Artistic culture of Russia in the Age of Enlightenment. Culture of the Age of Enlightenment

At the end of the 17th century, the Age of Enlightenment began, which covered the entire subsequent 18th century. The key features of this time were freethinking and rationalism. There was a culture of the Enlightenment, which gave the world

Philosophy

The entire culture of the Enlightenment was based on new philosophical ideas formulated by the thinkers of that time. The main masters of thought were John Locke, Voltaire, Montesquieu, Rousseau, Goethe, Kant and some others. It was they who determined the spiritual shape of the 18th century (which is also called the Age of Reason).

Adepts of the Enlightenment believed in several key ideas. One of them is that all people are equal by nature, each person has his own interests and needs. To meet them, it is necessary to create a hostel that is comfortable for everyone. Personality does not come into being on its own - it is formed over time due to the fact that people have physical and spiritual strength, as well as intelligence. Equality must first of all consist in the equality of all before the law.

The culture of the Enlightenment is a culture of knowledge accessible to all. Leading thinkers believed that only through the spread of education could social turmoil be ended. This is rationalism - the recognition of reason as the basis of human behavior and knowledge.

During the Age of Enlightenment, debates about religion continued. The dissociation of society from the inert and conservative church (primarily the Catholic) was growing. Among educated believing people, the idea of ​​​​God has spread, as of some kind of absolute mechanic, who brought order to the originally existing world. Thanks to numerous scientific discoveries, the point of view has spread that humanity can reveal all the secrets of the universe, and riddles and miracles are a thing of the past.

Art directions

In addition to philosophy, there was also an artistic culture of the Enlightenment. At this time, the art of the Old World included two main areas. The first was classicism. He was embodied in literature, music, fine arts. This direction meant following the ancient Roman and Greek principles. Such art was distinguished by symmetry, rationality, purposefulness and strict conformity to form.

Within the framework of romanticism, the artistic culture of the Enlightenment responded to other requests: emotionality, imagination, and the creative improvisation of the artist. It often happened that in one work these two opposing approaches were combined. For example, the form could correspond to classicism, and the content - to romanticism.

Experimental styles also appeared. Sentimentalism became an important phenomenon. It did not have its own stylistic form, but it was with the help of it that the then ideas about human kindness and purity, which is given to people by nature, were reflected. Russian artistic culture in the Age of Enlightenment, just like the European one, had its own bright works that belonged to the trend of sentimentalism. Such was the story of Nikolai Karamzin "Poor Liza".

Cult of nature

It was the sentimentalists who created the cult of nature characteristic of the Enlightenment. The thinkers of the 18th century looked for in it an example of that beautiful and good thing that humanity should have striven for. incarnation better world turned out to be actively appearing at that time in Europe parks and gardens. They were created as a perfect environment for perfect people. Their composition included art galleries, libraries, museums, temples, theaters.

Enlighteners believed that the new "natural man" should return to his natural state - that is, nature. According to this idea, Russian artistic culture during the Enlightenment (or rather, architecture) presented Peterhof to contemporaries. The famous architects Leblon, Zemtsov, Usov, Quarenghi worked on its construction. Thanks to their efforts, on the shores of the Gulf of Finland appeared unique ensemble, which included a unique park, magnificent palaces and fountains.

Painting

In painting, the artistic culture of Enlightenment Europe developed in the direction of greater secularism. The religious beginning was losing ground even in those countries where before it felt quite confident: Austria, Italy, Germany. Landscape painting was replaced by a mood landscape, and intimate portrait came to replace the front portrait.

In the first half of the 18th century, the French culture of the Enlightenment gave rise to the Rococo style. Such art was built on asymmetry, was mocking, playful and pretentious. The favorite characters of the artists of this direction were Bacchantes, nymphs, Venus, Diana and other figures of ancient mythology, and the main plots were love ones.

A striking example of French Rococo is the work of Francois Boucher, who was also called "the first artist of the king." He painted theatrical scenery, illustrations for books, pictures for rich houses and palaces. His most famous canvases are: “The Toilet of Venus”, “The Triumph of Venus”, etc.

Antoine Watteau, on the contrary, turned more to modern life. Under his influence, the style of the greatest English portrait painter Thomas Gainsborough developed. His images were distinguished by spirituality, spiritual refinement and poetry.

The main Italian painter of the 18th century was Giovanni Tiepolo. This master of engravings and frescoes is considered by art historians to be the last great representative of Venetian school. In the capital of the famous trading republic, veduta also arose - an everyday urban landscape. The most famous creators in this genre were Francesco Guardi and Antonio Canaletto. These cultural figures of the Enlightenment left behind a huge number of impressive paintings.

Theatre

The 18th century is the golden age of the theatre. During the Age of Enlightenment, this art form reached the pinnacle of its popularity and prevalence. In England the greatest playwright was Richard Sheridan. His most famous works, A Trip to Scarborough, The School for Scandal, and Rivals, ridiculed the immorality of the bourgeoisie.

The theatrical culture of Europe during the Enlightenment developed most dynamically in Venice, where 7 theaters worked at once. The traditional annual city carnival attracted guests from all over the Old World. In Venice, the author of the famous "Tavern" Carlo Goldoni worked. This playwright, who wrote a total of 267 works, was respected and appreciated by Voltaire.

The most famous comedy of the 18th century was The Marriage of Figaro, written by the great Frenchman Beaumarchais. In this play, they found the embodiment of the mood of a society that had a negative attitude towards the absolute monarchy of the Bourbons. A few years after the publication and the first productions of the comedy, a revolution took place in France that overthrew the old regime.

European culture during the Enlightenment was not homogeneous. In some countries, their own national characteristics arose in art. For example, German playwrights (Schiller, Goethe, Lessing) outstanding works written in the genre of tragedy. At the same time, the theater of the Enlightenment appeared in Germany several decades later than in France or England.

Johann Goethe was not only wonderful poet and playwright. It is not for nothing that he is called a "universal genius" - a connoisseur and theorist of art, a scientist, a novelist and a specialist in many other fields. His key works are the tragedy Faust and the play Egmont. Another outstanding figure of the German Enlightenment, not only wrote "Deceit and Love" and "Robbers", but also left behind scientific and historical works.

Fiction

The main literary genre of the 18th century was the novel. It was thanks to the new books that the triumph of bourgeois culture began, replacing the former feudal old ideology. The works of not only artistic writers, but also sociologists, philosophers, and economists were actively published.

The novel, as a genre, grew out of educational journalism. With it, the thinkers of the 18th century found a new form for expressing their social and philosophical ideas. Jonathan Swift, who wrote Gulliver's Travels, invested in his work many allusions to the vices of contemporary society. He also wrote "The Tale of the Butterfly". In this pamphlet, Swift ridiculed the then church orders and strife.

The development of culture during the Enlightenment can be traced to the emergence of new literary genres. At this time, the epistolary novel (a novel in letters) arose. Such was, for example, Johann Goethe's sentimental work The Sufferings of Young Werther, in which the main character committed suicide, as well as Montesquieu's Persian Letters. Appeared documentary novels in the genre travel notes or travel descriptions (Traveling in France and Italy by Tobias Smollett).

In literature, the culture of the Enlightenment in Russia followed the precepts of classicism. In the 18th century, poets Alexander Sumarokov, Vasily Trediakovsky, Antioch Kantemir worked. The first sprouts of sentimentalism appeared (the already mentioned Karamzin with "Poor Lisa" and "Natalya, the Boyar's Daughter"). The culture of the Enlightenment in Russia created all the prerequisites for Russian literature, led by Pushkin, Lermontov and Gogol, to survive its golden age at the beginning of the new 19th century.

Music

It was during the Age of Enlightenment that the modern musical language developed. Johann Bach is considered its founder. This great composer wrote works in all genres (the exception was opera). Bach is still considered consummate master polyphony. Another German composer Georg Handel wrote more than 40 operas, as well as numerous sonatas and suites. He, like Bach, drew inspiration from biblical subjects (the titles of the works are typical: "Israel in Egypt", "Saul", "Messiah").

