Geographical location of Russia, size of territory, state borders. What is geographical location

5.1. Definition of the concept of gp

Geographic location is one of the few deeply developed categories of economic and social geography. Baransky noted that

“geographical location has the greatest methodological significance. The place occupied by any area, be it a country, region, city, etc., in the system of geographical division of labor is largely determined by geographical location” [Baransky, 1980, p. 157].

In the context of globalization, the theory of geographical location acquires the status of an interdisciplinary theory due to the fact that it allows us to see the world in all its diversity, determined by many regional, country and local features.

The socio-economic space is heterogeneous. Objects do not spatially coincide with the conditions necessary for their existence in the system. Properties of socio-economic space that reflect spatial discrepancy between the object being studied and the necessary conditions for its existence(functioning and development) can be defined as the geographical location of the object.

"Attitude" is the basis of geographical location

other economic significance. Later we will turn to clarifying the concept of EGP.

The main idea of ​​geographical location as a concept is to reveal territorial relations:

IN physical-geographical position is the relationship: 1) in a geographic coordinate grid, i.e. in geodetic space, which uses the concepts of orthodrome - the shortest distance on the geoid between two points, and loxodrome - the shortest path intersecting the meridians at a constant angle; 2) in real physical-geographical space with its natural zones, regions, orography, distribution of land and sea, etc.

IN economic-geographical position is the relationship to economically significant objects.

IN socio-geographical position - to socially significant objects.

IN political-geographical situation - to political data (within countries it is determined, for example, by the territorial distribution of political forces, and on the world stage - by the centers of action of international political forces). In methodological terms, this means recording and predicting the action of “force fields” of various nature: military, international political, world economic (geo-economic), environmental and cultural.

IN ecological-geographical position - to environmentally significant objects, in particular to countries and regions that determine the environmental situation, or to countries and regions whose environmental status may be influenced by a given country.

Thus, N.N. Klyuev identified five groups of features that reflect the environmentally important properties of space for assessing the ecological and geographical position of the country: 1) environmental (meaning the natural role of a given territory in the functioning of the Earth) functions of the country, region in the global geosystem ( in the biosphere): 2) the stability of the natural environment of the country, region, its vulnerability to anthropogenic influences; 3) spatial distribution in the country, region of impact recipients - population, material and cultural values, valuable natural landscapes; 4) sources of environmental hazard external to a given country or region; 5) natural and anthropogenic “channels” and “barriers” to the spread of environmental hazards [Klyuev, 1996].

To clarify the concept of GP, it is necessary to emphasize the essential difference between geographic location and location. To characterize the first means to answer the question: in relation to what! The location of an object has another meaning, which is to answer the questions: Where And of which it is a part! Thus, location reveals localization or affiliation, whereas position reflects the relationships in the system.

Characterizing a location means, first of all, answering the question of where the object is located. Ratzel defined geographic location as belonging. This is actually not a definition of geographic location, but of location. Affiliation does not characterize the geographical location of an object, since it does not reveal its external relations. The distinction between these concepts is important from a methodological point of view.

So, When studying GP, it is necessary to accurately determine which objects are external and which are internal. The amount of extraneous data depends both on objective conditions, for example, mosaic, diversity of the environment, and on the degree of fragmentation of the study of the GP.

In other words, geographic location is characterized by the relationship of an object with its external environment.

An object can have very different relationships with elements of the external environment. These relationships can be either very significant or insignificant. The researcher’s task is to introduce a criterion of significance and identify the significant ones. In real (i.e., already implemented relationships) - this will be many times (cyclically, periodically) repeated relationships. Thus, when studying the GP, the main attention is paid to the system of significant and repeating relations, based on a deep knowledge of the object whose GP is being studied. GP is a multicomponent concept, and the path to its study, therefore, lies primarily through the analysis of its components. Before dissection and in-depth analysis, it is unlawful to use such concepts as “convenient” and “advantageous” position.

When studying GP, one has to start from the results of the influence of GP on the development of a given object, i.e. from the analysis of connections, although GP is by no means the connections themselves, but their prerequisite.

Another difficulty arises from the fact that the connections (economic and non-economic) of an object are influenced not only by one GP. Eliminating the influence of other factors and isolating the influence of GP on an object is one of the difficult methodological problems to solve.

When analyzing relationships, the problem is that the researcher “weighs” real and potential relationships. Real relationships are revealed empirically. Among the potential ones, those that can be realized (actually possible connections) stand out. But the researcher must go further and establish theoretically possible connections. Thus, when analyzing SOEs, relationships cannot be understood only as actual economic and other connections. A full and comprehensive study of GP means taking into account real, potential and theoretically possible connections.

At the same time, the approaches also depend on the formulation of the problem, i.e. depending on what specific issues are being addressed. When solving practical issues, it is hardly advisable to be excessively distracted from specific geographical, economic, political and social conditions.

geographical position

the position of any point or other object on the earth’s surface in relation to other territories or objects; relative to the Earth's surface, the geographical position is determined using coordinates. A distinction is made between geographical location in relation to natural objects and to economic-geographical objects. Geographical location in economic geography is a historical category.

Geographical position

the position of any point or area of ​​the earth's surface in relation to territories or objects located outside this point or area. In mathematical geography, geographic location means the latitude and longitude of given points or areas; in physical geography, their position in relation to physical-geographical objects (continents, horizons, oceans, seas, rivers, lakes, etc.). In economic and political geography, geographical location is understood as the position of a country, region, settlement, and other objects in relation to other economic-geographical objects (including communications routes, markets, economic centers, etc.) and physical-geographical objects. as well as the position of the country relative to other states and their groups. G.P. is one of the conditions for the development of countries, regions, cities, and other populated areas. The practical significance of G. p. varies in different socio-economic formations.

