Culture of Athens and Sparta. Classes of society in ancient Greece
Department of Education, Science and Youth Policy
Voronezh region
State budgetary professional educational institution
Voronezh region "Borisoglebsk technical school of industrial
and information technologies"
A set of testing and measuring materials for the discipline
OPV. 02 Russia in the world
43.01.09 "Cook, pastry chef"
A set of testing and measuring materials on the subject Russia in the world (elective course) was developed in accordance with the requirements of the Federal State educational standard secondary general education, by order of the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation dated May 17, 2012 No. 413 (as amended on December 31, 2015) (Registered with the Ministry of Justice of Russia on June 7, 2012 No. 24480); “On approval of the federal state educational standard of secondary general education” with amendments and additions dated December 29, 2014.
Methodologist Deputy Director
L.N. Bolotova___________S.S. Prokhorova
Considered by the cycle commission of general education disciplines
Protocol dated “___” _____________ 2017 No. ____
Chairman of the center _______________ T.A. Pokhvashcheva
Developers:
Lomakina Nadezhda Aleksandrovna, teacher of the State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Education "BTPIT"
General provisions
Testing and measuring materials (CMM) are intended for monitoring and assessing the educational achievements of students who have mastered the subject program Russia in the world
CMMs include control materials for ongoing monitoring and intermediate certification in the form of differentiated assessments and tests.
Results of mastering the subject
Main tasks implementation of the approximate program of the educational subject “Russia in the world” (basic level) are:
formation of ideas about Russia in different historical periods based on knowledge in the field of social studies, history, geography, cultural studies, etc.;
formation of knowledge about the place and role of Russia as an integral part of the world in the context of global development, as a defining component of the formation of Russian identity;
formation of a view on modern world from the point of view of Russia’s interests, understanding of its past and present;
formation of ideas about the unity and diversity of the multinational Russian people; understanding of tolerance and multiculturalism in the world;
developing the skills to use a wide range of socio-economic information to analyze and evaluate specific situations of the past and present;
developing the skills of comparative analysis of historical events that took place in one historical period in different sociocultural communities, and similar historical processes that took place in different chronological periods;
developing the ability to distinguish interpretations of the past based on factual material from deliberate distortions that do not have documentary evidence;
formation of ideas about the features of modern global society, information policy and mechanisms for creating the image of historical and modern Russia in the world;
developing the skills of reconstructing and interpreting Russia’s past based on sources, mastering the skills of synthesizing various historical information for a comprehensive analysis and modeling, based on it, options for the further development of Russia.
Formscontrol of the subject
Critically analyze the source of historical information (characterize the authorship of the source, time, circumstances and purposes of its creation);
assessment of the effectiveness and quality of fulfillment of educational tasks
Analyze historical information presented in different sign systems (text, map, table, diagram, audiovisual series);
Distinguish between facts and opinions, historical descriptions and historical explanations in historical information;
Analysis of the student’s abilities to express his thoughts, his attitude to reality in accordance with communicative tasks in various situations and areas of communication.
Establish cause-and-effect relationships between phenomena, the spatial and temporal framework of the historical processes and phenomena being studied;
Assessment of practical work performance
performance evaluation creative tasks
Participate in discussions on historical problems, formulate your own position on the issues under discussion, using historical information for argumentation;
Evaluation of student work at seminars, educational and practical conferences, and Olympiads
Present the results of studying historical material in the form of a summary, abstract, review.
Assessment of independent work performance
Basic facts, processes and phenomena characterizing the integrity of domestic and world history;
Periodization of world and national history;
Oral questioning, composing dialogues, expert assessment of the implementation of practical work, observation of the implementation of practical individual tasks;
Modern versions and interpretations of the most important problems of national and world history;
Historical conditionality of modern social processes;
Features of Russia's historical path, its role in the world community.
Monitoring the organization of work with information.
Monitoring the results of mastering the subject
Section 2. Pre-civilization stage of human history
Questions for control
(Appendices 1)
Section 3. Civilizations of the Ancient World
Test tasks
(Appendix 2)
Section 4. Traditional (agrarian) society of the Middle Ages
Questions for control
(Appendices 3)
Section 5. New time
Test tasks
(Appendix 4)
Section 6. Industrial society in the second half of the 19th – early 20th centuries.
Questions for control
(Appendices 5)
Interim certification in the form of differentiated credit (Appendix 6)
5. Evaluation criteria:
- an “excellent” grade is given to the student if the work was completed completely without errors or shortcomings;
- rating “good” awarded for work completed in full, but if it contains no more than one gross and one minor error and one defect, no more than three defects ;
- rating “satisfactory” is given if the student correctly completed at least 2/3 of the entire work or made no more than one gross error and two defects, no more than one gross error and one minor error, no more than three minor errors, one minor error and three defects, if there are 4 - 5 shortcomings ;
- rating “unsatisfactory” is given if the number of errors and shortcomings exceeded the norm for a grade of 3 or less than 2/3 of the entire work was completed correctly, or did not complete a single task at all.
Annex 1.
Section 2. Pre-civilization stage of human history
1. Formulate what is the essence of the changes that occurred during the period called the “Neolithic Revolution”?
2. What technological operations are required? and the bones were mastered by man during the Neolithic period? What knowledge did a person acquire that allowed him to achieve this?
3. What changes in society and in the surrounding space resulted from the emergence of more advanced tools in human hands?
4. Read the text below. Fill in the missing words. Divide the text into 3 parts and title each of them.
The very first changes occur in the field of technology for the production of tools and the properties of materials. The man has reached art in stone and bone processing. Processing operations such as _______________ and _______________ were opened. The tools acquired new properties, became complex, _________________. Usage in the manufacture of tools they changed the conditions of life based on _______________. Man managed to discover and learn to use what today we call laws And (lever, elastic force, friction force). Man discovered the properties of _______________ and learned how to create ceramic dishes. He invented _____________________ and learned how to weave linen and sew clothes. Man learned the properties of _________________ and learned to make tools from it. Man's first acquaintance with copper occurred, apparently, through natural nuggets, which they tried to process by hitting them with other stones. The pieces did not break off from the nuggets, but were deformed, and they could be given the required shape. This processing method is called __________________________. Later, copper tools were learned to be made using the _________________ method, which made it possible to give the product a complex shape. However, copper is a soft metal, copper tools quickly became dull and deformed. Experimenting, soon a man discovered that a small addition to the copper melt makes ______________ the product is more durable. This is how _________________ appeared. However, the successes of mankind in the Neolithic era quietly became the cause of deep _________________. The human population, living off hunting as the main means of obtaining food, has practically exterminated the fauna suitable for hunting. There was nothing left to eat. Scientists claim that the world's population during this period died out by __________%. And then those few communities of people in which the rudiments of a productive economy already existed came to the fore. And then those few communities of people in which the rudiments of a _____________________ economy already existed came to the fore. It was their descendants who subsequently populated the territories. Their activities over the past 10 millennia have radically changed the face of the planet. Humanity since then has hardly made a more important breakthrough than our ancestors in the Neolithic period.
Appendix 2
Section 3. Civilizations of the Ancient World
"Ancient Civilizations".
Option 1.
Part 1
1. Modern man appeared
a) 2-1.5 billion years ago b) 4-3 million years ago
c) 100-40 thousand years ago d) 6-5 thousand years ago
2. The development of Chinese statehood and civilization was based on ideas
a) Buddhism b) Taoism
c) Vedism d) Confucianism
3. Ancient Eastern ruler
a) had unlimited power over his subjects
b) chosen by the highest nobility
c) had only religious functions
d) had no property
4. It is typical for ancient Eastern despotism
a) participation of the people in government
b) the all-encompassing domination of the state over its subjects
c) lack of a tax system
d) lack of written laws
5. Historians consider the beginning of Antiquity
a) turn of the IV-III millennium BC. e. b) turn of the III-II millennium BC. e.
c) mid-2nd millennium BC e. d) beginning of the 1st millennium BC. e.
6. Greek religion and mythology were characterized by
a) the systematic nature of mythology
b) monotheism
c) design of a unified Greek pantheon
d) absence of temples and cult
e) the existence in each polis of its own pantheon of gods
7. In Roman law it was formulated
a) the concept of property, including private
b) the right of only Roman citizens
c) justification for the obligatory nature of slavery
d) the right to freedom of speech
8. Factors contributing to the creation of a special form of state - despotism:
a) hierarchical system
b) the need to organize collective work
c) extensive administrative system
d) the need for rigid organization, strong central authority
9. The religious and philosophical doctrine of Buddhism originated:
a) in China b) in India
c) in Babylon d) in Egypt
10. Features of ancient Indian society:
a) social inequality b) caste system
c) wealth stratification d) patriarchal family
11. Greek civilization is characterized by:
a) colonization b) traditionalism
c) hierarchy d) caste
12. In ancient Greek society the following were valued:
a) cult of personality
b) the ability to subordinate one’s interests to the state ones
c) the principle of competition
d) a sense of collectivism
13. Historians call the Roman Republic:
a) democratic b) aristocratic
c) oligarchic d) imperial
14. The pantheon of gods of Ancient Rome includes:
a) Zeus and Hera b) Jupiter and Juno
c) Athena and Apollo d) Mars and Venus
Part 2
Neolithic revolution, despotism, ancient slavery, Hellenism, myth.
2. Arrange in chronological order the main stages of human development.
the emergence of a skilled man
B) the appearance of Australopithecus
emergence of homo sapiens
D) the appearance of Homo erectus
3. Match the term and its definition.
B) military despotism
D) sociogenesis
D) archeology
the process of emergence of social relations between people and forms of organization of social life
a special historical discipline that studies the historical past of mankind from material sources
an independent state that included the city and adjacent land, and had self-government for the townspeople
state formation, the main task of which was to provide protection to communities, cities and traders from external enemies
a system in which women occupied a dominant position (maternal right, matrilineal gender)
4. Read an excerpt from the document and complete the tasks
List the features of imperial power in Byzantium.
How did it differ from the power of the monarchs of Western Europe?
What qualities should an emperor have?
Why did the Byzantines value these particular qualities of the emperor?
Tasks for control
"Ancient Civilizations".
Option 2.
Part 1
1. Signs of the Neolithic Revolution
a) cultivation of cereals and raising animals
b) lack of private property
c) predominantly nomadic lifestyle
d) the existence of a neighboring community
e) the emergence of tribal gods
f) the predominance of gathering
2. At the turn of the IV-III millennium BC. e.
a) the first civilizations arose
b) the Neolithic revolution began
c) modern man appeared
d) religion was born
3. The transition of humanity from primitiveness to civilization has been completed
a) 40 thousand years ago b) in the 9th millennium BC e.
c) in the 2nd millennium BC. e. d) at the turn of the IV-III millennium BC. e.