Another important musical phenomenon of that time was the Viennese school. The works of its representatives continue to be performed by academic orchestras today, thanks to which modern people can touch the heritage left by the culture of the Enlightenment. The 18th century is associated with the names of such geniuses as Wolfgang Mozart, Joseph Haydn, Ludwig van Beethoven. It was these Viennese composers who rethought the old musical forms and genres.

Haydn is considered the father of the classical symphony (he wrote more than a hundred of them). Many of these works were based on folk dances and songs. The pinnacle of Haydn's work is the cycle of London symphonies, written by him during his trips to England. The culture of the Enlightenment and any other period of human history has rarely produced such prolific artists. In addition to symphonies, Haydn is credited with 83 quartets, 13 masses, 20 operas and 52 clavier sonatas.

Mozart not only wrote music. He played the harpsichord and violin unsurpassed, having mastered these instruments at an early age. His operas and concertos are distinguished by a wide variety of moods (from poetic lyrics to fun). The main works of Mozart are considered to be his three symphonies, written in the same year 1788 (numbers 39, 40, 41).

Another great classic, Beethoven, was fond of heroic plots, which was reflected in the overtures Egmont, Coriolanus and the opera Fidelio. As a performer, he amazed his contemporaries by playing the piano. Beethoven wrote 32 sonatas for this instrument. Most the composer created his works in Vienna. He also owns 10 sonatas for violin and piano (the most famous was the "Kreutzer" sonata).

Beethoven suffered a serious hearing loss caused by him. The composer was suicidal and in desperation wrote his legendary Moonlight Sonata. However, even a terrible illness did not break the will of the artist. Overcoming his own apathy, Beethoven wrote many more symphonic works.

English Enlightenment

England was the birthplace of the European Enlightenment. In this country, earlier than others, back in the 17th century, a bourgeois revolution took place, which gave impetus to cultural development. England is a prime example social progress. Philosopher John Locke was one of the first and main theorists of the liberal idea. Under the influence of his writings, the most important political document of the Enlightenment was written - the American Declaration of Independence. Locke believed that human knowledge is determined by sensory perception and experience, which refuted the previously popular philosophy of Descartes.

Another important British thinker of the 18th century was David Hume. This philosopher, economist, historian, diplomat and publicist updated the science of morality. His contemporary Adam Smith became the founder of modern economic theory. The culture of the Enlightenment, in short, preceded many modern concepts and ideas. Smith's work was just that. He was the first to equate the importance of the market with the importance of the state.

Thinkers of France

The French philosophers of the 18th century worked in opposition to the then existing social and political system. Rousseau, Diderot, Montesquieu - they all protested against domestic orders. Criticism could take a variety of forms: atheism, idealization of the past (the republican traditions of antiquity were praised), etc.

The 35-volume "Encyclopedia" became a unique phenomenon of the culture of the Enlightenment. It was made up of the main thinkers of the Age of Reason. Julien La Mettrie, Claude Helvetius and other prominent intellectuals of the 18th century contributed to individual volumes.

Montesquieu sharply criticized the arbitrariness and despotism of the authorities. Today he is rightly considered the founder of bourgeois liberalism. Voltaire became an example of outstanding wit and talent. He was the author satirical poems, philosophical novels, political treatises. Twice the thinker went to prison, more times he had to hide on the run. It was Voltaire who created the fashion for freethinking and skepticism.

German Enlightenment

The German culture of the 18th century existed in the conditions of political fragmentation of the country. Advanced minds advocated the rejection of feudal vestiges and national unity. Unlike French philosophers German thinkers were cautious about issues related to the church.

Like the Russian culture of the Enlightenment, Prussian culture was formed with the direct participation of the autocratic monarch (in Russia it was Catherine II, in Prussia - Frederick the Great). The head of state strongly supported the advanced ideals of his time, although he did not give up his unlimited power. This system was called "enlightened absolutism."

The main Enlightener of Germany in the 18th century was Immanuel Kant. In 1781 he published the fundamental work Critique of Pure Reason. Philosopher developed new theory knowledge, studied the possibilities of the human intellect. It was he who substantiated the methods of struggle and legal forms changes in the social and state system, excluding gross violence. Kant made a significant contribution to the creation of the theory of the rule of law.

Culture in the Age of Enlightenment

Introduction

1. Enlightenment from a general point of view

1.1 Basic ideas and principles of the Enlightenment

1.2 Age of Reason

2. Enlightenment in Russia

2.1 The penetration of the ideas of the Enlightenment into Russia

2.2 Enlightenment in Russian conditions

2.2.1 Catherine II: Culture and Enlightenment

2.3 Ideas of the Enlightenment and Russian Orthodoxy

2.4 Enlightenment ideas and patriotism

3. The most famous educators

3.1 Russia. Radishchev

3.2 Russia: Novikov

3.3 France: Voltaire

3.3.1 Literary creativity. Dramaturgy

3.3.2 Literary creation: Poetry

3.4 Germany: Goethe

Conclusion

List of used literature

Appendix

Introduction

The 18th century in world culture has left its mark on history and is called the "epoch of enlightenment".

In this era, the direction of fantastic forms - "baroque" - ends, and the persecution of humanists 1 begins. From that time on, cultural figures have a double life (1st life - a secret search for a new one with the power of imagination and 2nd - an obvious life like everyone else). In literature, the main work of this time is the novel by the Spanish writer Calderon "Life is a dream".

In Europe, a war is born between the educated authorities and the poorly educated population, which has become active thanks to books. This war leads to the creation of the first bourgeois republic in Holland. And here it becomes necessary for all monarchies to defend themselves against the influence of republics. For example, in France, the largest kingdom in Europe, the de facto ruler Cardinal Richelieu publishes uniform requirements for art: to educate the citizens of the kingdom according to the models of the heroes of antiquity. And from the rules of Richelieu, a new direction of classicism appears. From the 2nd half of the 17th century until the end of the 18th century, the idea of ​​enlightenment (education of the people by art) won in Europe.

So, what is the "age of enlightenment"? On what personalities is it built? And how did it change people's minds? You will find answers to these and other questions in the following topics.

1. Enlightenment in terms of history

Enlightenment is a broad cultural movement in Europe and North America in the 18th century, which aimed to spread the ideals of scientific knowledge, political freedom, social progress and expose the corresponding prejudices and superstitions. The centers of the ideology and philosophy of the Enlightenment were France, Germany and England (where it originated). The ideology of the Enlightenment received its concentrated expression in France during the period from 1715 to 1789, called the Age of Enlightenment (siecle des lumieres). Kant's definition of the Enlightenment as "the courage to use one's own mind" speaks of the fundamental orientation of the Enlightenment to endow the mind with the status of the highest authority and the associated ethical responsibility of its bearers - enlightened citizens.

The ideas of the Enlightenment had a significant impact on the development of social thought. However, in the 19th and 20th centuries the ideology of the Enlightenment was often criticized for idealizing human nature, an optimistic interpretation of progress as the steady development of society based on the improvement of the mind. In a broad sense, educators were called outstanding disseminators of scientific knowledge.

1.1 Basic ideas and principles of the Enlightenment

For all national characteristics The Enlightenment had several general ideas and principles. There is a single order of nature, on the knowledge of which not only the success of the sciences and the well-being of society, but also moral and religious perfection are based; the correct reproduction of the laws of nature makes it possible to build natural morality, natural religion, and natural law. Reason freed from prejudice is the only source of knowledge; facts, the essence is the only material for the mind. Rational knowledge must free humanity from social and natural slavery; society and the state must harmonize with the external nature and nature of man. Theoretical knowledge is inseparable from practical action that ensures progress as the highest goal of social existence.