Wikipedia

Geographical position

Geographical position- “the position of a geographical object relative to the surface of the Earth, as well as in relation to other objects with which it is in interaction...”. It characterizes “the place of a given object in the system of spatial connections and flows (material, energy, information) and determines its relationship with the external environment.” Usually reflects the geospatial relationship of a certain object to the external environment, the elements of which have or may have a significant impact on it. In human geography, position is usually defined in two-dimensional space. In physical geography, the third change is certainly taken into account - the absolute or relative height of the location of objects.

Concept geographical position is key to the entire system of geographical sciences. Geography itself originated as the science of methods for determining and recording the location of objects on the earth's surface relative to each other or in a certain coordinate system. Later it turned out that determining the location of an object not only helps to find it..., but also explains some of the properties of this object and even predicts its development. The most important element of geographical research is the establishment and analysis of connections between objects located in space, determined precisely by their location. Thus the geographical location:

• is an individualizing factor, since it determines many properties of a geographical object;
• is historical in nature because it changes over time;
• has a potential nature, since position alone is not a sufficient condition for the corresponding development of the object;
• has close connections with the configuration of the territory and its borders.

Within the framework of theoretical geography, B. B. Rodoman formulated "positional principle", meaning the dependence of the properties of an object on its location, and "positional pressure principle", meaning the force that causes an object to move if it is in a position that is not optimal for its functioning. American geographer W. Bunge proposed "displacement rule", meaning a change in the geographic location of flows when they are overvolted in an existing channel. For example: river beds, volcanoes, highways, seaports. Yu. K. Efremov even proposed a special type of maps - geographic location maps. However, L.V. Smirnyagin believes that in modern world, as in geography, the characteristics of the place itself play an increasingly important role in comparison with its location

The following types of geographical location are distinguished:

• mathematical-geographical
• physical-geographical;
• economic-geographical;
• political-geographical;
• geopolitical;
• military-geographical;
• ecological-geographical;
• cultural-geographical;

and others.

By scale they distinguish:

• macro position
• mesoposition
• micro-position

According to the coordinate system there are:

• absolute;
• relative;
  • mathematical (“3 miles north of Seattle”);
  • functional.

In an expanded interpretation, geographic location may also include the relationship of the areal object as a whole to the data lying inside him. Such a geographical location can be called, for example, “introspective” (from, intro- inside + spice- look). For example, when assessing the role of internal border areas in the priority areas foreign policy, when assessing the geocriminogenic position of the territory, when analyzing the transport-geographical position, when studying the changing area in relation to the stations of experience, the linguistic area in relation to the dialect center, etc. This approach also allows us to resolve the conflict with determining the mutual geographical position of intersecting objects.

>>Geographical location as a mirror of Russia

Russia on the world map

At the end of 1991, the Union of Soviet Union collapsed Socialist Republics(THE USSR). 15 former Soviet republics that were part of the USSR became new independent states. Subsequently, most of them (Fig. 1) formed the Commonwealth Independent States(CIS). the main objective its creation - the restoration of economic, cultural and historical ties in new conditions, the implementation of a common defense policy. Russia is the largest state in the CIS (about 80% of the territory, more than half of the population, 70% of production).

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The place of a phenomenon (object or process) relative to other phenomena in geospace is characterized by a complex of geographic relations (GR; about them, see 1.3.2) and is defined as geographical position or geolocation. Established GOs influence the formation of the properties of newly emerging objects, and prolonged participation in specific GOs leads to the appearance of secondary properties in objects. The successful location of a subject or object in the system of geographical relations can both give it additional political and economic significance, and vice versa. From a formal point of view, geolocation is assessed by two types of factors: distances (metric and topological) and configurations (directions). Thus, all other things being equal, a port on a river bend has a competitive advantage over a neighboring one, but on a straight section of the same river. Being located in different geographical areas, two even initially similar geographical objects will gradually begin to differ, first in function, and then in internal content. In this sense, it can be argued that, other things being equal, “the political-geographical position acts as a factor that individualizes

political development of countries" [Maergoiz 1971, p. 43]. As a result, the researcher needs to find out how objects are “built in”, adapted to the civil defense system, acquiring a set of specific features, and what specific features they “impose” environment. The geospace surrounding the object is infinitely diverse. Therefore, to analyze geolocation, geospace can be divided into analytically integral units (taxa, habitats, polygons, regions, operational-territorial units, etc.), in relation to which geolocation is assessed [Maergoiz 1986, p. 58-59].

The concept of geographical location is quite well developed and covered in Russian literature, therefore, further we will dwell only on some debatable issues. Thus, if we take into account the different closeness and degree of influence of geological structures, then it seems controversial to assert that the geolocation is determined only by those external data with which the object is in interaction [Geographical 1988, p. 55; Rodoman 1999, p. 77]. A simple example. Let there be points that do not interact with each other A, B, C and 7). We need to plan a route from A V IN with entry into C or 7). The choice of one of the latter will be influenced by their geographical location, which is set before any interaction begins.

In domestic socio-geographical science, the concept of economic-geographical location(EGP). By definition N.N. Baransky, EGP expresses “the relationship of any place, region or city to the data lying outside it, which has one or another economic significance - it doesn’t matter whether these data are of a natural order or created in the process of history” [Baransky 1980, p. 129]. Many other authors spoke similarly [Alaev 1983, p. 192; Leizerovich 2010 and others]. Within the framework of socio-economic geography, this approach turned out to be justified. However, when expanding it to political-geographical and, especially, geopolitical phenomena, we are faced with limitations. Thus, the transport-geographical position can no longer be considered as a type of EGP, since it can be assessed in other, for example, military-geostrategic, coordinates. Therefore, the type can only be transport EGP. To generalize different types of socially significant geolocations, it is advisable to use the concept socio-geographical location. This concept was also used by I.M. Maergoise in the 1970s [Maergoiz 1986, p. 78-79], although other authors did not support it then.