4. The oldest center of Greek civilization
a) Athens b) Sparta
c) Ionia d) Crete
5. A citizen of the Greek polis had the right
a) engage in crafts and trade
b) sell his son into slavery
c) participate in government
d) refuse to participate in a military campaign
d) protect your policy from the enemy
6. Octavian Augustus
a) became the first Roman emperor
b) first established an indefinite dictatorship in Rome
c) was a famous Roman poet
d) became famous for creating the code of Roman law
7. A feature of Eastern societies was their strict:
a) hierarchy b) caste
c) religiosity d) isolation
8. The main production cell in ancient societies was:
a) patriarchal family b) rural community
c) corporation of merchants d) neighborhood community
9. The most privileged segments of the population of eastern society:
a) tribal and military aristocracy
b) artisans and merchants
c) kings and priests
d) officials and soldiers
10. In the ancient eastern states, a special form of state developed:
a) despotism b) monarchy
c) tyranny d) dictatorship
11. The main body of the Roman Republic:
a) Forum b) Consulate
c) Senate d) Capitol
12. The Greek polis is called:
a) civil community b) rural community
c) patriarchal community d) urban community
a) patricians
c) aristocrats
d) plebeians
14. The pantheon of gods of Ancient Greece includes:
a) Zeus and Hera
b) Jupiter and Juno
c) Athena and Apollo
d) Mars and Venus
Part 2
1. Define the concepts:
civilization, metropolis, tyranny, republic, polis.
2 . Mark the correct statements with a “+” sign.
1. Cro-Magnons are direct descendants of Neanderthals2. The age of the oldest bone remains of human ancestors exceeds 3 million years
3. Ancient man settled from America to Asia
4. Nomadic cattle breeding developed in the steppe zone
5. The first metal that man mastered was copper
6. The areas of earliest agriculture and pastoralism are South Africa and Australia
7. The birth of art occurred in the Neolithic era
8. The first large agricultural settlements arose in the territory of modern Turkey and Palestine
3. Match the term and its definition.
B) Neolithic revolution
B) anthropogenesis
D) tribe
D) slavery
transition from an appropriating to a producing type of economic activity
the science of human origins and evolution
a community of people united by family ties, a common economy, language and traditions.
a socio-economic system in which some people were the property of authorities, nobility, temples, and artisans.
a system in which the dominant position was occupied by a man (paternal right, patrilineal lineage)
4. Read an excerpt from the biography of the Prophet Muhammad and indicate the event it talks about.
Write what are the five pillars of Islam?
How is Islam different from other world religions?
Answers.
Option 1. Option 2.
A 1. a, b, d
Appendix 3
Section 4. Traditional (agrarian) society of the Middle Ages
Option 1.
1.Occurrence Old Russian state refers to
1) VIII century 2) 9th century 3) X century 4) XI century.
2. Weather records of historical events in the XI-XVII centuries. V.
1) chronicles 2) steppe books 3) lives 4) epics
3.The adoption of Christianity by Russia refers to
1) 907 2)945g. 3)988 4)1097g.
4. Read an excerpt from the chronicle and note which prince we're talking about.
“...and easily went on campaigns, and fought a lot. On campaigns, he did not carry any carts or boilers with him, and did not cook meat. He didn’t even have a tent, but slept with a sweatcloth on his back, with a saddle in his head... And he sent to other lands with the words: “I’m coming to you.”
1) Yaroslav the Wise 2) Svyatoslav 3) Vladimir Svyatoslavich 4) Igor
5.Back at the beginning of the 10th century. began to spread in Rus' Slavic writing, created
1) Yaroslav the Wise 2) Cyril and Methodius
3) Boris and Gleb 4) Nestor
6.Which prince became famous for his “Teaching to Children” and victories over the Polovtsians, and his reign became the finale in the history of the Old Russian state centered in Kyiv?
1)Vladimir Monomakh 2)Yaroslav the Wise
3) Vladimir Krasnoe Solnyshko 4) Vsevolod
1) Metropolitan Peter 2) Nestor
3) monk Lawrence 4) bishop Jonah
8. Read an excerpt from the work of N.M. Karamzin and write the name of the prince mentioned in the text.
“This prince, called Equal-to-the-Apostles by the Church, has earned in history the name of the Great. His main right to eternal glory and the gratitude of posterity lies, of course, in the fact that he put the Russians on the path true faith; but the name of the Great belongs to him for state affairs.”
9.Rank the following terms in chronological order of their appearance.
1) “Russian Truth” 2) strife 3) graveyards 4) tribal community
10.Make a match.
B) Igor 2) defeat of the Polovtsians
B) Vladimir the Holy 3) the beginning of written legislation
D) Oleg the Prophet 4) unification of Novgorod and Kyiv
5) Baptism of Rus'
What was the significance of the adoption of Christianity in Rus'?
The reign of the Yaroslavichs is...
Russian Truth is...
Ancient Rus'
Option 2.
1. In which city did the Varangian Rurik reign?
1) in Moscow 2) in Novgorod 3) in Kyiv 4) in Vladimir
2.Kiev became the capital of the Old Russian state in
1)862g. 2)879 3)882g. 4)912g.
3. The prince and his retinue travel around the subject lands in order to collect tribute
1) corvee 2) quitrent 3) feeding 4) polyudye
4.The reign of which prince was marked by the Baptism of Rus'?
1) Vladimir 2) Oleg 3) Svyatoslav 4) Igor
5.The first Russian saints were
1) Peter and Pavel 2) Boris and Gleb
3) Vasily and George 4) Dmitry and Matthew
6. The chronicle story about the calling of the Varangians served as the basis for the creation in the 30s of the 18th century. the so-called Norman theory of the origin of the Old Russian state. Its development is associated with the name(s)
1) M.V. Lomonosov 2) V.N. Tatishchev 3) E. Bayer and G. Miller 4) P.P. Shafirov
7. N.M. Karamzin, assessed the state activities of the Old Russian princess, noted that before her time “the great princes fought - she ruled the state.” This is the princess
1) Evdokia 2) Anna 3) Rogneda 4) Olga
8. Read an excerpt from the chronicle and write the name of the prince with whom the chronicle connects the events described.
“In the year 6473 (965) the prince went against the Khazars and defeated the Khazars in battle and took the capital. In the year 6474 (966) he defeated the Vyatichi and imposed tribute on them. In the year 6475 (967) he went against the Bulgarians and defeated the Bulgarians.”
9. Arrange the names of the princes in the chronological order of their reign.
1) Igor 2) Vladimir Monomakh 3) Yaroslav the Wise 4) Oleg
10.Make a match.
A) Yaroslav the Wise 1) uprising of the Drevlyans
B) Igor 2) defeat of the Polovtsians
B) Svyatoslav 3) the beginning of written legislation
D) Oleg 4) unification of Novgorod and Kyiv
5) Defeat and destruction of the Khazar Kaganate
Part 2. (Tasks with short answer)
The meaning of the adoption of Christianity in Rus'.
The reign of the Yaroslavichs is...
Russian Truth is...
The main decision of the Lyubech Congress.
Appendix 4
Section 5. New time
1. The first countries to embark on the path of exploring new lands were:
A) Portugal and England B) The Netherlands and Spain
B) England and the Netherlands D) Spain and Portugal
2. The following discovery by him was named in honor of Magellan:
B) mainland
B) north-eastern coast of Africa
D) a strait between South America and the island
3. As a result of the Great Geographical Discoveries:
A) a single world market began to take shape
B) the importance of the cities of Venice and Genoa has increased
C) the first began to appear colonial empires
D) feudal fragmentation in Europe intensified
D) the amount of gold brought to Europe decreased.
4. Establish a correspondence between the elements of the left and right columns:
5. The principle of “one monarch, one law, one religion” is characteristic of:A) republic B) absolutism
B) democracy D) fragmentation
6. Absolutism reached its peak in:
A) XV century. B) XVI century C) XVII century D) XVIII century
Select multiple answer options:
7.In early modern times absolute monarchy developed in European countries:
A) Germany B) France C) England D) Italy E) India
8. Funds invested in production for the purpose of making a profit are called:
A) capital B) stock exchange
B) guild D) bank
9. In a manufactory, as opposed to a craft workshop:
A) there was manual labor
B) subsistence farming dominated
B) labor productivity was low
D) there was a division of labor
10. A sign of the development of capitalism in early modern times:
A) the emergence of manufactures
B) the use of hired labor
B) the existence of a subsistence economy
D) serfdom of peasants
D) the presence of the king's power
11. Find correspondence between concept and definition
12. Humanism is called:A) the science of origin and development human society
B) a doctrine that recognizes man as the highest value of the world
C) the fight against the sale of indulgences
D) Christian religion
13. Renaissance figures advocated:
A) restoration of the old order
B) prohibition of any religion
B) development of scientific knowledge
D) strengthening the power of the church
14. Establish the correct correspondence between the author and the work:
15. . Indicate the missing element in the sentence:Supporters of not a divine, churchly, but a secular, human view of the world around us called themselves ____________________________.
16. Creativity of figures Italian Renaissance characterizes:
A) a look at ancient culture as an example of art
B) the use of the canons of medieval art
C) refusal to depict linear perspective
D) unrealistic portrayal of characters
17. Features of Renaissance art:
A) attention to the person’s personality
B) renunciation of the pleasures of earthly life
B) significant connection with medieval painting
D) use of the achievements of ancient culture
D) lack of portrait resemblance in images of people
18. Fill in the missing element in the sentence:
The name of the Renaissance figure who was a painter, sculptor, architect, engineer and scientist at the same time is __________________.
Choose one correct answer:
19. The idea of the Earth’s rotation around the Sun was first expressed by:
A) Erasmus of Rotterdam B) Christopher Columbus
B) Nicolaus Copernicus D) Isaac Newton
20. Which studied event (phenomenon, process) do you consider the most interesting (important)? Give reasons for your answer.
Appendix 5
Section 6. Industrial society in the second half of the 19th – early 20th centuries.
Tests
1. Note the reasons for the abolition of serfdom in Russia:
a) it slowed down the implementation of the industrial revolution in Russia
b) it was beneficial to the majority of landowners who sought to switch to the use of hired labor
c) it slowed down the introduction of intensive forms of farming
d) the decline of a significant number of landowner farms
e) the country faced the threat of a new Pugachevism
e) serfdom led to a narrow domestic market
g) dissatisfaction of educated society with the defeat in the Crimean War
h) the abolition of serfdom was provided for by the Peace of Paris
i) it preserved military-technical backwardness.
2. Note the features of the peasant reform of 1861:
a) immediate release of peasants with free provision ;
b) immediate liberation of peasants without the provision of land;
c) immediate release of the peasants with the provision of a land plot for ransom;
e) state assistance to peasants in paying ransom for land plots;
g) restriction of liberated peasants’ civil rights;
h) creation of state self-government bodies;
i) maintaining the administrative power of the landowner over the peasants)
k) determination of allotment to peasants by mutual agreement of the landowner and peasants.
3. Determine the sequence of stages in preparing the peasant reform:
a) creation of Editorial Commissions;
b) creation of the Secret Committee;
c) the creation of provincial committees for the development of local reform projects;
d) rescript of Alexander II to Nazimov;
e) consideration of the final draft reforms in the Main Committee;
f) the arrival of noble deputies of the “second conscription” to St. Petersburg;
g) consideration of the final draft reforms in the State Council;
h) speech of Alexander II to the Moscow nobility with a statement on the need to abolish serfdom;
i) the arrival of noble deputies of the “first conscription” to St. Petersburg;
j) signing by Alexander II of the final draft of reforms.