The specific ways of implementing this program within the framework of the Enlightenment diverged significantly. The difference in opinions about religion was especially significant: the practical atheism of 2 La Mettrie, Holbach, Helvetius and Diderot, the rationalistic anti-clerical deism of 3 Voltaire, the moderate deism of D'Alembert, the pious deism of Condillac, the emotional "deism of the heart" of Rousseau. The unifying moment was hatred of the traditional church At the same time, Enlightenment deism did not exclude such organizational forms as the Masonic 4 quasi-church 5 with its rituals. Gnoseological 6 differences were less diverse: in general, the enlighteners adhered to empiricism 7 of the Lockean persuasion with an emphatically sensationalist interpretation of the origin of knowledge. materialistic character, but a skeptical and even spiritualistic variant was not ruled out.Ontology 9 interested enlighteners in lesser degree: they left the solution of these problems to specific sciences (in this regard, the philosophy of the Enlightenment can be considered the first version of positivism 10), fixing only the evidence of the existence of the subject, nature and God-the root cause. Only in Holbach's "System of Nature" is a dogmatic picture of atomistic-material being given. In the social sphere, the enlighteners tried to substantiate the theory of progress and connect it with the stages of the economic and political development of society. Economic (Turgot), political (Montesquieu), human rights (Voltaire) ideas of the Enlightenment played a significant role in the formation of the liberal civilization of the modern West.

1.2 Age of Reason

The years of Defoe's life (1660-1731) coincided with the time of the rapid development of science, which literally interrupted all the ideas of medieval man about the world around him. During the 16-18 centuries. geographical discoveries constantly expanded the horizons of the European: the world was growing rapidly. If in the 15th century the well-known lands in Europe stretched from India to Ireland, then by the beginning of the 19th century the Spaniards, the British, the Dutch, the French owned the whole world. The streak of outstanding discoveries started by Nicolaus Copernicus was continued by the works of Isaac Newton, who formulated the law of universal gravitation. As a result of their labors, by the end of the 17th century. the former picture of the world has become yesterday even in the eyes of the townsfolk: the Earth - the biblical center, the universe - has turned from the center of the universe into one of the few satellites of the sun; the Sun itself turned out to be only one of the stars that complement the infinite Cosmos.

Thus was born the science of modern times. It broke the traditional connection with theology and proclaimed experiment, mathematical calculation and logical analysis as its foundations. This led to the emergence of a new worldview, in which the concepts of "reason", "nature", "natural law" became the main ones. From now on, the world was seen as a gigantic complex mechanism operating according to the exact laws of mechanics (it is no coincidence that a mechanical watch was a favorite image in the writings of statesmen and politicians, biologists and doctors in the 17th and early 18th centuries). In such a well-oiled system, there was little room for God. He was assigned the role of the initiator of the world, the root cause of all things. The world itself, as if having received a push, further developed independently, in accordance with the natural laws that the Creator created universal, unchangeable and accessible to knowledge. This doctrine was called deism, had many followers among the naturalists of the 17th-18th centuries.

But perhaps the most important step that ventured new philosophy, was an attempt to extend the laws operating in nature to human society. A conviction appeared and grew stronger: both the person himself and social life are subject to unchanging natural laws. They only need to be discovered, written down, to achieve an accurate and universal performance. A way was found to create a perfect society built on "reasonable" foundations - a guarantee of the future happiness of mankind.

The search for the natural laws of the development of society contributed to the emergence of new teachings about man and the state. One of them is the theory of natural law, developed by European philosophers of the 17th century. T. Hobbes and D. Locke. They proclaimed the natural equality of people, and therefore the natural right of every person to property, freedom, equality before the law, human dignity. On the basis of the theory of natural law, the A New Look to the origin of the state. The English philosopher Locke believed that the transition was once free people to "civil society" - the result of a "social contract" concluded between peoples and rulers. The latter, according to Locke, are given some of the "natural rights" of fellow citizens (justice, external relations, etc.). Rulers are obliged to protect other rights - freedom of speech, belief and the right to private property. Locke denied the divine origin of power: monarchs must remember that they are part of "civil society."

A whole era began in the history of Western culture, bringing with it a new understanding of the world and man, profoundly different from the medieval one. It was called the Age of Enlightenment - after the name of a powerful ideological current, which by the middle of the 18th century. widely covered European and American countries. In the 18-19 centuries. it had a strong influence on science, socio-political thought, art and literature of many peoples. That is why the 18th century went down in history as the Age of Reason, the Age of Enlightenment.

This movement was represented by prominent philosophers, scientists, writers, statesmen and public figures. different countries. Among the enlighteners were aristocrats, nobles, priests, lawyers, teachers, merchants and industrialists. They could hold different, sometimes opposing views on certain issues, belong to different faiths or deny the existence of God, be staunch republicans or supporters of easy restriction of the monarchy. But all of them were bound by a common goal and ideals, a belief in the possibility of creating a just society in a peaceful, non-violent way. "Enlightenment of Minds", the purpose of which is to open people's eyes to the reasonable principles of organizing society, to advance their world and themselves - this is the essence of the Enlightenment and the main meaning of the activities of enlighteners.

Topic 12. Russian artistic culture in the Age of Enlightenment: the formation of humanistic ideals

European forms of cultural life as a standard in Russian culture of the Enlightenment. New ideological principles of the secular state. Preservation of traditional national values ​​in the development of European forms and genres of art. The phenomenon of "Russian Europeanness".

The priority role of the word in the artistic culture of the Enlightenment. Writers of the first half of the century (at the choice of the teacher). The theory of classicism M.V. Lomonosov and A.P. Sumaroko wa: common and different. The value of classicism for the development of music.

Vocal genres in the culture of the Enlightenment: from Peter's cants and "book songs" to "Russian songs" (F.M. Dubyansky, I.A. Kozlovsky). Opera: European and Russian. The development of the comic opera genre, the role of the literary basis, the composition of folk songs “to the voices”. V.A. Pashkevich, E.I. Fomin - the founders of Russian opera. Spiritual music. Creativity.S. Berezovsky and D.S. Bortnyansky. Classicist choral concert.

Formation of instrumental music in Russia. "Russian Paganini" - I.E. Khandoshkin. piano music D.S. Bortnyansky.

The development of the humanistic ideals of the Russian Enlightenment and the "peasant question". Peasant Images in Russian Art. Collection and study of Russian folk songs (collections of V.F. Trutovsky, N.A. Lvov-Prach). Antiserfdom motives of Russian prose (N.I. Novikov, A.N. Radishchev), drama of turgy (Ya.B. Knyazhnin), poetry (V.V. Kapnist), music (V.A. Pashkevich). Comedy in the work of D.I. Fonvizin, satirical images and accusatory pathos (satire "on morals"). Creativity G.R. Derzhavin (at the choice of the teacher).

The development of theatrical art. Fortress theaters and fortress actors. Italian and French opera in St. Petersburg.

Uniqueness and self-worth human personality in the visual arts of the Enlightenment. Portrait painting (I. Ya. Veshnyakov, I. P. Argunov, A. P. Antropov, F. S. Rokotov, D. G. Levitsky, V. L. Borovikovsky). Academy of Arts. Formation of the genre of historical painting. Creativity of A.P. Losenko. Sculpture is a new kind of art in Russia. Creativity F.I. Shubin. Monument to Peter the Great E.-M. Falcone. The works of F.G. Gordeeva and M.I. Kozlovsky.

The ideals of architecture are the glorification of the greatness of the new Russian statehood. A mixture of architectural forms - Russian and imported European ones. Fundamental novelty in urban planning. The appearance of St. Petersburg. Baroque in architecture. Creativity V.V. Rastrelli. Classicism; creators of palaces and public buildings (A. Rinaldi, D. Quarenghi, C. Cameron - foreign masters in Russia). School of Russian Architects (M.G. Zemtsov, I.K. Korobov, P.M. Eropkin, S. Chevakinsky, I.F. Michurin, D.V. Ukhtomsky, A.F. Kokorinov). Outstanding masters V.I. Bazhenov, M.F. Kazakov.

Entry of the artistic culture of Russia into the context of European culture. “Russian Europeanness” is a foreshadowing of the classical stage in the development of the art of the “golden” 19th century.

Requirements for the level of preparation of students

The requirements for the level of training of students comply with the requirements formulated in the federal state standard of general education and an exemplary (typical) curriculum (Law of the Russian Federation "On Education" art. 12, 13, 15, 32).

Modern trends in the development of art education are aimed at the dynamics of the development of polyart education, which ensures the formation common culture personality.