As we have already written, GOs reflect not only the spatial position, but also have meaningful content. This fully applies to geographical location. At the same time, limiting civil defense to only external geospace appears unjustified: civil defense not only correlates the territory of an object with outside world, but also form it itself “from the inside.” There were two extreme points vision, equally 90

unacceptable for us. The first excludes from consideration the internal structure and characteristics of the object itself [Leizerovich 2010, p. 209]. The second one replaces the geolocation of an object with the geolocations of its internal (lower) taxa relative to each other [Bulaev, Novikov 2002, p. 80] 1 . Besides great importance has a position relative to integral transboundary geographical systems or areas. And it is irrational to evaluate the geographical position only in relation to the “external” part of such a system. These are, for example, transboundary hydrocarbon deposits or transboundary key economic regions.

In our opinion, definitions of geographical location should be supplemented by the relationship of a place or area to inside him lying down or crossing his givens. Let's call it introspective 2 geographical location. In contrast to functional types (such as EGP), it appears as one of the positional (formal-spatial) types of geolocation (Fig. 10) and is partially reciprocal with the traditional (extraspective) geographical position of the internal object. For example, the position of a linguistic area relative to its dialect center and the position of this very center relative to the area. The relationships themselves (distances, etc.) are formally the same, but the semantic content and inclusion in other indirect relationships are different. There are many cases in geopolitical history when it was the introspective geographical position that determined the priority geographic directions of the foreign policy of states. For example, one of the reasons why modern China seeks to improve relations with the countries of Central Asia, including the creation of the SCO, - the need to deprive the separatist movement of Xinjiang of a possible “rear base” [Zotov 2009, p. 128]. The need to consider introspective geolocation in individual socio-geographical studies is increasingly recognized (see, for example, the definition of geocriminogenic position in [Badov 2009, p. 49]), but has not yet been clearly formulated at the general geographical level. B.B. Rodoman, even describing the eccentricity of the country relative to the capital, does not, however, connect it with the geographical location of this country itself [Rodoman 1999, p. 152-153].

To study the EGP of large regions, a separate consideration of their parts is really necessary [Saushkin 1973, p. 143], but on the condition that this reveals the features of the EGP of the region itself - the object of study.

From lat. introspectus (intro - inside + spicere - look). The term “internal” is inappropriate in this case. The other option, "spanning" geolocation, contains undesirable restrictions and makes it difficult to contrast with other, "non-spanning" types.

Balanced

Displaced

Boundary

Boundary Linear-

/2nd order secants

0_ *t* (I)

Rice. 10.

geographical location:

Geopolitical situation. Definitions

Most domestic works on the geopolitical situation do not provide a definition of this concept. Therefore, to consider the category of geopolitical position (GPP), it is advisable to rely on more carefully developed ideas about economic-geographical (EGP) and political-geographical positions. Any definition of a geographical location consists of typical semantic blocks filled with different content in different concepts. Let us denote these blocks by the “variables” P (attitude), P (place), b(location), 7) (data), T(time). Then any definition can be presented in the following form:

Let's take as a basis what was mentioned above for the EGP. If we transform the definition of N.N. Baransky [Baransky 1980, p. 129] in relation to political geography, we obtain that political-geographical position (PCL) is the relation [I] of any place [P] to external [b] its underlying given [O], having [T] this or that political significance - it doesn’t matter whether these given natural order or created in the process of history. We emphasize that “having political significance” in general, and not just “for them,” as many other authors add to their definitions [Geographical 1988, p. 341; Rodoman 1999, p. 77].

According to V.A. Dergachev, GPP is “the position of the state and interstate associations [P] in relation to the world [G] centers of power (spheres of influence) [O], including military-political blocs and conflict zones. It is determined by the total power of material and intangible resources [P] (military-political, economic, technological and passional) in the multidimensional communication space of the Earth” [Dergachev 2009, p. 108]. One of the disadvantages of this approach is the reduction of external data only to global centers of power and spheres of influence.

P.Ya. pays great attention to the development of categories of geopolitics. Baklanov [Baklanov 2003; Baklanov, Romanov 2008]. From his point of view, “the geopolitical position of a country (or its large region) is the geographical position [R] of the country (region) [R] in relation [R] to other countries [?)], primarily neighboring [G], with taking into account the similarities and differences of their political systems, the relationship of geopolitical potentials, the presence or absence of mutual geopolitical interests and problems [?)]” [Baklanov 2003, p. 12].

If all the variables do not have any specificity, including political, we get a definition of a general geographical location. And if we take into account the geoadaptation we discussed earlier,

tational approach (see paragraph 2.1), then the geo-adaptation position. Let's look at the variables separately.

Location (b). Defines spatial restrictions. On this basis, several types of geopolitical position can be distinguished. In particular, extraspective and introspective. Also, this variable can set the scale of consideration of external and internal data at the macro-meso- and micro-level. Thus, a number of authors insist on globality as an essential feature of geopolitics.

Time (T). This variable is rarely set explicitly. However, most often it is implied that the concept of TPP is used “to characterize geopolitical entities... at a certain point in time” [Kaledin 1996, p. 98]. By modifying this variable, one can also determine historical GPP And predicted, planned GSP.

Givenness (O). Expresses the characteristics of politically significant geospatial phenomena, which can be of either a political or any other nature (economic, environmental, etc.). Among all the diversity of givens, one should especially highlight the class of strictly political phenomena of geospace (O roc,). These are states, political borders, etc. Also, given the value of the variable b, data can be divided into external and internal.

Here we must keep in mind that political geography and geopolitics usually take into account different sets of these data. N.N. Baransky notes that “a position in the sense of mathematical geography is given on a coordinate grid, a physical-geographical position on a physical map, an economic-geographical position on an economic map, a political-geographical position on a political map” [Baransky 1980, p. 129]. Accordingly, when assessing the physical-geographical position, mining enterprises will not be taken into account, even if they change the topography. Geopolitics, on the other hand, is more integrative: the geopolitical atlas will contain physical, economic, and political-geographical maps created from a geopolitical angle.