4. Determine the sequence of implementation of the peasant reform:
a) drawing up statutory charters between landowners and peasants;
b) providing peasants with personal freedom and civil rights;
c) transfer of peasants to ransom;
d) the transition of peasants to the position of “temporarily obliged”;
e) termination of redemption payments from peasants to the state;
f) concluding a buyout transaction between landowners and peasants;
5. Check the correct definition of the concept “temporarily obligated”
a) a peasant who took a loan from his landowner;
b) a peasant who received personal freedom, but continued to bear some duties in favor of the landowner;
c) a peasant who paid off the landowner, but paid the redemption loan to the state;
d) a peasant who has not yet concluded a charter with the landowner;
e) a peasant who rents part of the land from the landowner.
6. Note the reformer - the chairman of the Editorial Commissions, who insisted on presenting land plots to the liberated peasants:
a) M. M. Speransky; b) Alexander II; c) K. N. Romanov - brother of Alexander II;
d) Ya. I. Rostovtsev; d) D. A. Milyutin.
7. Note the principles of the court established by the reform of 1864:
a) the presence of separate courts for each class;
b) independence of judges from the administration;
c) popular elections of judges;
d) adversarial nature of the prosecution and defense;
e) the oral nature of consideration of cases in court;
f) universality of the court;
g) the secrecy of trials;
h) irremovability of judges;
i) the accountability of judges to the Ministry of Justice;
j) publicity of the trial.
8. Note the provisions of the judicial reform of 1864:
a) introduction of jury trials;
b) popular elections of judges;
c) preservation of elements of class:
d) giving the Senate the highest functions authorities;
e) introduction of the legal profession;
f) widespread introduction of courts-martial;
c) strengthening local government support;
d) creating a tool for effectively combating the revolutionary movement;
e) introduction of the party-political system.
11. Note the events of military reforms during the reign of Alexander II:
a) creation of a system of military districts;
b) introduction of recruitment into the army;
c) rearmament of the Russian army;
d) reduction of military service periods;
e) creation of a system of local self-defense from detachments local residents;
f) introduction of all-class military service;
g) exemption from military conscription due to marital status;
h) reduction of military service periods depending on education;
i) creation of a system of military settlements;
j) transformation of the system of military educational institutions;
l) use of lots for the next conscription into the army.
12. Note the reforms carried out in the 60-70s of the 19th century:
a) abolition of serfdom;
b) a sharp increase in yield;
c) low yield growth;
d) Russia's rise to first place in grain exports;
e) transformation of the wealthy peasant into the main supplier of commercial and export grain;
f) maintaining the peasant's land dependence on the landowner;
g) maintaining the economic dependence of the peasant on the landowner;
h) mining system;
i) reduction of landowners ;
j) preservation of communal land tenure;
k) gradual elimination of communal land ownership;
l)) preservation of landownership.
21. The development of capitalism in agriculture in post-reform Russia was characterized by the following
m) gradual liquidation of landownership;
n) strengthening the process of stratification of the peasantry;
n) the predominance of landowners' farms of the capitalist type;
p) the predominance of mixed-type landowner farms;
c) Prussian type of development of capitalism throughout the territory Russian Empire;
r) the Prussian type of development of capitalism in the Central agricultural region;
y) the American type of development of capitalism in the steppe regions of the Volga region and the North Caucasus;
t) the American type of development of capitalism in the Central agricultural region;
22. A. M. Gorchakov is famous for the fact that:
a) managed to achieve the conclusion of a Russian-French military-political alliance after the Crimean War;
b) was a lyceum friend of A.S. Pushkin;
c) was able to achieve for Russia the abolition of the shameful terms of the Paris Peace Treaty
in peaceful way;
23.The reasons for the Russian-Turkish war were:
a) Turkey’s desire to conquer Bosnia, Herzegovina and Bulgaria;
b) the desire of the Russian government to help fraternal peoples gain independence;
c) an uprising against the Turkish yoke in Bosnia, Herzegovina and Bulgaria;
e) pressure from the Russian public;
f) Turkey’s desire to occupy Bessarabia, which belongs to Russia.
24. Restore the chronological sequence of the Russian-Turkish war.
a) the beginning of the defense of Shipka;
b) San Stefano Peace Treaty;
c) Russia's declaration of war on Turkey;
d) capture of Plevna;
e) entry of Russian troops into Andrianople;
f) capture of Sofia by Russian troops.
25. Compare the contract and its terms
1. Treaty of San Stefano
2. Berlin Treaty.
a) Bulgaria received the status of an autonomous principality;
b) complete independence of Serbia, Montenegro and Romania;
c) territorial increments of Serbia, Montenegro and Romania;
d) reduction of the territory of Serbia and Montenegro;
e) the right of Austria-Hungary to occupy Bosnia and Herzegovina;
f) the return of Southern Bessarabia to Russia;
g) transfer of Southern Bessarabia to Turkish rule;
h) transfer of the Kars region to Russia;
i) the right of England to send troops to Cyprus.
26). Restore the chronological sequence of events:
a) attempt by V. Zasulich on F. Trepov;
b) attempt by A. Solovyov on Alexander II;
c) attempt by A. Solovyov on Alexander II;
c) attempt by D. Karakozov on Alexander II;
d) the formation of a circle of “Chaikovites”;
e) self-dissolution of the first organization “Land and Freedom”
f) the emergence of the second organization “Land and Freedom”
g) the split of the second organization “Land and Freedom” into “Black Redistribution” and “People’s Will”;
h) execution of the “First Marchers”
i) the final defeat of “Narodnaya Volya”;
j) release of the proclamation “Young Russia”
k) the first “going among the people”;
m) the second “going to the people”;
n) assassination of Alexander II.
27) Andrey Zhelyabov is famous for the fact that:
a) organized a series of assassination attempts on Alexander II, which ended in the murder of the Tsar;
b) moved away from the terrorist trend in populism, moving to the position of Marxism;
c) was the leader of the populist organization “Land and Freedom”;
d) was the leader of the populist organization Narodnaya Volya;
e) was the leader of the populist organization “Black Redistribution”;
f) was a consistent supporter of propaganda work in the village;
g)) was a consistent supporter of the tactics of individual terror.
28) Sofya Perovskaya is famous for the fact that:
a) led the last attempt on the life of Alexander II;
b) was sentenced to a five-year term of solitary confinement and lifelong hard labor after the murder of Alexander II;
d) was one of the members of the organization “Land and Freedom”
e) was one of the members of the “People's Will” organization;
f) was one of the members of the Black Redistribution organization;
g) was executed in the case of the First Marchers.
29) “People's Will” is:
a) a newspaper published by M. A. Bakunin;
e) an underground organization created by S. Nechaev;
f) underground populist organization headed by A. I. Zhelyabov and S. L. Perovskaya;
g)) an underground organization headed by G. V. Plekhanov;
h)) an underground organization that organized the assassination of Alexander II;
30) “Black redistribution” is:
a) a newspaper published by N. G. Chernyshevsky;
b) the title of the book by M. A. Bakunin;
c) a populist organization that has taken the path of individual terror tactics;
d) a populist organization that has taken the path of propaganda work in the countryside;
e) an underground organization that arose after the split of “Land and Freedom”;
f) an underground organization headed by A. I. Zhelyabov and S. L. Perovskaya;
g) an underground organization headed by G. V. Plekhanov;
i) an underground organization that arose in response to the peasant reform of 1861.
31. Participants in the “Union of Three Emperors” were:
a) Russia; b) England; c) France; d) Germany; e) Austria - Hungary
Answers to tests “Russia in the second half of the 19th century” century"
Question no.
No. question
No. question
No. question
No. question
No. question
A, c, d. e, f, i
A-2, b-1, c-1, d-2, f-2, g-2. z-1
K, d c. d e, f m a, b, g. n, z, i.
V, A.Zh, Z.L.
B. g.d. e.z.k
1-b. V. 2-a. g.d.
H, b, d, c, a, i, f, d.g. To.
A, c, d, d, g, i.
1-c, 2-d, 3-a, 4-d, 5-b.
B. v. g, h. and, to
B, a, d f. c, d
B, a.g, e.d. b
B, v.e, g, i, l
V, g.z, zhi. k.m
1-b, v.e, h. 2-(a b)d, e, g, i.
Appendix 6
Interim certification
in the form of differentiated credit
Differentiated testing is carried out in the form of performing tests according to 2 options.
The assignments are compiled taking into account the requirements for knowledge and skills in the subject of Russia in the world.
Part A contains 12 tasks. For each task, four possible answers are given, of which only one is correct.
Part B consists of 5 tasks, each task has 2-3 correct answers from the proposed options. In the checklist for solving test tasks, you must indicate the letters corresponding to the correct answers, separated by commas.
Part C contains one task with a detailed answer. This task requires a complete reasoned answer to the question: give an explanation, description or justification, express and argue own opinion, draw up a plan for speaking on the question in accordance with which the topic will be covered. When completing the task of this part, you must write down your answer logically and stylistically correctly, give examples and arguments, and be able to reason, compare and analyze.
When completing assignments, you can use drafts; entries in the draft will not be taken into account when grading the work. When checking a paper, the three parts are assessed together, then a score is assigned by adding up the points for the correct answers.
Evaluation criteria
Each correctly completed task in Part 1 is worth 1 point. If the answer is incorrect or there is no answer - 0 points. The maximum number of points is 12.
Correctly completed tasks in Part 2 are scored 2 points. The maximum number of points is 10. An incomplete answer may be scored one point.
Part 3 assignments are worth 2 points. The maximum number of points is 2. For incomplete answers, factual and grammatical errors, no more than one point is awarded. If 1/3 of the correct answer is given, then one point is also given.
Score “5” - number of points 24 - 22
Score “4” - number of points 21 - 16
Score “3” - number of points 15 - 12
Score “2” - number of points - less than 11
Option I
Part A.
1. Which of the following can be determined as the reason for the restructuring?
A) worsening relations with the United States in the early 80s.
B) successes of social policy in the USSR
B) the arms race undermined the economy of the USSR
2. What reforms of the political system relate to the perestroika period?
A) convening the Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR
B) formation of the State Duma
C) introduction of the post of President in the country
D) abolition of Article 6 of the Constitution
3. Find the correct statement:
A) political reforms in the USSR led to an increase in the authority of the CPSU
B) as a result political reforms The CPSU lost its monopoly of power
C) the result of political reforms in the USSR was an increase in the number of members of the CPSU
4. Which of the Soviet republics was the first to declare its sovereignty?
A) LithuaniaB) Estonia C) Ukraine
5. When did the explosion occur at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant?
A) 1985 B) 1986 C) 1988
6. M.S. Gorbachev was elected President of the USSR
7. The highest legislative power in the Russian Federation belongs to
A) Federal Assembly
B) Supreme Court
B) Government
D) To the President
8. The concept of “new political thinking,” which appeared during the perestroika period, means
A) the use of military force in resolving controversial issues
B) curtailment of trade relations with Western countries
B) restoration iron curtain»
D) normalization of East-West relations through disarmament
9. Which of the above concepts refers to political life in the USSR during the period of perestroika?
A) “anti-party group”
B) ideological dictate
B) multi-party system
D) a society of developed socialism
10. The laws of the USSR “On Cooperation” and “On Lease and Rental Relations in the USSR” were adopted during the reign of
A) L.I.Brezhnev B) Yu.V.Andropova
C) M.S. Gorbachev D) B.N. Yeltsin
11. The concepts of “perestroika”, “acceleration”, “glasnost” are associated with politics
A) N.S. Khrushchev
B) L.I. Brezhnev
B) Yu.V.Andropova
D) M.S. Gorbachev
12. The main reason for the USSR’s transition to the policy of perestroika
A) a sharp deterioration of the international situation
B) the need for intensive development of Siberia and the Far East
C) a protracted economic and political crisis in the country
D) mass protests of the population
Part B.