As a result of studying the course "World Artistic Culture", students should Know:

The main eras in the artistic development of mankind;

Cultural dominants of various periods in the development of world artistic culture;

The main styles and trends in the world artistic culture;

The role and place of the classical artistic heritage in the artistic culture of our time;

Features of the artistic culture of modern mankind and its complex structure;

Outstanding monuments and works of art from various eras;

The main art museums of Russia and the world.

Be able to:

Distinguish works of art of different styles;

Show on concrete examples the place and role of the artistic culture of Russia in the world artistic culture;

Formulate your own value judgment about works and genres of art;

Use reference literature on art, analyze and interpret it.

The result of teaching the subject "World Artistic Culture" should be the aesthetic growth of students who comprehend the world artistic culture: from the perception by schoolchildren of specific works of art through their comprehension of a holistic artistic picture of the world to independent aesthetic activity, to their own creativity, the rise of spirituality on the basis of world, domestic, regional cultural heritage.

Forms and means of control

Modernization of the education system involves a significant change in the organization of quality control of students' knowledge and the quality of teaching at the Moscow Art Theater in accordance with the curriculum and teaching materials of L. A. Rapatskaya. The subject of pedagogical control is the evaluation of the results of the pedagogical process organized in it. The main subject for evaluating the results of art education is knowledge, the result of training - skills, and the result of education - worldview attitudes, interests, motives and needs of the individual. In the practice of pedagogical control, it is possible to distinguish the following types of it: starting, current, thematic, milestone, final and final. The forms of control include oral, written, programmed. Starting control determines the initial level of learning, preparedness for the assimilation of further material. Starting control is desirable to carry out at the beginning of the academic year. With the help of current control, it is possible to diagnose the didactic process, identify its dynamics, compare learning outcomes at its individual stages. The milestone control performs a staged summing up of the results for half a year, a year after passing, for example, large topics, large sections of the program. The boundary control also takes into account the data of the current control. The final control is carried out after passing the entire training course, usually on the eve of transfer to the next class. The data of the final control allow you to evaluate the work of the teacher and students. The results of the final control must correspond to the level of II generation standards.

Certification of students is different in form: oral, written, programmed, in the form of test control, as well as control creative tasks. The following can serve as methods for diagnosing learning outcomes: debates, seminars, olympiads, quizzes, festivals, excursions, etc.

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION OF THE CITY OF MOSCOW

WESTERN DISTRICT DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION

STATE BUDGET EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION

MOSCOW CITIES

SECONDARY EDUCATIONAL SCHOOL № 806

CALENDAR AND THEME PLANNING

on world art culture

Class 11 "A" class

Teacher Ginzburg I.A.

Number of hours:

total - 34 hours;

per week - 1 hour.

Planning is based on the work program of Ginzburg I.A.

Calendar - thematic planning

10 "a" class

Russian cultureEnlightenment

The people of the 18th century called their time the century of reason and enlightenment. Medieval ideas, sanctified by the authority of the church and the all-powerful tradition, were subjected to inexorable criticism. In the 18th century, the desire for knowledge based on reason, and not on faith, took possession of an entire generation. The consciousness that everything is subject to discussion, that everything must be clarified by the means of reason, was distinguishing feature this century.

The 18th century in the history of Russia was truly fateful. It was a time of fundamental changes caused by Peter's reforms. With his transformations, Peter I turned Russia sharply to the West.

Changes in the field of culture in Russia were due to socio-economic and political changes, first of all, the ripening in the depths of feudalism of the capitalist way of life and the completion of the process of formation of an absolute monarchy. IN this period the formation of the secular culture of Russia is taking place , the process of formation of national identity and national culture is actively underway , there is a significant expansion of cultural contacts with European countries. essential qualities new culture became its openness, flexibility, continuity of experience and results of the development of cultures of other peoples.

The reforms of Peter I affected all areas of life, but perhaps the most impressive were the reforms in the sphere of culture. They covered education, the organization of science, book publishing, printing, urban planning, architecture, even clothing and entertainment. The goal of all Peter's reforms was the Europeanization of Russian culture. At the same time, a number of cultural innovations were dictated by the practical tasks of developing trade and industry, restructuring the army and navy, state structures.

1. Features of the development of culture inthe period of Peter's reforms

The seventeenth century ended the Russian Middle Ages, the eighteenth begins a new time in the history of the country. In place of Moscow Tsarist Russia comes Imperial Russia Petersburg. The social dynamics of the century is enormous. Russia enters it medieval and rather backward, and by the end of the century it comes as a strong power, actively influencing the fate of Europe. A powerful development process is associated with the name of Peter I and his reforms.

The process was complex and controversial. This is noted by many Russian historians. V. O. Klyuchevsky, for example, writes about the 18th century: “What made Russian life so difficult in this century? The reforms begun by Peter's predecessors and continued by him... Up to that time, Russian society lived by the conditions of its own life and by the indications of the nature of its country. From the 17th century, a foreign culture, rich in experience and knowledge, began to act on this society. This alien influence met with home-grown orders and entered into a struggle with them, agitating the Russian people, confusing their concepts and habits, complicating their life, giving it an intensified and uneven movement” / 1, p. 13/.

The time of Peter is, first of all, the establishment of the noble empire. A new administrative apparatus is being formed. Instead of medieval orders, Peter forms a few, but effective collegiums, removes the traditional boyar duma, based on hereditary representation. The Senate appears on the arena of Russian history - a government agency created to control and manage the state. The appearance of this institution indirectly separates in the minds of people the power of the king - the owner from the power of the state - an institution for the "good of subjects." This was a very relevant and significant cultural task for the beginning of the 18th century. Even the previously relatively independent religion and church are now under the dominating hand of the state. Absolute monarchy, the beginning of which dates back to the 17th century, is now presented as a fully developed form of government.

New phenomena in the political and social sphere were the impetus for powerful processes in the field of spiritual culture, in to a large extent defining its features. What are these features?

According to typology, the culture of the 18th century is often correlated with the Western European Enlightenment. This far from complete and even close relationship has a special meaning for Russia. As you know, the Western European Enlightenment was prepared by the Renaissance and the period of the New Age, which had already provided a break with medieval theological culture and proclaimed the unshakable authority of scientific knowledge. Russian culture of the late 17th - early 18th centuries had to solve problems that took Western Europe five centuries to solve. Such an intensity of spiritual development, unprecedented in history, is the first feature of Russian culture of the period under consideration.

The most important of the measures consistently carried out by Peter I was the final removal of the church from interference in state affairs, and, consequently, the restriction of the "cultural field" of church activities. With the destruction of the patriarchate in 1721, the leadership of the affairs of the church was transferred into the hands of Holy Synod accountable to the monarch. The church was actually deprived of its dominant role in the field of cultural and ideological policy in the very area where its influence had previously been especially great. The role of the clergy as a source of enlightenment, as a representative of the "spiritual avant-garde" of the Russian people is over. “With the accession of Peter the Great, we are forming new intelligentsia, which is guided in everything by "worldly" interests and ideas. The core of crystallization around which these interests and ideas are built is not the idea of ​​a universal religious mission (keeping the purity of Orthodoxy), but the ideal of Great Russia” /2, p.91/. In this way, the second distinctive feature of the spiritual culture of the new stage is its secularization(from lat. saecularis - secular).

Since the reforms of Peter the Great, the interest of Russian writers in the human person has increased, and the humanistic principle has deepened in art. In the new concept, a person completely ceases to be a source of sinfulness, is perceived as an active person, valuable both in and of itself, and even more so for "services to the fatherland." Hence the change in the main value orientation: to a change in ideas about the sinful nature of man, characteristic of official culture pre-Petrine Russia, the culture that directed the interests of man to the observance of the purity of the Christian faith was replaced by a culture based on ideas about man as a particle of a new social system; hierarchically ordered monarchical state. Appeal to the individual, humanism - this is the third feature of the spiritual culture not only of the period of Peter's reforms, but also of the 18th century as a whole.