Attitude (I). The relationships that form the GLP of a particular object can in many cases be represented as a kind of “positional multipliers” or multipliers of the significance of external data that is essential for the subject, including resources. Thus, if an existing important resource is geographically inaccessible, its multiplier is zero. As accessibility increases, the significance of the resource itself does not increase, but the significance multiplier does. There are also GPOs where the spatial aspect greatly gives way to the qualitative aspect (characteristics of the places themselves). Then the multiplier, on the contrary, is always close to the maximum. Or, on the contrary, the multiplier grows with increasing distance (see types of GPO in paragraph 1.5.2). Although it must be borne in mind that the actual geographical factor in the GPP is gradually changing its role. Its relative share in the definition of GSP is decreasing, but its scale and diversity are increasing, and its qualitative content is becoming more complex.

Next, we should understand whether the geopolitical situation can be determined by other, non-political relations? At first glance, no. But, nevertheless, such a situation is possible in the case of mediation of relations of different nature in a transitive chain closely related phenomena (Fig. 11). But only if at least one link in mediation is political. Therefore, mediated GPO may have a complex, composite nature and is of greater interest for geopolitics than for political geography. Moreover, the assessment of indirect relationships is often more important than the assessment of direct ones. However, the GPO generated in this way further acts as equal to others, as, for example, in the formation of geopolitical triangles (see paragraph 4.4.1). It should also be noted that the length or, rather, the significance of the chains of mediation of GPO depends on the geopolitical potential of the subject and the role of the object. Thus, in the geopolitical position of the United States, such relations extend to almost the entire world and cover many seemingly non-political phenomena.

Geo-Geo-Geo-

A economic IN ecological C political

Subject

attitude _attitude

Indirect GPO _

An object

Rice. 11. Scheme of mediated GPO of complex nature

Place (P). This is not only a territory, but also an evaluated object or subject occupying a certain place. In the general concept of geographical location, a place can also be natural (for example, a lake). In geopolitics it is a subject political activity (PpoSH).

There is another aspect. Let's start with a comparison. Does a natural or public non-economic object (place) have its own EGP? There is no direct economic significance for other objects for them, but they are surrounded by economic phenomena. This example shows that the clarification “meaning for them”, which we mentioned above, is unnecessary. THEM. Maergoiz even wrote that “the lower the self-potential of a region, the clearer [its] EGP” [Maergoiz 1986, p. 67].

If we recognize such an EGP, then we must also recognize a similar political-geographical position, i.e. political and geographical position of natural objects and public non-political subjects. The political content of GPO in this case can only be determined by its other side - the political objects of geospace. In this interpretation, we can talk about political geographical location, For example, commercial enterprise next to the state

noah border. Or the sea. Those. we're talking about about a non-political place on political map. It turns out that in the general case, to assess the political-geographical position, the political characteristics of the subject itself and its political potential are not important, but it is considered only on the political map.

Geopolitical the situation is traditionally assessed only for political subjects ( PpoSH), i.e. just for those who form and conduct geo -politics. Thus, here we can outline one of the facets of the formal delimitation of the GSP and the political-geographical location, which allows us to avoid synonymization of the two concepts. The complexity of the GPP in taking into account external data of various natures was recognized by domestic authors already at the dawn of the “return” of geopolitics to Russia. So, in 1991 N.M. Mezhevich wrote: “...Geopolitical position is an integrating category in relation to FGP, EGP, PGP, and it is more historical than EGP and PGP...” [Mezhevich 1991, p. 102-103].

We tried to formally distinguish between the GSP and the political-geographical location according to the objects of study, but their semantic difference can also be outlined. It is believed that the political-geographical position has a descriptive, ascertaining nature [Mezhevich 1991, p. 103]. It is determined by historical, current and projected GPO. The predominant type of assessment is placement (positional component) and dependence/independence (functional component). GPP has a clear political connotation, associated with the category of geopolitical interest. Unlike the political-geographical one, it takes into account only those data that have or may have significance for the subject (in this sense, the GPP is narrower than the political-geographical one). The GSP is viewed through the prism of projects, scenarios and strategies, resulting in a multi-variant and “multi-layered” view of the current GSP. The predominant type of assessment is relative political strength and weakness, opportunities and threats, which can be described in the matrices of geo-adaptation strategies 8?OT 3 (see paragraph 2.1.2). In this context, one can note the point of view of S.V. Kuznetsova and S.S. Lachininsky, that one of key differences geo-economic position from the economic-geographical one is taking into account geo-economic risks [Kuznetsov, Lachininsky 2014, p. 109]. But this position looks somewhat one-sided and limited, since it replaces the category of interest with a more specific concept of risk.

Thus, the geopolitical situation characterizes the heterogeneity of the complete geopolitical field of the actor and is expressed in the structure of GPO at a certain historical point in time, including trends in their development and the influence of some layers of GPO that have become a thing of the past.

In the complex dynamic structure of the GPP, a certain invariant should be highlighted, i.e. the “framework” of the GPP, stable over very long periods and eras, the change of which is always an important historical milestone. Presented in the form of a complex of stable

interests, this “framework” can be interpreted as a geopolitical code (code) of the subject. Moreover, in the case of the existence of allied or patron-client relations, the induction of geopolitical codes between the actors occurs, and local code The satellite can be built into the global leader code. A single code of the group subject is formed. This occurs due to the induction of geopolitical interests (clause 1.4.2).

In close connection with the concept of GLP, several related and interrelated analogue concepts are used. We briefly outline some of them below.

Geopolitical situation- a superpositional set of geopolitical positions of all subjects in a certain part of geospace at a certain point in time. Note that in Russian the concept of “situation” is close to the concept of “state”, but, unlike the latter, refers to heterogeneous phenomena. Another interpretation is related to the fact that a “geosituation” can be defined as a dynamic set of geo-organisms on a “real-time” scale, as opposed to an inertial “geostructure”.

Geopolitical situation. Can be synonymous with GPP or, more often, with the geopolitical situation. In a narrower sense, it is interpreted as a set of factors that determine the state and prospects for the development of relations between states. That is, in this interpretation, the geopolitical situation is not the GPOs themselves, but those geospatial factors with which GPOs can be established. In this sense, the phrase “geopolitical situation around the country” is legitimate.