1. Establish a correspondence between the names of the leaders of the USSR and the periods of their stay in power
SURNAME PERIODS
A) N.S. Khrushchev 1) 1982-1984.
B) M.S. Gorbachev 2) 1964-1982.
B) L.I. Brezhnev 3) 1953-1964.
4) 1985-1991
2. Establish a correspondence between concepts and periods with which they are associated
CONCEPTS OF PERIODS
A) perestroika 1) 1945-1953.
B) de-Stalinization 2) 1953-1964.
B) Stalinism 3) 1965-1985.
4) 1985-1991
3. Read an excerpt from a media report and indicate the year when the events described took place:
“According to reliable sources, the President of the USSR M.S. Gorbachev, who was removed from power by the State Emergency Committee on the night of August 19 “due to his inability to govern the state due to health conditions,” is now under house arrest at his dacha in Crimea.”
4. Read an excerpt from the work of a modern historian and indicate what event is being discussed.
“Radioactive contamination... affected many areas of Ukraine, Belarus and Russia - an area of over 200 thousand square kilometers. An increase in the radioactive background was noted in other countries: Poland, Romania, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, Norway, Finland, Sweden, and even in such distant countries as Brazil and Japan.”
5. Establish a correspondence between the names of Soviet leaders and the concepts that they put forward.
SURNAME CONCEPT
A) M.S. Gorbachev 1) achieving political stability in society
B) L.I. Brezhnev 2) “new political thinking”
B) V.V. Putin 3) the concept of “developed socialism”
4) the idea of world revolution
Assess the political transformations in the country during the years of perestroika.
Option 2
Part A.
1. What are the features of the economic reforms of perestroika?
A) creation of the private sector in the economy
B) introduction of rental relations
B) the emergence of farming
D) privatization of state property
2. Which of the political figures of the USSR was rehabilitated during the years of perestroika?
A) N. Bukharin B) V. Molotov C) M. Tukhachevsky
3. When did the coup aimed at curtailing reforms take place in Moscow?
4. In which countries did M.S. Gorbachev’s meetings with US presidents take place?
A) Iceland B) Belgium C) Switzerland D) Spain
5. What successes have been achieved thanks to the policy of new thinking?
A) construction of a joint orbital station began
B) managed to achieve the start of negotiations on resolving the Arab-Israeli conflict
B) the reduction of an entire class of missiles and nuclear weapons began
6. A new phenomenon in the socio-political life of Russia in the 1990s. became
A) holding elections on a non-alternative basis B) developing a dissident movement
B) the formation of a multi-party system
D) subordination of the local government system to the central government
7. The concept of “stagnation” is associated with the period when the USSR was in charge
A) I.V. Stalin B) N.S. Khrushchev C) L.I. Brezhnev D) M.S. Gorbachev
8. The reason for the reduction in industrial production in the USSR in the early 1990s. is
A) rejection of command methods of economic management
B) implementation of privatization of state property
C) the inconsistency of M. Gorbachev’s economic reforms
D) mass strike movement against reforms
9. What was a characteristic feature of Russia's economic development in the 1990s?
A) transition to a territorial system of economic management
B) transition from a directive management system to a market economy
C) introduction of full economic accounting at enterprises
D) improving state planning in the economy
10. In the 1990s. Russian presidents took office as a result of
A) election by the State Duma
B) appointments by the Federal Assembly
B) popular elections
D) appointments by the Constitutional Court
11. The consequences of the policy of glasnost in the USSR include
A) the beginning of rehabilitation of victims Stalin's repressions
B) a decline in interest in the history of socialist society
C) abolition of secrecy of state secrets
D) society’s awareness of the essence of the totalitarian system
12. The consequence of the policy of glasnost in the USSR during the perestroika period was (o)
A) arrest of opponents of perestroika
B) official condemnation of the political activities of the CPSU in previous decades
C) publication of previously prohibited works of literature
D) growth of the ranks of the CPSU
Part B.
1. Establish a correspondence between the events of the 20th century and the years when this event took place
EVENTS YEARS
A) withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan 1) 1993
B) adoption of the Constitution of the Russian Federation 2) 1989
C) formation of the CIS 3) 1998
4) 1991
2. Establish a correspondence between the names of the leaders of the USSR and the periods of their stay in power
SURNAME PERIODS
A) Yu.V.Andropov 1) 1953-1964.
B) N.S. Khrushchev 2) 1964-1982.
B) M.S. Gorbachev 3) 1982-1984.
4) 1985-1991
3. Read an excerpt from a speech by one of the leaders of the Soviet state and indicate his last name:
“Dear compatriots! Fellow citizens! Due to the current situation with the formation of the Commonwealth independent states I am ceasing my activities as President of the USSR. I make this decision for reasons of principle. I firmly stood for independence, the independence of peoples, and the sovereignty of republics. But at the same time, for the preservation of the union state, the integrity of the country. Events took a different path. The prevailing line was to dismember the country and disunite the state, with which I cannot agree.”
4. Read an excerpt from a historical document and indicate the name of the leader of the USSR in question:
“By character he was a good-natured and gentle person, loved a joke and himself embodied stability, which, however, turned into stagnation, and his pliability and vanity led to shameful manipulation by those around him.”
5. Establish a correspondence between the names of cultural figures and their areas of activity.
LAST NAMES FIELDS OF ACTIVITY
A) A. Solzhenitsyn 1) music
B) S. Bondarchuk 2) film directing
B) M. Rostropovich 3) painting
4) literature
Part C. Assess the results of the “glasnost” policy during the years of perestroika.
Key to the test on the topicOption Option II
Part A
1. B 1. A, B, C
2. A, B, D 2. A
3. B 3. C
4. A 4. A, B, D
5. B 5. B, V
6. B 6. C
7. A 7. B
8. G 8. V
9. B 9. B
10.V 10.V
11.G 11.G
12.V 12.V
Part B
1. 342 1. 214
2. 421 2. 314
3. 1991 3. Gorbachev
4. Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant 4. Brezhnev
5. 231 5. 421
“Types of Society” - Compact PC. Role in the transition to an industrial society: The value of time. Earlier. Non-economic coercion to work. Industrial society: science is a productive force. Do you agree with the statement of J.-J. K. Marx. Agrarian civilizations Ancient East. Energy-saving and environmentally friendly technologies will come to the fore.
“Active learning” - Socrates (399 BC) saw the surest way to demonstrate human abilities in self-knowledge. Didactic prerequisites. He insisted that education should teach one to think. Game learning has proven the high effectiveness of using game, competitive, and team teaching methods. Active learning technology.
“Ancient Greek Theater” - Scene from an ancient Greek comedy Drawing on a vase. In front of you is a Greek theater where a performance was given to the public. Theater at Delphi, 4th century. BC e. Skene. Actors Painting on a vase. The emergence of the theater is associated with the name of the god Dionysus, the patron saint of viticulture. Theater of Ancient Greece. Dionysus Painting on a Greek vase.
“Lesson of Human Rights in Society” - Introduction of the concepts “Citizen”, “Civil Society”. Form and structure of the lesson. Epigraph for the lesson. Conditions for the emergence of civil society. Information material. Expected Result. Hearing. State and law." Lesson #8. Goals and objectives of the lesson. The presence of ideas about the place of a Russian citizen in the existing system of relations.
“Society in Modern Times” - 2nd option: tell the definitions of the concepts: farmers and farm laborer. Option 1: tell us the definitions of the concepts: bourgeoisie and new nobility. Nobility. Bourgeoisie. Aristocracy. Story. Structure of society. 2. Group according to certain characteristics. The new nobility (gentry) were nobles who were engaged in business.
“Man, society, state” - Come up with several sentences with one and the other concept. In the organisation. Ancient Romans. Economic. A part of the world that has certain boundaries. People in society seek to destroy. Spiritual. What can separate people? List the values and shrines of our society. Who is ostracized or deprived of life in society?
Introduction
The main features of the economic structure of the city-states of Ancient Greece indicate the formation in the middle of the first millennium BC. a special system of class relations, which researchers of antiquity define as a developed slave society. In its most complete form, this system developed in the developed commercial and industrial cities of Greece, one of which was Athens. Under the influence of many socio-economic and political factors, a special political system also developed here, which became the first example of democratic statehood in history, which contributed to the V-IV centuries. BC. the flourishing of Athenian society - its productive forces, polis organization, and ancient Greek culture.
The interest of researchers in the phenomenon of the slave-owning democratic republic that functioned in Athens in the middle of the 1st millennium BC has not waned for many centuries.
The problem of the position of women is one of the main aspects in the study of the structure of ancient Greek society. Since in Ancient Greece there was a patriarchal system of society, in which women belonged to the category of dependent population that did not have full rights. However, Greek women had certain rights, depending on their social status. One of the basic rights of a woman in Ancient Greece was family rights, which is covered in this article.
The problem of determining the legal status of women in Ancient Greece is complex and not consensus modern historians on this issue. Most researchers talk about the powerless position of women in ancient Greek society. Some of them, such as P. Brule, E. Vardiman, see a negative feature of Greek society in such a situation. At the same time, the German researcher G. Licht believes that this state of affairs was a natural phenomenon inherent in the essence of the ancient Greek woman. However, these points of view represent a generalized view of the position of women in Ancient Greece. VI - third quarter of the IV centuries. BC, since ancient sources clearly reflect the dependence of a woman’s social status on the functions that she performed in the family. A woman's position in society directly depends on her marital status.
The purpose of the work is to analyze the situation of women in Greece.
· Analysis of the social status of women in Greece;
· Consider the marital relations of women in Greece;
· Analyze women's emancipation in Greece.