Peter I, who cut through the "window to Europe", put the country on the path of Europeanization, introduced Russia into the circle of the European educational movement. The Europeanization of Russia began with borrowing in the field of everyday culture. New items appear household items, there is an imitation of the luxury of Polish and German suits. The etiquette of communication is borrowed. The planting of various forms of Western life (clothes, removal of beards, assemblies, the free appearance of women on them, etc.) occurs on the strict orders of Peter I. and to a small extent provincial nobility.

The process of Europeanization of Russian culture was quite contradictory: “there was a lot of unnecessary and immature in borrowing, some of the changes were reduced only to a change in the form, “external gilding”, under which the Asiatic lived” / 3, p. 423 /. But imitation was logically necessary and inevitable in view of the relative cultural youth of Russia. This was the fourth feature of the spiritual culture of the century under consideration.

Rapprochement with the West, however, brought into Russian culture not only borrowing and imitation. It contributed to the development of Russian independence, the transition from "narrow nationalism to national creativity of cultural life..., suggesting universal human impressions and humane views" /4, p.49/. The 18th century can be called “an interim period of our public self-consciousness” (P. Milyukov), and the spiritual culture of the century can be called the initial stage in the formation of Russia's public self-consciousness. And this is the fifth feature of the spiritual culture of the period under consideration.

The formation of a new culture in Russia began with elementary education. One of the most prominent connoisseurs of Russian culture, P. N. Milyukov, wrote that the entire pre-Petrine science of the broad masses was limited to the Book of Hours and the Psalter. Wasn't operating modern concepts, the demand for a literate person on the part of the state, there was no need among various segments of the population even for a primer. Now Russia needed an enlightened and educated citizen. Understanding this, Peter draws attention to the development of secular printing and publishing. In the first quarter of the century, publishing output increased by 18.6 times, while the share of religious literature decreased significantly. Literature in translation is spreading rapidly. Not only historical stories and novels, but also political writings and technical textbooks have been translated into Russian. Russian journalism is being created, the first newspaper is being published.

But the problem is not solved only by the measures taken. “On traditional literacy, it was impossible to instill and develop European education, to acquaint people with the range of natural science ideas, the basics of mathematical and technical knowledge. There were practically no literate people in the sense that it was necessary to participate in Peter's reforming activities” /4, p.50/. In other words, the value of enlightenment was taught by practical necessity, and this determined the dominance of the utilitarian view of the school. Now the school was required to have training that corresponded to the needs of the state, the transformations of the army and navy.

Therefore, in the initial period of Peter's reforms, special educational institutions were opened - Navigation, Artillery (1701), Engineering (1712) schools, Medical School (1707), the first mining schools in the Urals.

The needs of society for new cultural values ​​are always formed for a long time. The need of Russian society for a general education school pursuing purely pedagogical goals was formed "at the initiative of the authorities." The beginning of the general education school is attributed to the end of the Petrine era. A year after Peter's death, the doors of new temples of science opened - the university and the gymnasium in St. Petersburg. Later, in the middle of the century, Moscow University was opened and with it - two gymnasiums: one for the nobility, the other for raznochintsy.

Carrying out reforms, Peter acted boldly and purposefully. By his decree, special institutions were created, the task of which was to cultivate scientific knowledge and increase it. This is not only the University, but also the Academy, the Library at the Academy, various classrooms for scientific studies. Overcoming centuries of established traditions, the Kunstkamera, the first Russian museum of natural sciences, begins to operate. Librarianship experienced certain difficulties. The traditions of pre-Petrine Russian culture were such that the existing book collections could not be used in research work. In the 17th century, books were kept in low, semi-dark, mostly stone (to avoid fire) rooms lined with massive chests (“boxes”). Cabinets with shelves appeared, probably to late XVII centuries, and only because book owners were willing to show off the richness and beauty of their jeweled and finely crafted leather bindings. The inventories of books that have survived from that time, as a rule, report in detail on the binding, but forget to indicate the title of the book and its author. The arrangement of books was carried out according to the format and beauty of the binding. According to the same principle, in the first years of its existence, books were arranged in the Library of the Academy of Sciences /7, p.51/. In the future, it turned out that it was not at all easy to establish a library business even according to the existing Western models /6, p.60/.

Peter I himself sets an example of respect for education and science. He is fond of philosophical conversations in the circle of the elite, encourages relations with Western European scientists, and bows before Leibniz. In 1866, Prince Dmitry Golitsyn, in a letter from Paris to Russia, agrees that the best guarantee for the development of sciences and arts is the "foundation of academies." “But relying on the example of history,” he notes further, “I am afraid that these means will turn out to be weak if at the same time internal trade is not raised in our country. And it, in its turn, cannot flourish unless the right of ownership of the peasants to their movable property is gradually introduced in our country. Justifying his statement, Golitsyn refers to the words of the English philosopher David Hume: “If the sovereign does not bring up a manufacturer capable of weaving cloth so thin that it reaches the price of two guineas per arshin, then the astronomer will be brought up in his state all the less” / 5, p. .37--38/.

It should be emphasized that the new enlightenment and science are being introduced into early XVIII century "from above", decrees and decrees, the power, and not public opinion, becomes the head of the transformations. It turned out that public opinion in Russia is simply not ready for many reforms. However, Peter did not retreat from the task of creating a new Russia in the place of "old times". “Old times”, with its patriarchal way of life, ascetic ideal, fear of science, did not give the opportunity for development, the living personality was crowded in it, and Peter the Great shook up stagnant life in all corners, led a new generation to the wide field of universal enlightenment, to the expanse of scientific knowledge , this is the meaning of his reform” /3, p.434/.

2. Social thought, philosophy and literature of the 18th century

A conscious attitude to education, to the life of Europe and the needs of Russia found its expression in the activities of a number of representatives of national culture, and among them, of course, the first in importance is M. V. Lomonosov.

In the very nature of Lomonosov, there is much from the requirements of the time of Peter the Great: intelligence, sharpness, diligence, “pursuing the good of Russia” / 8, p. 147/. For him, science becomes not only "technical training", but also a serious, important element of the general culture, knowledge, which was illuminated by philosophical thought and, therefore, became an entire worldview system. He was the first to introduce into the national culture a great beneficial principle - the conscious work of the mind, thought as the basis of enlightenment and emphasized the need for such enlightenment. Lomonosov believed that the great significance of Peter was only that he exalted Russia as a state, but "even more so that he opened for the Russian people the field of science, with the help of which a person can only reach the height of his mental and moral dignity" /9, p.513/.

For Lomonosov, science was higher than fiction, his heroes are those who patronize peace and enlightenment. His good is the good of the Russian people. But, being a brilliant scientist and patriot, Lomonosov was also a poet, in love with the beauties of nature. Lomonosov vividly and strongly expresses the aesthetic admiration of nature in his wonderful poems, and it is inseparable from scientific research. Of all the natural sciences, loving chemistry most of all, Lomonosov valued it because it "opens the veil of the inner sanctuary of nature." Having received a scientific education in Germany, Lomonosov knew Wolff's philosophy, was an admirer of Descartes, and constantly defended Leibniz's idea that the "law of experience" should be supplemented by "philosophical knowledge." “For Lomonosov, freedom of thought and research is so ... “natural” that he does not even defend this freedom, but simply implements it” / 2, p. 104/.

Later, A. S. Pushkin would call M. V. Lomonosov “our first university,” and these words, truly, indicate the main meaning of his activity. It consisted in the fact that Lomonosov, “paving the way in the most diverse branches of science and literature, became the guiding authority in such a wide field of knowledge and poetry, which since then none of our writers could cover” / 9, p. 515 / .

Literary fame began for Lomonosov shortly after his first works. There were few prominent people in Russian science, and even German colleagues in the Academy of Sciences, who did not like and were at enmity with him, had to recognize his encyclopedic learning. The reading public was able to understand the power of his language, the high content of his speeches, words of praise and od. Reviews of Lomonosov as a poet later varied. Time has shown how right Belinsky was, noting that the title of founder and father of Russian literature and poetry rightfully belongs to this man.