Geopolitical potential. An unambiguous approach to determining potential has not yet been developed either in geography or geopolitics. It was often equated to a collection of various resources, to geopolitical power, or to the advantage of a political-geographical location. According to P.Ya. Baklanov, “this is the degree of both the existing and possible potential influence of one country on others, especially neighboring countries” [Baklanov 2003, p. 13].

Geopolitical power in turn, implies not only the potential, the strength of the subject himself, but also his ability to achieve a certain goal in external space (etymologically - from “to be able”, “power”). Those. it is relative to external data. In any case, geopolitical potential is part of the characteristics of the GPP on the part of the subject.

Principles of assessment and the meaning of neighborhood

Based on the above, it can be argued that to describe the GLP it is necessary to consider not so much absolute as relative indicators, both 1) in external and 2) in internal contexts. In the first case, the geopolitical potential of the subject as a whole or a certain potential parameter (for example, GDP) is assessed in the context of certain parameters of neighbors, centers of power and the world as a whole.

scrap. In the second, an external parameter (for example, the GDP of neighboring countries) is assessed in the context of parameters or factors of internal geospace. At the same time, it must be emphasized that even relative indicators do not actually mean assessments GPP. Thus, the population ratio of some territories describes only the geodemographic situation. This parameter characterizes the GPP only when it is included in the complex political characterization geopolitical subject and its surrounding conditions, in the context of political threats and opportunities, strength and weakness. Only in this case can we talk, in particular, about the demographic GSP.

For a quantitative comparison of similar parameters on geopolitical borders, the concept “ geopolitical gradient." For example, the demographic/economic geopolitical gradient on the US-Mexico border, ATS and NATO. In an expanded sense, it also applies to measuring the balances of non-bordering GP fields. There are, however, other options for naming such relationships. Thus, a group of domestic authors proposes to use the term “geopolitical distance” [Kefeli, Malafeev 2013, p. 170]. In our opinion, such use of words is inappropriate. This is approximately the same if the geographic distance (distance) between mountains is measured by the difference in their heights. But geographical relationships are integral part geopolitical relations. Among all the parameters being assessed, various types of objectively identified and quantitatively measured connections and relationships between countries and regions are of particular importance. As R.F. correctly notes. Turovsky, “otherwise geopolitics can be reduced only to abstract philosophizing and project-making” [Turovsky 1999, p. 49]. In this sense, the actual GPP should be distinguished from various geopolitical projects and mythologies.

When describing various GPOs, we are faced with a certain duality arising from their own nature. On the one hand, it is required to describe the relative quantitative and qualitative parameters of countries, regions, territories, and on the other hand, to give them relative geospatial certainty. As a result, we obtain a certain two-dimensional GPP matrix “parameter x location”. Thus, when characterizing demographic indicators, political regimes, geopolitical disputes, natural phenomena, etc. (matrix rows), they are divided into geospatial sections (unequal matrix columns), tied to absolute geographical coordinates. The cells of such a matrix are, in fact, a reflection of a number of geopolitical fields or ideas about them.

The geopolitical position, due to its integrity, not only depends on other types of geographic location (EGP, etc.), but also influences them, and through them, the various internal characteristics of the country or its region, their geopolitical potential. T.I. Pototskaya, for example, considers such an impact using the example of the Western region of Russia. In the model she proposed (Fig. 12), the leading component of the influence of not only GSP, but also EGP is the political-geographical location [Pototskaya 1997, p. 13].

Let's look at some of the many possible assessment parameters. P.Ya. Baklanov believes that “based on... the idea of ​​the geopolitical situation, its assessment for a particular country consists of the following stages: assessment of the proximity of other countries to this one, identification of immediate neighbors - 1st, 2nd order, etc.; assessment of the similarities and differences between the political systems of neighboring countries, primarily first-order neighbors with the political system of a given country; assessment of the geopolitical potentials of a given country and its neighbors, assessment of the relationships between these geopolitical potentials; identifying and assessing the mutual geopolitical interests of a given country and its neighbors of different orders; identification and assessment of geopolitical problems that exist between a given country and its neighbors" [Baklanov 2003, p. 12]. In general, one can apparently agree with this approach. However, with further specification, some contradictions and ambiguities appear.

Rice. 12.

Indeed, an extremely important issue for geopolitics remains the assessment geographical proximity. It occupies one of the central places in geopolitical relations and models, introducing a significant share of geographical content into geopolitics even in modern conditions a “shrinking”, globalizing world. Moreover, adjacent territories act as “conductors” of connections with distant global centers of power. True, the main attention is paid to neighborhood assessment at the regional and local levels of research, especially for public education types M-G-M and M-M-M (see clause 1.5.2). Neighboring countries of the 1st and 2nd orders are neighboring geopolitical regions of the 1st and 2nd orders. THEM. Maergoiz wrote about neighboring geographic macroregions identified in the same way. Accordingly, highlight

There are regional both EGP and GPP. Maergoiz noted and special position twice neighbors of the 2nd order [Maergoiz 1986, p. 80, 82, 111]. B.B. Rodoman considers neighboring geopolitical regions to be a type of nuclear geographic zoning [Rodoman 1999, p. 58]. The island position of the country, which has no first-order neighbors at all, is very specific.

P.Ya. Baklanov suggests that “in military-defensive terms, it is apparently better to have fewer first-order neighboring countries. However, for the development of international economic, political, and cultural ties, it is more beneficial to have more first-order neighboring countries” [Baklanov 2003, p. 12]. But let's take an extreme case. How to assess the situation if this, say, the only neighbor is an enemy, and the country itself is an enclave? It turns out that such a GPP, contrary to the thesis, is extremely unprofitable. The case for economic assessment is also mixed: many small neighbors create obstacles to trade through customs barriers. To overcome them, associations like the EU are created. Unprofitable a large number of neighbors and from an environmental point of view [Pototskaya 1997, p. 130].