1. The position of the Greek woman in the family and society
1.1 Social status
The ancient authors themselves already noted large differences in the position of women in different policies. These differences even affected the appearance of women. It was believed that pseudo-Dicaearchus wrote about this in the 2nd-1st centuries. BC, that Theban women stand out among other Greek women by their tall stature and especially attractive gait and demeanor. The women of Boeotia, like the inhabitants of the islands of the Aegean Sea, were famous for their sophistication, education, and penchant for poetry. In Sparta, they cared, first of all, about the health and physical training of girls and young women, so that their children would be healthy, strong, strong; in Sparta they paid much more attention to this than in Athens. Athenian democracy is a male society, strictly and jealously guarded. With regard to both slaves and women, this democracy suffered from the disease of “discrimination”, which had a detrimental effect on the fabric of society. The essence of Athenian democracy was that every citizen had the right to participate in the activities of public institutions. According to the law of Pericles 451 - 450. BC. Only one whose father and mother were full citizens was recognized as a citizen. Consequently, belonging to full-fledged persons was also determined for women. The struggle to limit the circle of persons who had the right to be considered citizens is a characteristic phenomenon in the history of Greek democracy. In Athens, women practically did not participate in public life. In Greek city-states, women never had civil rights similar to those enjoyed by men. They did not have the power to dispose of property (with the exception of Sparta), being entirely under the tutelage of men. In classical Greece, the freedom of women, especially Athenian women, was subject to significant restrictions. The fact that even a freeborn woman did not have civil rights was a widespread phenomenon in ancient society. However, in private life the woman was dependent on the man. She had to obey in everything the will of her parent, and in the event of his death, the will of her brother or guardian appointed to her by her father's will or by decision of state officials. The parents themselves looked for a groom for their daughter; the best candidates were considered to be young people already known to the bride's father. The father had complete power over the fate of his daughter, especially since the role of a woman in the family and her freedom were significantly limited. Girls and women, even though they did not have full civil rights, were instilled with a sense of patriotism and pride in their own polis. In some of them, such as Ephesus, women participated in the public life of the polis. They had financial independence and donated their own money for the improvement of various buildings. G.M. Rogers, in the article “Women's Construction Activities in Ephesus,” introduced the women who participated in the reconstruction of the city. The author analyzes construction inscriptions in which the policy honors women who took part in the construction of monumental structures. The priestesses, in particular, donated their own money for the improvement of various buildings. Polis traditions regulated women's rights to education. Often taught by their husbands, brothers or fathers, some Greek women became famous due to their high level of education. But this phenomenon was not very common. Women in Ancient Greece were needed mainly to take care of the well-being of families and were not allowed to spend too much time on education. The main idea was that women did not need formal education because they did not compete with men. The fallacy of this idea was that women needed to support the work of men, and without education they were not able to provide sufficient support and raise their children. The range of these rights is very limited. In Athens, the girl became acquainted with home economics and women's crafts: spinning, weaving. They did not neglect elementary education, namely, they taught girls to read and write; in this sense, Plato’s advice is valuable: “The “first myths” heard from mothers should be directed towards virtue. There were no schools for girls in Athens, but, say, on the island of Theos the existence of schools attended by children of both sexes is attested. The girls' training program also included singing and dancing, since the ability to sing and dance was necessary in religious celebrations. But Plato asserts, even demands, that in the house of an Athenian citizen there should be a dance teacher - special for girls and for boys. Those who wanted to improve in dancing turned to specialist teachers. On vases of the V-IV centuries. BC. There are often images of dance lessons. The girls are taught by teachers. Teachers are usually given a stern appearance; in their hands, a constant attribute is a cane, a symbol of influence on the student. The fact that in the classical era women rushed to science and that bold “emancipated women” appeared who sought to gain access to occupations “assigned” to men can be evidenced by the following fact: the famous physician Herophilus, who lived in Alexandria during the time of the first Ptolemies, a girl from Athens, a certain Agnoida, studied. It was thanks to the Agnoida, according to the Roman author Hyginus, that women were allowed to study medicine. Women from wealthy circles of the population were required to have the simplest knowledge of therapy and patient care; in rural areas, midwives-healers with considerable experience could provide assistance with simple diseases.
1.2 Women in family and marriage relationships
Girls in Athens were married off early. At fifteen or even twelve years old. The marriage was preceded by a formal betrothal. It was not the girl herself who made the promise to the groom. And her father is on her behalf; if she is an orphan, then her brother or other close relative acted on behalf of her; if there were none, then all her affairs were conducted by a guardian appointed by law. Consanguinity was not an obstacle to marriage. Marriages sometimes even took place between children of the same father. The law prohibited marriage only for those who had a common mother. Later, when marriages were prohibited even between first cousins, other problems arise social nature: A woman’s negative attitude towards marriage. It has been repeatedly noted that ancient society was a “culture of shame”; the fear of losing face was the most important force that forced an individual to act in a certain way or, on the contrary, to avoid inglorious behavior. The key to solving this problem is given by one of the poets of the Palatine Anthology. He tells a sad story about a bride who was torn to pieces by guard dogs when she fled from home on her wedding night, “fearing her first love affair.” Probably the transition to married life frightened many girls. At a very young age, the girl was suddenly faced with the unfolding secrets of her sexual life. At the same time, “to avoid the fate” of marriage meant making a non-life choice: only as a married woman (gyne) could a girl fulfill her destiny in life. And if, due to a small dowry or because of the notoriety of her relatives, the girl did not find a husband, a sad future awaited her. All circumstances of this kind were bound to give rise to many crises in the lives of young girls. Ancient medicine shows a certain understanding that young girls constituted a certain risk group. In the curious essay “On Virgins,” which has come down to us among the works of the school of Hippocrates, a certain doctor notes as a fact that women are more sensitive than men to endure disappointments and therefore hang themselves more often. Virgins show a particular tendency to use a rope loop or throw themselves from a height. Unlike modern doctors, the ancient medical practitioner did not seek explanations in the social structure, which exerted such powerful pressure on the minds of girls. For him, all this is pure physiology. Since they are virgins, menstrual blood does not find a free outlet; it accumulates near the heart and at the diaphragm and forces girls to indulge in dark thoughts. The diagnosis itself suggests therapeutic advice: “Whenever girls fall ill from these causes, I recommend (keleuo) that they start living with men as soon as possible.” And then she asks permission not to get married. The great tragedian Aeschylus, in the surviving play “The Petitioners” (“Pleading”), which is based on the myth of the 50 daughters of Danaus (“Danaids”), turns to the tragic motivations traditional for his time - to the so-called “Turanian” kinship system, which prohibited marriages between cousins, and the aversion of virgins to marriage in general. Main role The Danaid choir plays in the play, Aeschylus describes women's fear, pleas, despair, threats, some hopes for changing their fate. For a long time, the acquaintance of young people before marriage was optional, and it was concluded at the will of the parents. The ancient Greeks' view of marriage was devoid of any romanticism. First of all, the equality of social and property status of the bride and groom was taken into account. In Attica, for example, only marriage between a citizen and a citizen was considered legal. The marriage of a foreigner or foreigner with an Attic citizen or citizen was not approved by law, and children from such a marriage were considered illegitimate. The formal act of marriage initially had the character of a private family celebration and only over time turned into a religious and public legal act. Rulers must also establish the age at which marriage is possible. Aristotle in “Politics” approves of marriage at a “blooming age”, i.e. up to 50 years of age, since “the offspring of immature parents,” as well as the offspring of those who are too young both physically and intellectually, are imperfect. But, if a man and a woman marry without the permission of the ruler, and, therefore, this will go unnoticed by the state, “... the child will not be conceived under the sign of sacrifices and prayers, when the priests and priestesses, as well as the entire state, pray so that there will be offspring better and more useful - such a child is considered illegal.” A child born from parents who are over the specified age is also considered illegal, although a man and a woman can be united at any age, but with the condition that they do not have children. Thus, the life of Athenian citizens (even intimate ones) was subject to polis regulation. An interesting example is given by Plutarch in his Comparative Lives: “When the old mother of Dionysius asked Solon to marry her to a young citizen, he replied that he had overthrown the laws of the state as a tyrant, but he could not violate the laws of nature by establishing marriages that did not correspond to age. And in free states such disgrace is intolerable: unions that are belated, joyless, that do not fulfill the task and do not achieve the goal of marriage should not be allowed. To an old man who marries a young woman, a reasonable ruler would say: “It’s about time you got married, you unfortunate thing!” In the same way, finding a young man in the bedroom of a rich old woman who is getting fat like a partridge from a love relationship with her, he will force him to move on to a girl in need of a husband.”
Already ancient customs provided for a wedding feast in the house of the bride's father and her ceremonial farewell from her parents' house to her husband's house. On the wedding day, the bride's house was decorated with flowers. Early in the morning she performed a ceremonial ablution. After bathing, the bride was dressed and decorated, and in her wedding dress she waited for the start of the celebration. The invitees gathered and made sacrifices to the patron gods of family and marriage: Zeus, Hera, Hestia, Artemis and Moira, and the newlywed herself sacrificed to them her children's toys and a lock of hair. After the religious rites, the father handed his daughter over to his arriving son-in-law, pronouncing a ritual formula confirming that from that moment the girl was free from the obligation to make sacrifices to her ancestors, and would now participate in sacrifices to the ancestors of her husband. This was the most important religious and legal act: the father freed his daughter from his power and transferred her to the guardianship of her husband, into whose family she passed. When a woman became married, she completely lost all independence. “Into the monotony of the life of an Athenian woman”: emphasizes N.A. Krivoshta, only sacrifices and other religious rituals brought content and change. Her only concern is bearing children for her husband and raising her sons until the age of seven, when they are taken from her. She kept her daughters with her, accustoming them to a dull life in the gynecium as a housewife and producer. The wife of an Athenian citizen is merely an "oikurema," an "object" (neuter in Greek) created for the "household." For an Athenian, his wife is only the first among his maids.” Athenian women spent almost all their days in the female half of the house, the gyneceum, doing housework, weaving and sewing, as well as raising children. An Athenian woman always went out into the street accompanied by a slave, and she had to cover her face from the gaze of oncoming men. The Athenians were convinced that a woman should act and behave in such a way that neither good nor bad could be said about her. She simply shouldn't have attracted anyone's attention to herself at all. She was allowed to go outside unaccompanied only after reaching an age when one could rather ask about her: whose mother is this, rather than: whose wife is this. According to G. Huseynov, the family itself was not considered a value among the Greeks; a cool attitude towards family ties was accepted; Children from a certain age were raised in public institutions, love was given to men by hetaeras and courtesans after abundant feasts. In Greek antiquity, corrupt love was viewed without prejudice. It’s not just that the women who could be hired for money were called hetaeras, which could be translated as “givers of joy” or “friends”; The point is also that they spoke and wrote about these priestesses of Venus openly and without a shadow of embarrassment, and the significant role they played in private life was also reflected in Greek literature. If we touched on the topic of courtesans and hetaeras, then it is worth mentioning such a famous woman as Aspasia - the greatest hetaera of Athens.
In the mornings, her face looked strange, reminiscent of an old cracked theater mask, because the famous hetaera before going to bed put a special mask on her face, prepared according to her own beauty recipe. Aspasia perfectly mastered not only rhetoric and philosophy, but also the art of beauty. Her “Treatise on the Preservation of Beauty” reveals the rich experience of a woman who knows everything about what is useful for rejuvenation.
Aspasia slept until late. And then the slaves led her to a huge bowl-shaped vessel. They washed the hetera, dried it thoroughly and applied fragrant oils to the skin with a sponge. Aspasia, sitting on a marble chair, carefully examined her reflection in the mirror. A 40-year-old woman looked at her, still beautiful despite her double chin and slightly protruding neck veins. Stormy life and night vigils could not help but leave marks on his face. Then a specially trained slave twirled the still wet hair, giving it the shape of curls with the help of golden needles. The beautician applied fish paste to the wrinkles with a thin needle, covered the face with a layer of lead white, and applied blush to the cheeks. Lips and chest were painted with carmine...