The great merit of Lomonosov in the formation and development of Russian culture is the creation of a Russian literary language. In the 18th century, the foundations of the 19th century were laid: when Pushkin appeared, the language was ready for him. “Lomonosov ... hardly clearly saw the extent of the feat that he accomplished in this regard. Perfectly feeling the beauty and power of the language, he believed in advance that he would find in it all the means for expressing his thoughts; it would seem that there was no need to create anything, but meanwhile a new language came out, in which no one had ever written before” /10, p.35/.

In essence, Lomonosov and his contemporaries reflected an important trend in Russian culture: the transition to the development of a single set of cultural and ideological guidelines based on the best traditions, time-tested.

The role of M. V. Lomonosov in Russian culture is enormous. But, unfortunately, his legacy has not fully come down to us. “It is very sad that the descendants have not been able to save to our time either a chemical laboratory, or a house on the Moika, or a factory in Ust-Ruditsy, or numerous instruments made by M.V. Lomonosov himself or his assistants and craftsmen,” wrote S. And Vavilov. - At home, the physical and chemical heritage of M. V. Lomonosov was buried in unread books, in unprinted manuscripts, in abandoned and dismantled laboratories. Numerous ingenious devices of M. V. Lomonosov were not only not produced, they were not even bothered to save” /11, p.16/.

The work of M. V. Lomonosov testified to the close connection between social, scientific and creative activity.

In the 18th century, a “new literature” began to take shape in Russia. Its principles were already defined in the 17th century. The main feature is an inextricable link with time. Reflecting the main stages in the formation of Russian science and statehood, Russian literature directly intervened in the solution of topical political, social and moral issues. It should be noted that this changes the nature of literary activity. In the era of Peter the Great, it turns out that a professional writer, such as, for example, Simeon Polotsky, Sylvester Medvedev and Karion Istomin, is relegated to the background. Peter did not need the services of writers and poets who deal only artistic activity, believing that the level of European civilization is achieved "by the production of not words, but things." He assigned literature the role of a "servant of practical sciences", and in the time of Peter the Great there was a need not for poets, but for translators, literary masters, working either by order or by decree of the emperor. That's why the writer of this period was more of a publicist and philosopher than a writer.

Such a writer was one of the closest associates of Peter - Feofan Prokopovich. The reviews of contemporaries about this man are curious: “In science, new philosophy and theology ... he is so learned that in Russia there was no one equal to him before” (V. N. Tatishchev), “so great in eloquence that some of the most learned people honored him with his name Russian Chrysostom" (N. I. Novikov). Prokopovich is the author of many works, among which a special place is occupied by "The Truth of the Monarch's Will" and "Spiritual Regulations". These works were a kind of justification theory public policy. Prokopovich was firmly convinced that only a hereditary monarchy could provide social well-being and stability. The power of the monarch for him is the embodiment of the sovereignty of the people themselves, who "gave their sovereign" their rights. The state is obliged to ensure peace, public order, true justice, the development of industry and trade, the necessary level of education. Enlightenment is the most important factor in improving society, "universal education will improve morals", overcome superstition and ignorance, "enhance human dignity." In his educational activities, Prokopovich set the task of disseminating those sciences whose object is nature. Interest in these problems united a number of statesmen and thinkers of that time in a circle called the "Scientific squad of Peter I". They are a kind of "golden fund" of Russian culture, which most fully concentrated the ideas of a new, "worldly" worldview.

The largest thinker of the "Scientific Squad" was V.N. Tatishchev. Tatishchev is considered the first Russian historian, but in addition to history, he was engaged in geography, philosophy, and economics. Tatishchev is called "the most educated person", "one of the most remarkable Russian people of the 18th century." His biographer K. Bestuzhev-Ryumin noted that Tatishchev, inferior to Lomonosov by the power of creative genius, nevertheless, must take an equal place with him in historical process. “The naturalist Lomonosov sought to elevate the doctrine of nature to a common philosophical unity, the historian and publicist Tatishchev, for his part, sought to find common beginning human community and human morality” /4, p.434/. Tatishchev considers “natural law” to be such a beginning, which is based on the recognition of the autonomy of the individual. Neither church nor state can weaken the significance of this autonomy. In his essay “A Conversation on the Usefulness of Sciences and Schools,” Tatishchev insists that “the desire for well-being in a person, unquestioningly, is rooted in God,” that the “natural law” of human nature is the same “divine law” as the one which is recorded in scripture. There is not, and cannot be, any contradiction between them. Tatishchev considers it an abuse of the church if it forbids what is "determined by divine law for man." Hence the logical conclusion for the 18th century: church law may not coincide with the divine, and in this case government should limit the law of the church "for the sake of decency". Otherwise, the church is subject to the control of the state. The concept of sin means only committing " harmful to man» action. In order to avoid this, “one must know oneself, one must return to the mind the power over passions” /2, p.92/. Tatishchev, a brilliant connoisseur of Western philosophy of that time, emphasizes that "true philosophy is not sinful", it is useful and necessary, since it provides "knowledge of the rules of natural law."

Tatishchev was a representative of that part of the Russian intelligentsia that was being formed in the 18th century, which closely followed everything that was happening in Western Europe, but strove to create a national spiritual culture, far from church thinking. A. D. Kantemir is a philosopher, satirist poet, theorist of classical versification and a diplomat. He translates the works of the French enlighteners, gives a popular presentation of the foundations of natural science in his work Letters on Nature and Man. But Cantemir is also interesting for its famous satyrs, who ridiculed the enemies of science, the carriers of ignorance of all social groups, bishops and judges, "malicious nobles", temporary rulers. At times, these denunciations sound very bold, and foreshadow the struggle for equality and freedom, which will mark the second half of the century. Cantemir defines his personal ideal as a writer as follows: a clear conscience, impartiality, disinterestedness, the study of morals, the ability to distinguish harm from good.

Throughout the 18th century, the process of establishing new values ​​was going on in the spiritual culture. Poetic creativity develops gradually. The Russian intelligentsia is fond of questions not only of education, but also of upbringing. There is an interest in literature - the "mentor of morals", and in this case French literature serves as a model. Responding to demand, the number of published novels, stories, love songs is increasing. In the process of creating cultural values ​​of a new type, Russia, in addition to school and literature, had at its disposal another new tool - the periodical press. In the 40-60s, an example of journalistic and magazine activity sets Russian Academy Sciences. In periodicals F. Miller the interests of the time are already reflected: both benefit (dissemination of scientific knowledge) and “amusement” (moralizing stories, original and translated stories). The foundations of Russian satire are being laid. A. P. Sumarokov publishes the journal "Hardworking Bee", largely focused on exposing the vices of Russian reality. Publishes the magazine "Useful Entertainment" M. I. Kheraskov. Publicity, more than any other kind literary creativity, is focused on the public, but there is no readership yet, there are literary circles. The issues of education and upbringing, attitudes towards man and nature, borrowings are discussed in the periodical press and literary circles. Western culture and development of the national, Russian. It was periodicals in Russia that contributed to the formation and development of the ideas of the Enlightenment.

Rossi of that time was fond of the French philosophers of the Enlightenment. Princess Dashkova recalled that even before the age of fifteen she had read the works of Voltaire, Montesquieu, Helvetius. Russian nobles abroad visited French philosophers and even offered them their estates in Russia (counts Orlov and K. G. Razumovsky). It is clear how the Russian youth who studied abroad were carried away by new ideas. Miller published St. Petersburg Vedomosti, Notes to them, and Monthly Works. (“Leipzig students” Ushakov, Radishchev, Kutuzov). The Tambov landowner Rachmaninov translated and printed the works of Voltaire in his printing house; translations and originals of the French enlighteners were widely used in Russia. Textbook collections "The Spirit of Voltaire", "The Spirit of Rousseau", "The Spirit of Helvetius" were published. Lectures on Montesquieu were given at Moscow University. Most of all they were fond of Voltaire.

significant role in spreading the ideas of the French Enlightenment in Russia played Catherine II, respectfully calling Voltaire "my teacher." The Empress was particularly attracted by the idea of ​​"enlightened absolutism", she herself claimed the role of the monarch-enlightener.