The role of neighbors of the 2nd and higher orders depends not only on the degree of proximity, but also on their relative position and distance: a neighbor of the 3rd order can be located quite close, while a neighbor of the 2nd order can be located thousands of kilometers away, in a different geographical region ( for example, Macedonia and North Korea relative to Ukraine). That's why we should talk about the proximity of countries of the 2nd and higher orders not only in a topological sense, but also as a distance measure of proximity[cm. Maergoes 1986, p. 68, 80]. In the second case, however, the “normative” measure of proximity can be set either subjectively or tied to other objective parameters. Highest value the distance measure is for island countries that do not even have maritime neighbors.

In general, it can be argued that the more diverse neighbors of the first and second orders, the greater the diversity of close regional GPOs, more possibilities for geopolitical maneuver, threats from individual neighbors are less significant, but at the same time there is less stability and sustainability of the GPP, a greater variety of potential threats and the necessary diplomatic efforts in the region. This dependence in itself is objective, but which combination of GPO is preferable is a matter of specific policy in the real geopolitical situation. In general, based on the designated structure of geopolitical relations, there is a tendency to consider the fragmentation of actual or potentially negative and the integration of positive and potentially positive geopolitical fields of the neighboring region as beneficial. This is also expressed in estimating the number of corresponding neighbors. We wrote about this in detail, but without regard to the neighboring region, in the previous section (see paragraph 2.3.2). In the neighboring region, as the most tense geopolitical field, this trend is especially pronounced. Thus, Israel, as stated by its ambassador to the United States, since 2011 has been interested in overthrowing the Assad regime in Syria in order to break (fragment) the Shiite arc “Beirut-Damascus-Tehran”, even if the new regime would turn out to be no less hostile [ Ketoy 2013].

Depending on the location of the fields involved in fragmentation or integration, two extreme cases are distinguished. Integration of neighbors of the same order or fragmentation of a large GP field into neighbors of different orders is interpreted as the formation of “arcs”, “cordons”, “segments”, “shells”, “belts”, “buffers”, “zones”, etc. The reverse cases are perceived as "corridors", "vectors", "sectors" or "axes". The intersection of “shells” and “sectors” forms special areas - zone-sector facets or trapezoids [Rodoman 1999, p. 70, 136]. The combination of both structures forms, respectively, “long zones/belts” and “wide corridors/sectors”. At the same time, such spatial forms can have different purposes. Thus, political geography identifies countries with “corridors”, but, for example, in Namibia the “corridor” was attached to the territory as a communications sector (Caprivi Strip), and in Afghanistan - as a cordon isolating Russia from India (Wakhan Corridor). From all of the above in this and the previous sections, an unambiguous conclusion suggests itself: it is impossible to give an a priori assessment of the neighborhood in isolation from a specific and very diverse geopolitical context. The latter also contains many complicating factors or GPOs, such as international and moral obligations, a system of geopolitical “counterbalances”, historical memory, border configuration, trade and cultural connections, communication lines.

Main settings

Next, we will briefly outline some parameters by which a country’s GSP can be assessed. Many publications are devoted to a more detailed consideration of them [see: Pototskaya 1997; Geopolitical situation 2000; Baklanov, Romanov 2008, etc.]. The entire set of parameters should be conditionally grouped into several functional blocks. However, each parameter can, and often should, be considered in conjunction with the associated parameters of other blocks. In this case, you will get a three-dimensional matrix of the form “parameter X parameter X location.”

In regional studies, it is customary to begin the study of a territory with a description and assessment of its physical and geographical characteristics. However, for our case, to be consistent, this approach is not suitable. In fact, for such an analysis, a grid of state or geopolitical boundaries must already be specified. But it is not on the physical map. The situation is similar with the assessment of the economic space, information about which is initially grouped specifically by country. As a result, it turns out that the characterization of GSP should begin with a description of the political and geographical location. The territory of the country, accordingly, is not a natural parameter. Having set the coordinate system in this way, the remaining blocks can be opened in different

no sequence, depending on the tasks and emphasis placed.

I. Political-geographical and strategic parameters.

First, the geolocations and configurations of the boundaries of geopolitical entities, the historical stability and variability of boundaries, degrees of proximity, the country’s place in terms of the total area of ​​territory in the world, etc. are determined. All this determines the geospatial basis for further comparative characteristics according to the degree of profitability.

On this basis, the structure of external political relations should be considered. Their most obvious indicator is direct contacts between geopolitical entities. V.A. Kolosov

and R.F. Turovsky considers geographically linked statistics of state visits to be a key indicator for analyzing the geopolitical position of the country. It is sensitive to changes in the country’s foreign policy [Kolosov, Turovsky 2000]. In this case, visits to the country, from the country and their balance (“balance”) are considered. It is important to emphasize here that it is not visits that shape the geopolitical situation, but this situation itself is reflected in the statistics of visits available to an external observer. But it is important to understand that this indicator does not “capture” the state of negative, conflicting GPOs well.

Many other parameters of this block can be combined into the following groups:

• political regimes and their complementarity to each other (including the representativeness of representative authorities);
• treaties, alliances and counter-alliances (including assessment of “counterweight” and “cordon” countries);
• heterogeneity of actors and territorial disputes (including irredentist movements);
• spheres of influence of centers of power;
• geopolitical images (including the nature of the media, elite perceptions, identity);
• military potential and military-strategic position (including: arms trade, conflicts near borders, border configuration factor for land, naval and air operations).

The choice of certain parameters to characterize a geopolitical situation depends on ideas about their role at a certain historical moment or era, as well as on the purpose of such a characterization.

the contrast of the ethnic, cultural and political spaces that “fit” into them. A clear example is the South Caucasus region. Therefore, the first parameter of this block, which is usually paid attention to, is the correspondence or inconsistency of geopolitical borders and natural boundaries. Many authors, especially non-geographers, argue that as the technosphere develops, society's dependence on the natural environment generally weakens. But this is only partly true, since the development of technology, while allowing society to overcome some restrictions, imposes new ones on it. For example, the need for hitherto unprecedented resources (in the ancient world there could not have been competition, for example, for gas and uranium deposits).