Courtesans were required to dye their hair yellow. But Aspasia did not like to use saffron juice. She preferred to wear a wig. The slaves carefully attached the straw-colored wig to her head. Aspasia rose majestically from her chair and put on a tunic decorated in Asian fashion. She did not forget about fresh flowers. At such a moment she was a woman without age, or, more precisely, at the age of love.
But she was remembered not only as a beautiful and intelligent courtesan who managed to win the hearts and minds of many men, but also for her connection with Percles, an Athenian politician, leader of the democratic party, famous orator and commander. Pericles' connection with Aspasia was the subject of ridicule and insults from his political enemies. In particular, they argued that the house of Pericles became a brothel filled with courtesans and even married Athenian women who, with their debauchery, helped their husbands in their political careers. Aspasia was considered the “evil genius of Pericles,” the inspiration for his careless policies and autocratic actions.
In general, Aspasia is a most interesting figure. Pericles openly called the “lovely Milesian” his wife, publicly, at meetings and farewells, kissed her, and it is unlikely that he would have risked doing this, knowing the harsh Athenian laws...
But even if Aspasia was only the mistress of the Olympian, most Athenians respected her as the wife of their patron, who, along with the freedom of a hetaera, had the position of a legal wife. For Socrates, Phidias and Anaxagoras, she was a devoted, intelligent friend, for Pericles - a lover and wife, the joy of his life, the charm of his home and confidant in his affairs. She knew the secret of speeches that smooth out wrinkles, love that consoles every sorrow, and affection that intoxicates the mind.
However, one should not assume that the Athenian woman was a dumb, downtrodden creature. Depending on her character and upbringing, a wife could become a worthy life partner, a mother, or a domestic tyrant, embodying the most unpleasant traits. Papyrus documents from the Hellenistic era provide many examples of family conflicts that led to the breakdown of marital relationships. In Athens, a wife's infidelity was considered a sufficient reason for divorce. However, Plato condemned the infidelity of any of the spouses: “... it is not fitting for our citizens to be worse than birds and many other animals born in large herds, which, right up to the time of childbirth, lead a celibate, chaste and pure life. When they reach the proper age, males and females, by inclination, unite with each other in pairs and the rest of the time they lead a pious and just life, remaining faithful to their original choice. Our citizens must be better than animals." An interesting case is given by G.V. Blavatsky: “A husband killed his wife’s seducer, citing the law that allows the death of such a seducer. Apparently, this law, although it was not repealed, was not applied: usually the seducer of a wife got off with either money or shame, but not life-threatening punishment from the offended husband. The wife was to suffer a severe punishment: she was subject to expulsion from her husband’s house and was subjected to various humiliations.” According to the laws of Solon, a woman who was caught with her lover was forbidden to decorate herself and enter public temples, “so as not to seduce the virgins and matrons with her company.” If such a woman adorns herself and enters the temple, then the first person he meets, according to the law, could tear her dress, remove her jewelry and beat her, but “not to death, not to mutilation.” However, despite the strictness of the law, adultery was commonplace. In the tragedy “Medea” by Euripides we find an example of a woman’s revenge caused by her husband’s betrayal. Euripides makes a woman the bearer of a new attitude towards marriage. This is the tragedy of a woman who passionately loved, but was deceived and betrayed by her husband.
Medea is depicted as a woman who desires a different attitude towards marriage than was customary in Greek society. It was important for Euripides to depict emotional drama an insulted woman, and he undoubtedly achieved his goal. The motherly love that resonates in Medea's every word in her central scene shows that in the eyes of Euripides she was not a bloodthirsty fury. Medea is a suffering woman, more capable of extreme acts of revenge than the average Athenian.
Sometimes spouses separated peacefully, by mutual agreement. If the initiative for divorce belonged to the husband, events developed faster and easier. The husband sent his wife along with her dowry to her father or guardian, without even giving any motive. This act of dissolution of marriage was called: “sending away.” The Athenian law on adultery stated the following: “If a man found his wife committing adultery, he could not live with her any longer under pain of dishonor. A woman caught in the act of a crime was deprived of the right to enter the temple; if she entered, then any kind of bad treatment, except death, could be applied to her with impunity.” The laws regarding women at the moment seem extremely ridiculous. Solon gave the right to kill anyone who caught his wife's lover at the scene of a crime; and whoever kidnaps a free woman and rapes her is punishable by a fine of one hundred drachmas. The penalty for pimping is a fine of twenty drachmas; he made an exception only for women who “go openly” - Solon means hetaera - because they go to those who pay money. Further, he prohibits the sale of both daughters and sisters, unless the girl is caught in a criminal relationship with a man. Athenian law condemned cohabitation. Legal marriage was considered mandatory. But cohabitation with a concubine was recognized by Athenian laws and was not persecuted. This is another illustration of how inconsistent the laws of Ancient Greece were in relation to women in the family.
2. Women's emancipation in Greece
In general, the position of women in Ancient Greece is closely related to the various stages of Greek history. Greek history can be compared to a five-act drama. The first act is the Aegean culture, which covers the 3rd-2nd millennium BC. The Second Act marks the general rise of the Greek city-states of Athens and Sparta and lasted until 480 BC. The third act is the golden (Periclean) age. The fourth is characterized by the loss of freedom and the beginning of decline (399 - 322 BC). The last, fifth act is the Hellenistic period after the death of Alexander the Great. This is the era of the greatest "external" flowering, the influence of which spread throughout the world. The true result of the victorious campaigns of Alexander the Great and the “Hellenistic spring” that began with them was a world-historical storm that swept away everything old and obsolete and connected cultures and peoples living on different continents. Thanks to her, new views paved the way for themselves in all areas of thought and religion; this also affected social status women.
Significant assimilation of peoples was accompanied by many mixed marriages. This was well shown by Ulrich Wilken in his “Anthology of Papyrology”. One of the papyri he studied tells about the Macedonian Mahatas and his wife Asia; they lived around 250 BC. in Fayoum, south of modern Cairo. While the husband remained faithful to the Greek gods, he allowed his wife to continue to worship the Syrian goddess Cybele. Their children turned out to be inclined to compromise: they prayed to both Zeus and Cybele. From another papyrus it turns out that the Macedonians not only allowed their non-Greek wives to pray to non-Greek gods, but sometimes they themselves prayed with them.
Hellenism expanded geographical horizons, and at the same time human thought became broader.
A new humanistic idea of life emerged. The Greek playwright Menander (c. 342 - c. 291 BC), a contemporary of Alexander the Great, formulated the principle of Hellenistic humanism in the spirit of ethical monotheism: “God is one for all - both free and slave.” And in another place: “Not a single person is alien to me, for by nature all people are equal.” Menander also owns another famous phrase: “What a glorious creature is man when he is a man.” Human nature, the civilized essence of man underlies the ideal of “homo humanus” (translated from Latin as “humane man”). Menander includes both women and slaves in this concept on equal terms. Being a keen observer of human behavior, passions and disasters, the playwright condescendingly criticizes human weaknesses and shows deep understanding in relation to women.
A contemporary of Menander was Zeno of Kition (c. 336 - 264 BC), the founder of the Stoic school of philosophy, to whom the playwright owed many of his ideas. According to the enlightened views of the Stoics, human ethical life is subject to the laws of nature and reason common to all; this allows us to talk about the moral equality of all people, be it man or woman, free or slave, Greek or barbarian. Truth, the Stoics argued, is a property of judgment, it means correspondence human knowledge reality. This reality confirms the equal worth of all people.
The changed position of women entailed a new attitude towards marriage. Aristotle (384 - 322 BC), the educator of Alexander the Great, formulating ethical standards, called for a reconsideration of views on women and marriage. Marriage should serve not just to obtain offspring, but to be a community of two people united to perform common tasks. These tasks are divided, each person’s work is different; both “help each other, while each contributes to the whole, finding benefit and pleasure in such a community.” Marriage has a moral basis. If both spouses are moral; no matter how different their essences are, each has its own dignity. Aristotle believed that for moral purity a person must honor the gods, respect his parents, and be faithful in friendship and marriage.
Plutarch, a philosopher and writer of later times (46 - 120 AD), condemns men who, having married, abandon marriage for the sake of hobbies on the side or, even after maintaining the marriage, “do not seriously care about loving and to be loved." In a marriage relationship, mutual inclination plays a significant role. Plutarch concludes: “To love in marriage is a greater good than to be loved.”
The sophist Picostratus described the new idea of marriage as follows: a man does not talk to anyone about his secrets, “except his wife, and speaks to her as to himself,” for their soul is one.
General spiritual renewal contributed to the gradual liberation of women. In the Hellenistic era, that is, 300 years before the beginning of our era, the emancipation of women reached a level that antiquity had not known and which the society of the Christian era could not reach for a long time. Having freed herself from the strictly fenced-off world of home, the woman had the opportunity to join the education now open to her. Philosophy, until then a purely male activity, began to be pursued by women.
Educated students now often began to appear openly next to their teachers, both in “universities” and during their performances in the streets and markets.
The Ancient Academy linked Platonic ideas with Pythagorean elements. The Pythagorean school, which was a rather closed religious and ethical community, differed from other academies in the severity of its morals and customs; she attracted quite a few women. The Pythagorean Phintius taught: “Both men and women have courage, reason and justice, only in some virtues a man has to practice more, in others - a woman.” He called on women to be modest and prudent, to dress simply, without decoration.
A new, free state of mind was expressed by the Pythagorean Feano. Following Plato, she asserted a single moral standard for both sexes: after all, according to Plato, “in bad person an unclean soul, a good one has a pure one. It is not proper for a good man or a god to take anything from an unclean person.”
The last Pythagorean was Hypatia (370 - 415 AD). She was the daughter of the mathematician Theon of Alexandria and ran a school. She taught mathematics, philosophy and wrote books, which, unfortunately, have not reached us. She was killed by Christian fanatics and the school was burned.
Women's self-esteem has changed due to access to education Hellenistic era. They grew up in a new society; sometimes they became involved in political power struggles. However, excessive haste in emancipation, excessive ambition and the desire for success opened the way to destructive forces. Some of the crowned women of that era acted wisely, in the interests of the country, others, on the contrary, sacrificed its well-being for the sake of their passions.
Of the remarkable women of the Hellenistic era, two of the most striking can be named. Among the first Ptolemaic queens, Arsinoe II (316 - 270 BC) stands out. At the age of 38, she married her brother Ptolemy II, who was eight years younger than her. It was Arsinoe who prompted marriage younger brother, showing complete disregard for the mandatory ban on incest in society.
The court poet Theocritus, in his song of praise, compared this relationship with the marriage of Zeus and Hera, who were also brother and sister; he called it the same exception that is allowed to the gods. Arsinoe at one time reigned over the Thracians, Macedonians and Egyptians.
Ptolemy II Philadelphus was not so much a great commander as a statesman.
Having provided an economic recovery for his country, he led it to prosperity such as it had never known before; he patronized the sciences, arts and culture, turning his capital Alexandria into one of the most important centers of the ancient world. Arsinoe II actually ruled with him, taking over a significant part of state affairs. Thanks to her or with her, he carried out remarkable cultural endeavors. So, in Alexandria on public funds Museyon was founded - a kind of research institute, in which poetry, philosophy, astronomy, mathematics, botany and zoology were studied at the most modern level for that time. It was Arsinoe who attracted to Museion the best minds of her time and conducted discussions there with scientists and poets. For the extensive library, lists were made of all works of Greek classics and foreign-language books, including the Bible, were translated into Greek.