Catherine II tried to make the philosophy and politics of the Western Enlightenment a reality of Russian culture, but she attached even more importance to the pedagogical ideas of Montaigne, Locke, Rousseau, and other thinkers. The Empress with good reason believed that these ideas would become the basis for creating a new type of Russians. The nobility becomes the class that monopolizes the new culture. It receives rights and privileges, it is enlightened, special moral qualities are brought up in it. Considering “service for the glory of autocratic rule” a noble privilege, Catherine II promotes the organization of noble self-government and takes a number of measures to improve the economic well-being of the class. Education at all levels was regarded by Catherine II as an important means to achieve the same goal: the political and cultural formation of Russian society. She was not mistaken - Catherine's reforms in the 18th century gave a new impetus to Russian thought and public consciousness.

However, the process of cultural development had another result: while some representatives of the Russian nobility supported the ideas and actions of the "enlightened empress", others questioned the real political perspective of these ideas. M. M. Shcherbatov, D. I. Fonvizin, G. R. Derzhavin belonged to the first, N. I. Novikov and A. N. Radishchev belonged to the second. Each of these makes a special, unique contribution to the spiritual culture of Russia, each stands on the positions of enlightenment and humanism.

N. I. Novikov He is the most typical public figure, striving for the common good, a conscious and principled defender of the enlightenment of the masses, who valued great moral strength in literature, like a few of his contemporaries. In the late sixties, Novikov undertook the publication of the satirical magazine Truten, then the Painter. In his journalistic activities, he proved himself to be a man of great public duty, a passionate "denouncer of untruth" in Russian life. And in the satirical magazines that Novikov published, he was going not only to make people laugh, but he strove to create such a public opinion that had not existed in Russia until that time. Leaving satire, in which only "cheerful and light criticism" became allowed, he set about a serious analysis of social problems. In the journal "The Painter" Novikov publishes an excerpt from "Journey" - a book that is rightly called "the strongest speech in the general press against serfdom before Radishchev's Journey" /12, p.69/.

The name of N. I. Novikov is associated with such a socio-political movement as Russian Freemasonry. It penetrates into Russia in the second half of the 18th century. The moral philosophy of Freemasonry, with its idea of ​​self-improvement of the individual through enlightenment, "active philanthropy" and public charity, attracted a part of the advanced noble intelligentsia, figures of Russian culture and social thought to the ranks of Freemasons.

“The famous Novikov decade,” was how V. O. Klyuchevsky called the seventies, paying tribute to the scope of his social and book publishing activities. The circle of collaborators and associates of Novikov includes writers and translators, journalists and booksellers, professors and students of Moscow State University.

Novikov was a representative of "active idealism." In the journals published by Novikov, a whole system of education and formation of morals was developed. With the assistance of his readers, Novikov tried to create a private general education school, he devoted a lot of effort to organizing the book business in the provinces. In the hungry year of 1787, when Catherine II spent over 10 million rubles on her famous excursion to the Crimea, he rallied with unprecedented success social forces in helping the hungry.

A. N. Radishchev, the son of a wealthy landowner, was sent to study in Germany in the mid-sixties. He studies natural science, medicine, is engaged in literature, philosophy and returns to Russia "with a large stock of knowledge and skills for systematic thinking" /2, p.97/. Radishchev gets acquainted with the works of Leibniz, admires Herder, takes a great interest in the French materialists, Locke and Priestley. The ideas of "natural law" are accepted by him unconditionally. “The rights of nature never run out in man,” says Radishchev. Therefore, for him, "the perfect mortification of passions is ugly," therefore he ardently protests against any oppression of "nature" / 2, p. 102/. Radishchev's views formed the basis of his famous book Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow (1790). Everything that, bit by bit, in parts, in the form of allusions and allegories, was already in the accusatory works of Russian literature of the 18th century, is combined into one in the Journey; said directly and forcefully. And in this sense, Radishchev's book is evidence of the maturity of Russian thought.

The seditious book was delivered to Catherine II a few days after publication. The empress's indignation was enormous, and on the margins of the book she wrote about Radishchev: "... She does not like tsars and, where love and reverence can kill them, she greedily clings to them with rare courage", "she puts her hope in rebellion from peasants" / 13 , p.345/. The fate of Journey and its author is known: the book was withdrawn from circulation, the author was sent into Siberian exile.

N. A. Berdyaev considers Radishchev the founder of the Russian intelligentsia, if only because he in many respects anticipated and determined the main features of the intelligentsia in Russia. “When Radishchev, in his Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow, wrote the words: “I looked around me - my soul became wounded by the sufferings of mankind,” the Russian intelligentsia was born. Radishchev is the most remarkable phenomenon of Russia in the 18th century. ... He is remarkable not for the originality of thought, but for the originality of his sensitivity, his striving for truth, for justice, for freedom. He was seriously wounded by untruth, serfdom, was his first accuser. He asserted the supremacy of conscience” /15, p.66/.

The work of Radishchev completes the 18th century, which is rightly called "liberation" and "philosophical". Giving him an assessment, Radishchev exclaims: “... Oh, an unforgettable century! Joyful mortals you grant truth, liberty and light. Powerful, you were great, a century!” /9, p. 108/. Socio-political and philosophical thought, education and science are the most characteristic spheres of Russian culture of the XVIII century.

3. Artistic culture of the XVIII century

The era of ancient Russian art lasted for seven centuries. Some elements of the artistic culture of the new time appear already in the 17th century, but only the beginning of the 18th century marks the transition to a fundamentally different art.

At the beginning of the 18th century, artistic culture was of value primarily as one of the most effective means of establishing state policy. Official circles, and, above all, Peter I himself, consciously encouraged such forms of art that would combine the availability of mass influence with the ability to convey to public opinion the necessary information about the goals and objectives of state policy. Hence the popularity special role in the first decades of the century of programmatic theatrical spectacles: masquerade processions on the occasion of military victories, the device of "fiery fun" - fireworks, as well as the construction triumphal arches. Hence the special attention to the theater and later to the development of drama. The ideas of Peter I formed the basis for the construction of new cities for Russia, with a different layout, other semantic accents - St. Petersburg, Taganrog. Moscow is being restructured in accordance with the new principles. What is the city approved by the king-reformer? This is no longer a fortress city, symbolizing defense from enemies and "firmness of faith." This is the basis for the development of "free arts", science, and enlightenment. Therefore, the main requirement for the development of the city is information openness and efficiency. In the center of St. Petersburg - the Admiralty, the Stock Exchange, the royal palace without the traditional high walls. The urban landscape conceived by Peter is the Academy with its museums and halls for meetings and classes, the university and other educational institutions, libraries.

The spiritual culture of Russia in the 18th century is determined by the principles of regularity and cognizability of the surrounding world. Artistic culture also obeys these principles. First of all, the principle of knowability redefines the creative process. It begins to be perceived as a phenomenon, largely natural and subject to logic. The idea of ​​the possibility, and even the need, to imagine in advance the final result, the finished work of art, is strengthened. Now the artist goes "from conception to work through design" (I. V. Ryazantsev). In architecture, they can no longer do without a drawing and a model made to scale. Sculptors and painters do not work without a project (sketch). A new world of images and plots is entering the visual arts. They are now drawn from the surrounding reality. Artists and spectators learn world and national history, ancient mythology. This material is used to convey the ideas and content of Russian reality. The idea of ​​the importance of the appeal of "liberal arts" to national history expressed M. V. Lomonosov in the “Word of gratitude at the consecration of the Academy of Arts”. He consistently and clearly defined the main tasks of sculptors and painters "... to represent the types of heroes and heroines in gratitude for their merits to the Fatherland", "to show the ancient glory of our forefathers", to see in own history stimulus for the improvement of art.

The surrounding reality is multifaceted, it is not only history, but also a specific person, and the nature surrounding him. Everything is worthy of artistic embodiment, which means that it is necessary to achieve "plausibility", "similarity" of the image. In order to do this, you need to be able to convey space, distance, volumes of objects, depict a specific material - metal or fur, fabric or glass, show the features of the surface of the face and hands, the sparkle of the eyes, the softness or stiffness of the hair. In other words, realism is required in the image. All this must be learned. And Russian architects, sculptors, painters studied on foreign trips, with European masters invited to Russia and at the Academy of Sciences approved in 1724 with an art department.

