve some purpose).
Function is the external manifestation of the properties of an object.
Examples.
1. The door handle has a function to help open it.
2. The tax office has the function of collecting taxes.
3 The function of an information system is to provide information to the decision maker.
4. The function of the painting in the famous cartoon is to cover a hole in the wall.
5. The function of the wind is to disperse smog in the city.
The system can be single- or multifunctional. Depending on the degree of impact on the external environment and the nature of interaction with other systems, functions can be distributed in increasing ranks:
o passive existence, material for other systems (footrest);
o maintenance of a higher order system (switch in the computer);
o opposition to other systems, environment (survival, security system, defense system);
o absorption (expansion) of other systems and the environment (destruction of plant pests, drainage of swamps);
o transformation of other systems and environments (computer virus, penitentiary system).
Function in mathematics. A function is one of the basic concepts of mathematics, expressing the dependence of some variables on others. Formally, a function can be defined as follows: An element of a set Ey of arbitrary nature is called a function of an element x defined on a set Ex of arbitrary nature if each element x from the set Ex corresponds to a single element y? Ey. The element x is called the independent variable, or argument. The function can be specified by: an analytical expression, a verbal definition, a table, a graph, etc.
Function as a cybernetic concept. The philosophical definition answers the question: “What can a system do?” This question is valid for both static and dynamic systems. However, for dynamic systems, the answer to the question: “How does it do this?” is important. In this case, speaking about the function of the system, we will mean the following:
The function of the system is a method (rule, algorithm) of converting input information into output.
The function of a dynamic system can be represented logically mathematical model, connecting the input (X) and output (Y) coordinates of the system - the “input-output” model:
Y = F(X),
where F is an operator (in a particular case, a certain formula), called a functioning algorithm, - the entire set of mathematical and logical actions that need to be performed in order to find the corresponding outputs Y from given inputs X.
It would be convenient to represent the operator F in the form of some mathematical relations, but this is not always possible.
The concept of a “black box” is widely used in cybernetics. A “black box” is a cybernetic model or an “input-output” model in which the internal structure of an object is not considered (either absolutely nothing is known about it, or such an assumption is made). In this case, the properties of an object are judged only on the basis of an analysis of its inputs and outputs. (Sometimes the term “gray box” is used when something is still known about the internal structure of an object.) The task of system analysis is precisely to “lighten” the “box” - transform black into gray, and gray into white.
Conventionally, we can assume that the function F consists of the structure St and parameters 
:
F=(St,A),
which to some extent reflects, respectively, the structure of the system (composition and interconnection of elements) and its internal parameters (properties of elements and connections).
5. System operation
Functioning is considered as the process of the system realizing its functions. From a cybernetic point of view:
The functioning of the system is the process of processing input information into output.
Mathematically, the operation can be written as follows:
Y(t) = F(X(t)).
Operation describes how the state of a system changes when the state of its inputs changes.
6. System function status
The function of a system is its property, so we can talk about the state of the system at a given point in time, indicating its function, which is valid at that point in time. Thus, the state of the system can be considered in two aspects: the state of its parameters and the state of its function, which, in turn, depends on the state of the structure and parameters:
Knowing the state of a system function allows one to predict the values of its output variables. This is successful for stationary systems.
A system is considered stationary if its function remains virtually unchanged during a certain period of its existence.
For such a system, the response to the same impact does not depend on the moment of application of this impact.
The situation becomes significantly more complicated if the system function changes over time, which is typical for non-stationary systems.
A system is considered non-stationary if its function changes over time.
The nonstationarity of the system is manifested by its different reactions to the same disturbances applied in different periods time. The reasons for the non-stationary nature of the system lie within it and consist in changes in the function of the system: structure (St) and/or parameters (A).
Sometimes the stationarity of a system is considered in a narrow sense, when attention is paid to changes only in internal parameters (system function coefficients).
A system is called stationary if all its internal parameters do not change over time.
A non-stationary system is a system with variable internal parameters.
Example. Let's consider the dependence of profit from the sale of a certain product (P) on its price (P).
Let this dependence be expressed today by a mathematical model:
P=-50+30C-3C 2
If after some time the market situation changes, then our dependence will also change - for example, it will become like this:
P=-62 + 24C -4C 2
7. Dynamic system modes
It is necessary to distinguish three characteristic modes in which a dynamic system can be: equilibrium, transition and periodic.
Equilibrium mode (equilibrium state, state of equilibrium) is a state of the system in which it can remain for as long as desired in the absence of external disturbing influences or under constant influences. However, one must understand that for economic and organizational systems the concept of “equilibrium” is applied rather conditionally.
Example. The simplest example equilibrium - a ball lying on a plane.
By transition mode (process) we mean the process of movement of a dynamic system from some initial state to some of its steady state - equilibrium or periodic.
A periodic regime is a regime in which the system reaches the same states at regular intervals.
State space.
Since the properties of the system are expressed by the values of its outputs, the state of the system can be defined as a vector of values of output variables Y = (y 1 ,..,y m). It was said above (see question No. 11) that among the components of the vector Y, in addition to the direct output variables, arbitrary ones appear from them.
The behavior of a system (its process) can be depicted in different ways. For example, with m output variables there may be the following forms of process image:
o in the form of a table of values of output variables for discrete times t 1 ,t 2 …t k ;
o in the form of m graphs in coordinates y i - t, i = 1,...,m;
o in the form of a graph in an m-dimensional coordinate system.
Let's focus on the last case. In an m-dimensional coordinate system, each point corresponds to a certain state of the system.
The set of possible states of the system Y (y ∈ Y) is considered as the state space (or phase space) of the system, and the coordinates of this space are called phase coordinates.
In phase space, each of its elements completely determines the state of the system.
The point corresponding to the current state of the system is called the phase, or representing, point.
The phase trajectory is the curve that the phase point describes when the state of the unperturbed system changes (with constant external influences).
The set of phase trajectories corresponding to all possible initial conditions is called a phase portrait.
The phase portrait records only the direction of the velocity of the phase point and, therefore, reflects only a qualitative picture of the dynamics.
It is possible to construct and visually represent a phase portrait only on a plane, i.e., when the phase space is two-dimensional. Therefore, the phase space method, which in the case of two-dimensional phase space is called the phase plane method, is effectively used to study second-order systems.
The phase plane is a coordinate plane in which any two variables (phase coordinates) that uniquely determine the state of the system are plotted along the coordinate axes.
Fixed (special or stationary) are points whose position in the phase portrait will not change over time. Singular points reflect positions of equilibrium.
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