Ptolemy II also tried to carry out religious reforms, creating something like a universal religion from elements of Western and Eastern beliefs. After the death of Arsinoe, he ranked her among the host of gods. He named her "Thea Philadelphos", which means "brotherly goddess". Later he also introduced the concept of "Theoi Adelphoi" (gods - brother and sister). Thus, the deceased queen and her living brother-husband united in one cult. The German historian Schubart remarked on this matter: “Just as for the Hellenes the polis, the city-state, was associated with his religious ideas, so now for the new state form, the kingdom, a new religious justification was required; it could only be a representation of the king’s divinity.”
Ptolemy II's idea of a theocratic form of government was formed under the influence of his wife and sister.
The main sanctuary of Arsinoe was located in the capital of the Fayum province, the drainage of which required enormous reclamation work. Once upon a time, the swamps and reed beds in these places were infested with crocodiles, so the Greeks called the capital of Fayum Krokodilopolis, the city of crocodiles.
Ptolemy II turned it into a garden city and renamed it Arsinoe.
Some historians call Arsinoe "the most outstanding woman of the era." Others portray her, especially in the first period of her life, as a woman obsessed with ambition, who did not shy away from any intrigue to satisfy her thirst for power.
Hellenism as a world-historical phenomenon reached its peak in the political, socio-economic and cultural spheres during the time of Arsinoe. Then began the decline of the Hellenistic states as a result of rivalry between them and internal decay; The Roman conquests put an end to Hellenism.
Greek woman emancipation liberation
Conclusion
In comparison with the Homeric era, during the development of democracy, the position of the Greek woman at first worsened. The East could have some influence on this, and most importantly, enlightenment and the development of urban, broader political life first had to dig a gap between husband and wife. Husband spends time for the most part outside the house, in the square; he is busy with philosophical disputes, state and public affairs; he lives by broader political and intellectual interests. And the wife usually sits at home, dressed and rouged, or immersed in household chores. Home is her world, and a virtuous wife should not have crossed its boundaries. “What smart and glorious things can we do,” asks one of the heroines of Aristophanes’ comedy “Lysistrata,” “we women who sit at home, decorated with flowers, in yellow saffron clothes, rouged, in luxurious transparent dresses, in fashionable sandals”? They sit under strict supervision, often locked up, guarded, according to the same Aristophanes, by Molossian dogs, strong locks and constipations, although, as one of his passages says, the man who relies on such measures is stupid.
In Athens, a woman has no legal capacity. She could not act as a witness, she could not conduct court cases and begin the process, or enter into an agreement above the known norm. She is under constant guardianship: as a girl, in her parents' house, she is under the guardianship of her father, and when married, under the guardianship of her husband. She gets married young, about fifteen years old, and is brought up under strict supervision, according to the rule “to see, hear and speak as little as possible.” Usually she only knows how to prepare a dress from wool, watch how the yarn is divided among the maids; but she is well trained in the culinary arts, “for this is the most important science for her and for her husband.”
In short, this is the young woman according to the Greek Domostroy. In general, the usual ideal of a wife at that time was silent, modest, hardworking, “like a bee.” Even in the age of Pericles, it was considered the greatest glory for a woman when the least was said about her among men, both for bad and for good. Fidelity was required from the wife, but the husband was allowed everything.
But the same enlightenment, which at first so separated man and woman, little by little, in different ways, penetrated into the gyneceum, into the female half. It awakened in a woman a consciousness of humiliation, dissatisfaction with her position, the need for a different life, a desire to leave this closed, narrow sphere. One of the dominant features of the era of “Enlightenment” in Greece, which began shortly after the Greco-Persian Wars, is the desire for emancipation, for liberation from all coercion, in whatever form it may appear. It was a time of developing individualism. They were already beginning to see a human being in the slave; they were already ready to recognize his human rights; words were heard from the stage that a slave is dishonored by the name alone, that he is not at all inferior free man; the sophists proclaimed slavery an immoral institution. Naturally, the view of women had to change.
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In the archaic era, the main features of the ethics of ancient Greek society took shape. Its distinctive feature was the combination of an emerging sense of collectivism and an agonistic (competitive) principle, which was associated with the formation of a special type of government in Greece - a polis, a civil community with a republican, in contrast to the countries of the Ancient East, form of government. A polis is a city-state in which all citizens had certain rules and responsibilities. The polis ideology and its value system were also corresponding: the highest value was the community itself and its benefits, which ensure the well-being of every citizen. Polis morality was collectivist at its core, since the existence of an individual outside the polis was impossible. The polis system fostered a special worldview among the Greeks. He taught them to appreciate the real abilities and capabilities of a person - a citizen. It was they who were elevated to the highest artistic principle, to the aesthetic ideal of Ancient Greece. Democracy and humanism are the main ideas underlying ancient Greek culture and civilization. Games A distinctive feature of the ancient Greeks was agon, i.e. competitive principle. Noble aristocrats in Homer's poems compete in strength, dexterity and perseverance, and victory in these competitions can only bring glory, not material wealth. Gradually, the idea of victory in a competition as the highest value, glorifying the winner and bringing him honor and respect in society, is being established in Greek society. The formation of ideas about agon gave rise to various games that were of an aristocratic nature. The oldest and most important games were those held for the first time in 776 BC. in honor of Olympian Zeus and since then repeated every four years. They lasted five days, during which time sacred peace was proclaimed throughout Greece. The only reward for the winner was an olive branch. An athlete who won the games three times (“Olympian”) received the right to install his statue in sacred grove Temple of Olympian Zeus. Athletes competed in running, fist wrestling, and chariot racing. Later, the Pythian Games in Delphi (in honor of Apollo) were added to the Olympic Games - the winner was awarded a laurel wreath, the Isthmian Games (in honor of the god Poseidon) on the Isthmus of Corinth, where the reward was a wreath of pine branches, and, finally, the Nemean Games (in honor of Zeus). Participants in all games performed naked, so women were prohibited from attending the games under pain of death, but the beautiful naked body of an athlete became one of the most common motifs in ancient Greek art. Writing and literature One of the most important factors of Greek culture of the 8th – 6th centuries. BC. is rightfully considered a new writing system. Through the Phoenicians, the Greeks adopted the Semitic alphabet, improving it by adding several signs to represent vowels. The alphabetic letter was more convenient than the ancient syllabary of the Mycenaean era: it consisted of only 24 characters. The Greek alphabet had a number of variants, the most common of which was the Ionian alphabet, adopted, in particular, in Attica (Athens). During the archaic period, a new movement was formed in Greek literature. The era of the Greeks passed away with Homer; Now the attention of poets is attracted not by the heroic deeds of past centuries, but by today’s life, feelings and experiences of an individual. This genre is called lyrics. The appearance and development of lyric poetry is associated with the name of Archilochus from Fr. Paros (VI century BC). With unprecedented strength, he conveyed in his poems impulses of passion, offended pride, a desire for revenge, and a readiness to endure the vicissitudes of fate. Instead of the hexameter, Archilochus introduced new meters into literature - iambic and trochae. Another Ionian, Anacreon from Fr. Theos (VI century BC), remained in the memory of mankind as a singer of friendly feasts and love, who had many followers and imitators in later centuries. It was Anacreon’s lyrics that created the well-known image of cheerful, joyfully and serenely feasting Greeks. Archaic lyricism found its best representatives on Fr. Lesbos at the turn of the 7th-6th centuries. BC. This poet is Alcaeus and the poetess of the finest lyrical talent is Sappho, known as the author of love poems and epithals (wedding songs). Ancient Sparta became the center of development of choral lyrics, one of the most common forms of which was the dithyramb - a song in honor of the god Dionysus. In everything Greek world fame spread about the poet Pindar (VI-V centuries BC), who sang the highest virtue - arete - an innate property of an aristocrat, meaning valor, physical perfection, nobility and dignity. Hexameter is a poetic meter characteristic of Homeric poems and other epic works. Ionia in Ancient Greece was the name given to the western coast of Asia Minor, as well as some islands of the Aegean Sea. Architecture In the archaic era, the main types and forms of Greek art had already emerged, which would then be developed in classical period. All achievements of Greek architecture of that time, both constructive and decorative, are associated with the construction of temples. In the 7th century BC. a system of orders arose, i.e. a special ratio of load-bearing and non-supporting parts of a building in a beam-and-rack structure. The artistic features of two main architectural orders were determined: Doric and Ionic. The Doric order, widespread mainly in southern Greece, was distinguished by the heaviness and massiveness of the columns, simple and strict capitals, and the desire for monumentality, masculinity, and perfect proportions. In the Ionic order, on the contrary, lightness, grace, and whimsical lines were valued; the capital had a characteristic shape, similar to the horns of a ram. A little later, in the 5th century. BC, the Corinthian order appears in Greece - lush, spectacular, with a complex capital, similar to a flower basket. Typical examples of Doric buildings of the Archaic era were the temples of Apollo in Corinth and Poseidon in Paestum. We know more about the Ionic temples of this era from ancient literature: a significant part of them was destroyed. Thus, throughout the Greek world the sanctuary of Artemis in the city of Ephesus in Asia Minor (one of the wonders of the world) and the temple of Hera on the island were famous. Samos, Apollo in Didyma (Asia Minor). A feature of the archaic temple was its rich polychrome painting. Ancient Greece was the birthplace of marble structures, but not only sparkling white ones, as is sometimes thought. The masterpieces of ancient architecture shone with all the different colors: red, blue, gold, green against the backdrop of the shining sun and radiant sky. Sculpture The sculpture of the archaic period was characterized by imperfection, creating, as a rule, a generalized image. These are the so-called kouros (“young men”), also called archaic Apollos. Several dozen such statues have survived to this day. The most famous is the marble figure of Apollo of the Shadows. The conventional “archaic smile” characteristic of sculpture of that time plays on his lips, his eyes are wide open, his hands are lowered and clenched into fists. The principle of frontal imagery is fully observed. Archaic female statues are represented by so-called kora (“girls”) in long, flowing robes. The heads of the girls are decorated with curls, the statues themselves are full of grace and elegance. By the end of the 6th century. BC. Greek sculptors gradually learned to overcome The name “Doric” is associated with the Dorians, the conquerors of Archean cities. The Greeks considered the Doric order to be the embodiment of strength and courage. Capital is the top part of a column. The capital was supported by the horizontal part of the building - an entablature consisting of an architrave, frieze and cornice. The architrave was a smooth beam; on the frieze, as a rule, they were placed sculptural compositions; the cornice formed a gable roof. Paestum is a Greek colony in southern Italy. originally characteristic of their statues was the static nature. Ceramics Rich picture everyday life The inhabitants of Hellas are depicted by the art of vase painting of the 7th-6th centuries. BC, clearly indicating the love of the Greeks for color and paint. The shapes of the vessels are as different as their functions. Along with craters for mixing wine, pithos and amphorae for storing olive oil, wine and grain, small bottles for incense, plates, and large dishes were also made. Magnificent Panathenaic amphorae were presented to the winner at the games, and slender lekythos were placed on graves. Ceramics accompanied man throughout his entire life. Style of vase painting art from the 7th century. BC. often called orientalizing, i.e. close to the east. In the next, VI century. BC, Greek vase painting begins to free itself from oriental influences, and colorful, fanciful pictorial decoration, reminiscent of designs on oriental carpets or fabrics, gives way to