Next, the relationship between natural conditions and, above all, territorial resources is considered. Of course, the territory of the subject itself, as we saw above, refers to political parameters. But it is heterogeneous, and therefore its natural features should be assessed. These include the following areas: favorable for life natural conditions, suitable for agriculture, forest, shelf, marine territorial waters, etc. Important parameters are indicators of the relative provision of natural resources by their types and, consequently, the complementarity of the natural resource potentials of countries and regions. The ecological and geographical position is significant. Finally, a special parameter of the GSP is its attitude towards specially protected natural areas and water areas, especially those under international control.

• geographic location and topology of transport/communication routes, nodes and infrastructure on the borders of the subject and in the region as a whole (for example, density of the road network);
• transport unity of the territory of the country/alliance and transport exclaves;
• path congestion, assessment of incoming and outgoing flows (including the number of telephone connections);
• inclusion in the global communications system and the role of transit communications, the degree of dependence on external transit territories;
• development of advanced means of communication and their geography.

IV. Geodemographic parameters.

IN economically“demographic location is a position regarding places of excess and shortage of labor resources, as well as places of departure and entry of migrants” [Maergoiz 1986, p. 62]. Geopolitics is also interested in other aspects. First of all, this is the ratio of the total populations of countries. Let us note here a circumstance that is interesting for general geopolitics: in many Eastern cultures, counting the people of one’s community, especially by name, was considered unacceptable and dangerous from a mystical point of view.

Trends in demographic data (even more than their absolute values) are often more objective geopolitical indicators, even compared to loosely interpreted reports of gross domestic product (GDP) trends, investment and performance opinion polls. Demographic trends reflect the real medium-term state of communities. It would be appropriate to mention here that in 1976, the French sociologist E. Todd became the first to predict the collapse of the USSR, focusing specifically on the negative dynamics of demographic indicators (such as a decrease in life expectancy, an increase in infant mortality and the number of suicides).

Most parameters can be grouped into the following groups:

• connection and correlation of settlement systems and their supporting frameworks in neighboring countries and regions;
• the magnitude and dynamics of demographic indicators (including mobilization potential), their ratio;
• assessment of migration processes;
• types of population reproduction.

are so complex and multidirectional that it is possible to single out a cross-cutting “basis” only at the philosophical level. The vulgarization of these ideas, similar to what was sometimes observed in the USSR, leads to economic determinism. Many states in history have repeatedly made economic losses for the sake of increasing political prestige and influence, for the sake of “flag honor” and “projection of power.” Also, interethnic relations and conflicts do not always have an economic basis.

It should also be taken into account that GDP, trade balance and other aggregate monetary indicators can greatly distort ideas about the real geopolitical situation and create the illusion of accuracy in cross-country comparisons [KarabeP 2014]. Thus, the US trade balance with China turns out to be large and negative in a summary assessment, but with a detailed analysis of mutual ties, including trade in components and intellectual products, the picture appears completely different. In our opinion, it is more realistic to compare the volumes of production and services in physical terms and component by component. In the era of the information society, there is no longer any need to base any analysis on summary indicators alone. Moreover, these indicators themselves, like GDP, were developed for the industrial 20th century, and in the 21st century. “work” no longer as intended.

In addition, in the economic block, the economic significance of parameters from other sections can be considered. For example, foreign economic programs of parliamentary parties in neighboring countries, the impact of demographic processes on labor resources, etc.

Most parameters can be grouped into the following groups:

• indicators of economic size, including gross and per capita;
• correlation and complementarity of territorial structures of the economy;
• degree of self-sufficiency, including energy availability;
• scientific and technological development;
• foreign trade and investment, dependence on foreign markets and resources, the control of the latter by friendly or hostile political forces;
• the ratio of the economic influence of the actor and third countries on any country in a neighboring or distant region;
• socio-economic indicators, including the class structure of societies.

skaya value of external and internal territories. Thus, Alsace and Algeria had different values ​​for the French. The second, unlike the first, was not considered a genuine part of France. It is important to trace the possible influence of the geopolitical position of the country on the national character and historical individuality of the people. I.A. Kostetskaya, for example, notes such an influence using the example of South Korea [Kostetskaya 2000].

Other parameters include: mutual “historical grievances” and their significance in election campaigns, cultivation of enemy images, tribalism, educational and scientific migrations, ethnic parties, minorities and diasporas, ethnic politics, educational policy (foreign universities, religious schools etc.), number of religious groups, etc. Apparently, some integral indicators can also be included in this series, such as the UN Human Development Index (HDI), which reflects the standard of living, literacy, education and life expectancy. In general, the cultural aspect of the GPP is of great importance for the formation of “soft power” and the reformatting of the GPP itself. Thus, French President Charles de Gaulle during the period of collapse colonial empire(1960s) successfully implemented the concept of Francophonie (community of French-speaking countries). The French language became the basis of French influence in the former colonies of Tropical Africa.

Unlike the time 100, and even more so 200, years ago, image-based public education programs are of great importance. Many of them can be considered as “myths about the country” (one’s own and another) in the system of national historical myths or stereotypes, and as “cultural radiation” of the country [Geopolitical situation... 2000, p. 19, 10]. And as the quintessence of various cultural aspects, a certain multifaceted “project of the future” appears, imprinted in the mass consciousness and traditions of a certain community. The cultural-geopolitical code of the country - its unique geopolitical DNA - is closely connected with this “project”. Here it is important to take into account the degree of compatibility or conflict potential of the “projects of the future” of different interacting communities.

ny assessment of WPP. For example, when assessing national potentials (CINC) or “statuses” of countries. We will mention these models later (see section 4.2.2, section 4.4.2).