One can only admire the skill and talent of the Russian masters, who in less than a century have assimilated the traditions of Western European art, which took shape over several centuries. In Russia, works appear that are not inferior to European masterpieces, and the famous academies of Europe recognize this: architect V. I. Bazhenov elected professor of Rome, a member of the Florentine and Bologna academies, sculptor F. I. Shubin- a member of the Bologna Academy, and the Paris Academy honors artist A. P. Losenko three gold medals.

As far as sculpture is concerned, Russia in the 18th century had no continuity with the tradition of the Middle Ages, which played an important role in all Western countries. However, thanks to the diligence of the professor of the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts, the French sculptor Gillet, a whole galaxy of Russian masters was formed at the end of the 18th century. Falcone's masterpiece "The Bronze Horseman" also contributed to the development of a taste for this art form.

In the artistic culture of the 18th century, various types and genres of art arose and developed: round sculpture, landscape, battle painting. The portrait genre most fully expressed the new that appeared in the artistic culture of the eighteenth century. The art of portraiture is determined by one of the main ideas of the century - the idea of ​​glorifying humanity and man, admiring the beauty of his body, mind, feelings. The increased interest in an active, active, enlightened personality is also natural. Portrait art became a means of expressing this interest.

That is why the 18th century was a period of high rise for the Russian portrait. Creativity flourishes at the start of a new century I. N. Nikitina and A. Matveeva. It is these artists who begin to form a new figurative language of Russian portraiture. Both of them strive to convey the real appearance of the model, to show not only appearance but also the inner life of the person being portrayed.

The baton was taken over by artists of the middle of the century, who mastered the ideological and figurative system and language of the new artistic culture - I. Ya. Vishnyakov, A. P. Antropov, I. P. Argunov. These artists created a powerful foundation for the activities of a new generation of masters who put Russian portraiture on a par with the best works Western European art. This generation is most fully represented F. S. Rokotov, D. G. Levitsky, V. L. Borovikovsky.

The development of portraiture throughout the century testifies to a kind of democratization of the artistic culture of Russia. This is expressed, firstly, in the expansion of the range of models: in the first half of the century these were rich, noble people close to the imperial court, in the second - writers and actors, architects and musicians, scientists and artists. In other words, in the second half of the century, the portrait reflects the value of a creative person, famous for his talent and knowledge, and not for his origin. Secondly, the portrait becomes a mass phenomenon, it spreads throughout the country. The art of portraiture is mastered by many provincial artists. They create an extensive gallery of images, including representatives of almost all segments of the population of various regions of Russia. Now portrait painters can rightly be proud of the results of their work: they not only mastered the technique of painting, but also showed the highest level of skill in the image. inner peace person, his character and even mood.

From the very beginning of the century, the new literally breaks into the most diverse forms of art. Russian architecture is mastering previously unknown varieties of buildings for administrative, industrial, educational and scientific purposes. The most important attribute of the architecture of the new time is the order. The entire order system and each of its elements, as you know, have been worked out over many centuries by the art of Western Europe. The development of this system makes it possible for Russian architects to join the European culture, not forgetting the accumulated national experience of previous centuries. The best buildings of St. Petersburg and its layout, the wonderful creations of M. G. Zemtsov, I. K. Korobov, are in the “golden fund” of Russian. P. M. Eropkin, D. M. Ukhtomsky, A.V. Kvasov, the grandiose palaces and parks of Rastrelli son. Russian classicism of the 18th century prefers a freer arrangement of architectural masses than classicism in other European countries. The architectural mass of his buildings produces a more organic and lively impression.

Russian taste in architecture was reflected not only in the nature of the scenery and walls, but also in the general arrangement of buildings. The beginning of the transition to the regular development of new cities (St. Petersburg, Azov, Taganrog) with streets intersecting at right angles and with the removal of facades along the street line. The construction of state, military, industrial and civil buildings is symmetrical. High spiers crowned the most important city buildings.

The departure from the classical canons also makes itself felt in the Tsaritsyn Bridge, built of pink brick, with its lancet arches. Bazhenov's style in Tsaritsyn is usually called pseudo-Gothic or Neo-Gothic. Meanwhile, there are no openwork structures characteristic of the Gothic. Bazhenov's architecture is more juicy, full-blooded, the wall retains its significance in it. The Tsaritsyno bridge is closer to ancient Russian traditions.

Stone is widely used in the civil construction of St. Petersburg. Attention was paid to lighting, paving and street cleaning, landscaping was carried out. A centralized department for architectural and construction work was created - the Commission for Construction in St. Petersburg.

Foreign architects were invited to Russia, which contributed to the fusion of Western European culture with Russian architecture and the formation of an architectural style - petrine baroque. The main features of which are:

The symmetry of the facades, consisting of three ledges-risalits, one central and two side ones. High front porch;

High roofs with fractures, spiers, towers or turrets. The roof line was complicated by semicircular pediments filled with decorative relief. Wavy or broken cornices;

Vertical "blades" - ribs-protrusions replaced pilasters and columns.

The corners of buildings or the first floors were decorated with "rust" - an imitation of large protruding stones.

Rhythmic arrangement of openings, different shapes of windows framed with white platbands.

The plastered facade was painted in two colors, most often in a combination of red and white.

The interior decoration was decided on the principle of an enfilade - a series of rooms adjoining each other, the doorways of which are located on the same axis, which created a through perspective.

In the first quarter XVIII century, 22 temples were built. In the construction of church buildings, there was a combination of elements of the order system (columns, porticos, pediments) with Novomoskovsk Baroque. The temples were spacious, bright, they had a desire for height, tiered, sculpture was used. Rich ornamentation and bell towers were hallmark. There were temples of centric composition, looking up.

Developed wooden architecture. The Church of the Transfiguration on the island of Kizhi received worldwide fame. The secular beginning in architecture gained predominance over the church.

Cultural transformations and innovations of the 18th century concerned mainly the privileged classes of Russian society. They hardly affected the lower classes. They led to the destruction of the former organic unity of Russian culture. In addition, these processes were not without costs and extremes, when some representatives of the highest circles of society completely forgot the Russian language and culture, Russian traditions and customs. Nevertheless, objectively they were necessary and inevitable. Cultural transformations contributed to the overall development of Russia. Without a modern secular culture, Russia would not be able to claim a worthy place among the advanced countries.

Conclusion

In the first quarter of the 18th century, transformations were carried out in Russia that were directly related to the "Europeanization" of Russian culture. The main content of the reforms in this area was the formation and development of secular national culture, secular education, serious changes in everyday life and customs carried out in terms of Europeanization.

Nevertheless, the Russian culture of the XVIII century is formed as a national culture. At the same time, as already mentioned, it becomes an element of world, or rather, Western European culture. Russian art - literature, architecture, theater and fine arts - develops within the framework of classicism1, often outgrowing these frameworks. Let us sum up the results of the development of Russian culture of the eighteenth century.

First, is the emergence of a secular style of culture. It is formed and developed in various directions. driving force new culture is the "liberation of thought" from rigid religious dogmas.

Secondly, freethinking acts as a factor in the formation of a new social group- Russian intelligentsia. This process will unfold widely in the 19th century, but its origins are in the century under consideration.

Thirdly, among the problems that are of particular interest to cultural figures, a special place is given to social and ethical ones. The result of their consideration was the development of an anthropocentric picture of the world, finally established in Russian culture.

Russian culture of the 18th century fulfilled its great mission: it became a culture that inspired Russian life with new ideals and laid the foundations of Russian public consciousness. In the artistic culture, the principles, the most complete implementation, were formed, which were already determined by the 19th century. The great culture of Russia of the new century overshadows in its significance the contradictory, full of searches and painful transition from the medieval era to the Enlightenment, the culture of the previous century. But it is the basis of the remarkable processes of development of Russian spirituality in the 19th and even 20th centuries.

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