• - central, remote; 12- coinciding, combined; 13- intermediate: equidistant and axial, symmetrical; 14- remote, isolated; 15 - centering, covering; 21 - eccentric, deep, peripheral; 23 - intermediate, offset, asymmetrical, in a particular case - angular; 24 - close, in the field of influence; 25 - eccentric, enveloping; 31 - border, outlying; 32 - transboundary, junction, transitional; 34 - neighboring, adjacent, on-site; 35 - delimiting, connecting; 41 - border lth order; 42 - transareal (-border) lth order; 43 - neighboring/adjacent lth order; 45 - delimiting lth order; 51 - dissecting, crossing; 52 - crossing; 54 - intersecting (black box model); 55 - crossed, transit, junction
• Natural-geographical parameters. In the concepts of “hard” geographic determinism, they were given a priority policy-forming role. Their influence is indeed great, but it lies in imposing certain incentives and restrictions on public life. In particular, contrasting landscapes and mountainous terrain contribute to increased complexity, 102
• Transport and communication parameters. WITH The transport and geographical position is closely related to the natural geographical features of the territory. This becomes obvious if we look at the development of transport routes since ancient times. It was the natural objects themselves (rivers, passes, etc.) that became the main lines of communication. Therefore, the transport situation should not be included entirely in the economic sphere, as is sometimes proposed. Almost all representatives of classical geopolitics attached a huge role to the location of countries relative to lines of communication. Currently, we can confidently say that the transport-geographical or, in broad terms, communication-geographical position affects most components of the geopolitical position: military-strategic, political, cultural, economic, environmental, demographic and others. Are being considered different kinds transport, wired networks (including fiber optic highways), radio and space communications, information flows in virtual space. At the next stage, the real degree of use of the existing transport and communication potential, the possibility of increasing it and the existing threats to it are assessed.
• Economic and geographical parameters. These characteristics are extremely important for assessing WPP. In Marxist and neo-Marxist literature, it is economic relations, phenomena and processes that are ultimately considered as the basis for the development of all other manifestations of social life. However, the connections in which economic phenomena are involved 104
• Ethno-civilizational and cultural parameters. Key Features are the positions of the geopolitical subject on the ethnolinguistic and historical maps. From this position, the localization of ethnic groups, super-ethnic groups and super-ethnic systems, the complementarity of neighboring ethnic groups (according to L.N. Gumilyov) is determined. The historical map reveals differences in cultural and symbolic
• Integral geopolitical parameters. Some characteristics that summarize different parameters from the above can be distinguished in separate group. This, for example, is a complex geopolitical zoning of the region and interpretation of the GLP from the point of view of any integral global concept (for example, regarding the heartland of H. Mackinder, pan-regions of K. Haushofer, geopolitical regions of S. Cohen, civilizational platforms of V. Tsymbursky, etc. ). It is possible to use integral quantitative indicators (indices) for complex- Partial provisions are published in [Elatskov 2012a].

, energy, information) and determines its relationship with the external environment." Usually reflects the geospatial relationship of a certain object to the external environment, the elements of which have or may have a significant impact on it. In human geography, location is usually defined in two-dimensional space (displayed on a map). In physical geography, the third change is certainly taken into account - the absolute or relative height of the location of objects.

Concept geographical position is key to the entire system of geographical sciences. Geography itself originated as the science of methods for determining and recording the location of objects on the earth's surface relative to each other or in a certain coordinate system. Later it turned out that determining the location of an object not only helps to find it..., but also explains some of the properties of this object and even predicts its development. The most important element of geographical research is the establishment and analysis of connections between objects located in space, determined precisely by their location.

Thus the geographical location:

• is an individualizing factor, since it determines many properties of a geographical object;
• is historical in nature because it changes over time;
• has a potential nature, since position alone is not a sufficient condition for the corresponding development of the object;
• has close connections with the configuration of the territory and its borders.

The following types of geographical location are distinguished:

• mathematical-geographical (geodesic, astronomical, “absolute”)
• physical-geographical;
• political-geographical;
• geopolitical;
• military-geographical;
• ecological-geographical;
• cultural-geographical;

and others.

By scale they distinguish:

• macro position
• mesoposition
• micro-position

According to the coordinate system there are:

• absolute (geodetic, astronomical);
• relative;
  • mathematical (“3 miles north of Seattle”);
  • functional (economic-geographical, physical-geographical, etc.).

In an expanded interpretation, geographic location may also include the relationship of an area object as a whole (area, region, territory) to the data lying inside him (to the elements of the internal environment). Such a geographical location may be referred to, for example, as “ introspective"(from Latin introspectus, intro- inside + spice- look). For example, when assessing the role of internal border areas in the priority of foreign policy directions, when assessing the geocriminogenic position of the territory, when analyzing the transport-geographical position, when studying the changing area in relation to stations of experience, the linguistic area in relation to the dialect center, etc. Such The approach also makes it possible to resolve conflicts by determining the relative geographical position of intersecting objects.

Historical sketch

The concept of “geographical location” has been known since late XVIII century, when the paradigm of geographical determinism dominated. Ideas about the conditioning of the life of people and society by the geographical environment were put forward by ancient thinkers such as Democritus, Herodotus, Strabo, etc. The sources of geographical information during this period were descriptions of individual countries and peoples, characteristics of inhabited and distant lands. For the purposes of navigation and trade, special descriptions of the seas, ports, shopping centers, which contained information about the peculiarities of the geographical location of the country through which the trade route passed. Historical geographer V.K. Yatsunsky believed that the first economic-geographical work in history should be considered the work of the Italian scientist Ludovico Guicciardini “Description of the Netherlands”, which was published in 1567, where the first part of the book provides an analysis of the geographical location of the country and assessment of the role of the sea. In 1650, in the same Netherlands, the work of Varenius (Varenius) “General Geography” was published, which is considered the first theoretical work by geography. S.P. Krasheninnikov in “Description of the Land of Kamchatka” (1756) gave a detailed description of its geographical location. The search for patterns in the spatial distribution of settlements and the creation of models of urban geography began in the first half of the 20th century. One of the first scientists who approached the creation of models of urban geography was V.P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky. Geographical aspects in line with the problems of farm location were developed by German scientists and created the so-called standort theory. Representatives of this direction were