scenes taken from life. Greatest development The new black-figure style was achieved in Chalkis and Athens. Thus, vases painted by the talented Athenian master Exekius with mythological subjects are widely known: “Achilles and Ajax playing dice” decorate the magnificent amphora of Exekius, rightly called the pearl of archaic art. Around the middle of the 6th century. BC. The technique of red-figure painting was discovered. Instead of black figures on a light background, they began to depict light figures on a dark background - this gave scope for more careful development of details. Among the famous masters of red-figure painting, it is worth mentioning Euthymis and Euphronius. In addition to scenes from mythology and the Homeric epic, the vases of the red-figure style depict the daily activities and entertainment of the ancient Hellenes. We see young men practicing the palaestra, flutists and dancers, a craftsman's workshop, a school. The desire for realism in the image, for harmony between the depicted figures and the shape of the vessel makes ceramics of this particular period especially valuable in the eyes of art connoisseurs. High classic (5th century BC) Greece reached its highest point of economic, political and cultural growth in the middle of the 5th century. BC. At the beginning of the century, the center of gravity of the political and cultural life of the Greek world moved from Ionia (Asia Minor) and from the islands of the Aegean Sea to continental Greece, especially to Athens - the center of Attica. Athens gave unique originality to Greek culture of the classical era, and the Athenian state itself became a source of political and cultural influences and a kind of trendsetter. The rulers of Athens (primarily Pericles) sought to make their home city the largest cultural center Hellas, the center of everything valuable and beautiful in the Greek world. Vibrant social life distinguished Athens in the mid-5th century. BC. All full-fledged citizens of the polis participated in the people's assembly - the ekklesia, which had the highest power. The Athenian state also took care of the cultural leisure of its citizens, giving them the opportunity to participate in festivals and attend the theater. The poor were paid theater money from the treasury - theorikon - two obols for visiting the theater. Athens also had a developed education system: children from seven to sixteen years old received education in private paid schools: literacy, literature, music, and mathematics were taught. Much attention was paid to physical education. Numerous gymnasiums with halls and baths, palestras for training youth turned sports from a privilege of the nobility into the right of any Athenian citizen. The purpose of education was comprehensive development personality. Here the Greeks identified other peoples not only of antiquity, but also of later eras. Scientists and artists from other Greek cities aspired to Athens, where the best conditions for free creativity existed at that time. Architecture During the classical period Greek culture and art are experiencing an era of greatest prosperity, with the main center artistic creativity was Athens. In architecture, the classic type of peripteral temple is finally taking shape. Monumental construction reached its greatest scale in Athens. In Athens, the magnificent architectural ensemble of the Athenian Acropolis was erected, which became a symbol of ancient Greece. The construction work and decoration of the Athenian Acropolis was supervised by the wonderful sculptor Phidias, a friend of Pericles. The columns of the largest temple on the Acropolis, the Parthenon, dedicated to the goddess Athena the Virgin, rise proudly here. History has preserved the names of its creators - Iktin and Kallikrates. Built of light marble, surrounded by 46 Doric columns and framed by an Ionic frieze, the Parthenon was the embodiment of harmony and severity. Hellenistic period (IV-I centuries BC) Hellenistic civilization is usually called a new stage in the development of material and spiritual culture, forms of political organization and social life of the peoples of the Mediterranean, Western Asia and adjacent areas. Literature The literature of the Hellenistic era is unusually rich in the number of works and variety of genres. At the courts of the Hellenistic kings, lush, refined, full of learning, court poetry flourished, examples of which were the idylls and hymns of Callimachus of Cyrene, the epic poem “Argonautica” by Apollonius of Rhodes, etc. Poetry became an art for the elite, its very refined and often pretentious style was far from n other onia of the Rhodoscohyrenes, epic poem of the idyll and enna, full accounting Obol - Greek measure of weight, the smallest silver or copper coin. The Athenian silver obol weighed 0.73 g and corresponded to the average ancient income of an Athenian artisan. problems that worried society as a whole. The most common were small literary forms- elegies and epillies, in which mythological and love plots predominated. Comedy and mime (everyday skit) expressed the interesting tastes of the townspeople. Herodes's mimes were especially famous, realistically depicting urban life. Architecture The art of the era experienced a period of rapid flourishing. It acquired a more secular character and was a fusion of various trends and styles. Active construction was carried out, including new cities: Alexander the Great himself, according to legend, founded 70 cities named Alexandria in his honor. The new Hellenistic cities had a rectangular shape and a very rational layout. The streets in Pergamum were twice as wide as those of the old Greek cities, and Hellenistic Priene had more amenities than medieval Paris. The construction of public buildings and structures received particular development in the Hellenistic era. The monumentality of the city ensemble was given by the obligatory porticoes, which provided shelter from both rain and sun. Subsequently, the Romans borrowed this type of design. The buildings of Hellenistic times were often characterized by a craving for the colossal, a kind of gigantomania. This applies primarily to monumental altars - the altar of Hiero II in Syracuse and especially the altar of Zeus in Pergamon. The latter is famous mainly for its grandiose frieze that encircles the building’s basement (its dimensions are 36 * 34 * 5.6 m). The greatest achievement of Aegean culture was the creation of writing, the so-called syllabary. Epic is a special type of art of Ancient Greece. Epic poems Homer is a masterpiece of ancient culture. The rapid flowering of poetry, drama, architecture, sculpture, which had a serious influence on further development literature and art, characterizes the culture of Ancient Greece.
Polis system
A peculiarity of the political development of Hellas (Greece) was that it never knew the despotic power of kings. On the meager lands of mainland Greece, it was pointless to create large royal farms based on the labor of thousands of forced people, as happened in Egypt and Mesopotamia. Among the Greeks, the state did not become a complex and well-functioning economic mechanism - on the contrary, it retained all the main features of a communal organization, simple and based on the equality of its members. The preservation of the communal system freed the Elmen from the need to “adjust” their beliefs to the requirements of a strong centralized despotism; polis, or community - the polis was strong in the unity of its interests. Community - polis included not only rural but also urban populations. One could become a member of the community under two conditions: if the person was Greek by nationality; if he was free and owned private property. All members of the community - free owners - had political rights (although not always equal), which allowed them to take part in government activities . Therefore, the Greek polis is called a civil community. Civil law was gradually formed within the policies, i.e. Codes of laws were developed that defined the rights and responsibilities of community members and gave them some social guarantees. The polis not only dealt with internal affairs, but could also conduct foreign policy activities, having its own army: citizens of the polis joined the militia and turned into warriors during wars. The polis (i.e., the collective of citizens) had the right of supreme ownership of the land. In addition to private plots of land, he also disposed of undivided, free land, and this strengthened the position of the polis as a political entity. Perceiving itself as an independent state, the polis lived in accordance with the idea of autarky. A special system of ideals was created: free citizens believed that the well-being of each of them depended primarily on their native polis, outside of which it was impossible to exist. On the other hand, the prosperity of the polis largely depended on its citizens, who revered ancient traditions, condemned money-grubbing, highly valued peasant labor and, most importantly, felt themselves to be full and free people. This was a source of special pride. But nevertheless, conflicts gradually matured within the policies, which by the 7th century. BC. reached a particularly large scale. The former clan nobility - aristocrats infringe on the rights of the demos (the people to which all the common free peasants and artisans belonged.) The fight against the aristocracy was waged by the small peasantry, who often faced the threat of losing their land and becoming tenants on their own plots. The aristocrats also had another opponent - a large layer of common townspeople who had become rich through trade and craft and wanted to receive the privileges of the nobility. In many cities, this struggle ended in a coup, the overthrow of the clan nobility and the establishment of tyranny - autocracy, thanks to which the arbitrariness of the nobility was curbed. The need for tyranny, after the position of the aristocracy was weakened, quickly fell away and other forms of government began to appear. In some policies the government was oligarchic, in others it was democratic, but in any case, a major role was played by the people's assembly, which had the right to make final decisions on all the most important issues. Greek city-states were usually small. For example, on the island of Rhodes (its area is about 1404 sq. km.) there were three independent policies, and on the island of Crete (8500 sq. km.) - several dozen. The largest polis was Sparta: its territory covered 8400 square meters. km. Society in policies. Among the population of policies, its citizens occupied a privileged position. Other free people who are not citizens of the policy are considered not to have full rights. These included primarily dependent peasants, who had lost ownership of their plots of land, and foreigners (meteks). Slaves were at the lowest rung of the social ladder. Economic life of the policy. To get rid of the threat of famine, Greece was forced quite early to switch to the export of certain types of agricultural products and handicrafts. The largest shopping center by the 5th century. BC. became Athens, which actively traded with the colonies and countries of the East. Money circulation, credit and usurious transactions grew. Since each city-state in Greece minted its own coin, currency exchange developed. Land trade was much less developed than sea trade. Commodity-money relations were more developed in some policies, but less so in others, were distributed unevenly and existed within the framework of a subsistence economy. It was in the polis that the foundations of ancient democracy, commodity-money relations were laid, and a special type of personality was formed - free, ambitious, boundlessly devoted to his state. The features of the polis left their mark on ancient Greek civilization as a whole. Polis reached their heyday at the turn of the 6th-5th centuries. BC. By this time, Greece consisted of many separate small cities - states that either fought among themselves or entered into alliances. Throughout its existence, Ancient Greece did not know a single centralized power, although there were attempts to establish it. Relatively stable and large associations of policies arose during the wars with Persia. They were led by the two most powerful policies - Athens and Sparta, which formed the two centers of ancient Greek civilization, and each of them developed in a special way. The history of Athens is, first of all, the history of the formation and victory of ancient democracy, while Sparta is often considered a militaristic, even “police”, extremely conservative state. The rivalry between these two policies led to many years of civil wars that destroyed ancient Greek civilization from within. The long, bloody Peloponnesian Wars weakened not only Sparta, but also the victorious city-states, and ultimately the whole of Greece. Previous civilizational structures began to collapse. This was most clearly manifested in the Athenian polis, where commodity-money relations were highly developed. The laws by which the polis, which arose as a “closed” community of citizens - farmers, lived, did not allow rich but disadvantaged people to conduct entrepreneurial activities. The old form of ownership, which united both state and private principles, had outlived its usefulness; a transition to full private ownership was now required. Changes also occurred in political life. The struggle between supporters of oligarchy and democracy gave way to a confrontation between groups divided by property status. Plato, the great philosopher of Ancient Greece, wrote that within the polis “two states hostile to each other were formed: one of the poor, the other of the rich.” In Athens, these conflicts resulted in furious debates in the popular assembly, after which political opponents were often expelled. In other policies it even came to civil wars. Individualism, previously combined with the idea of the “common good,” is now undoubtedly a question: the colletivist morality that held it back began to collapse, and with it the polis itself in its traditional form, which for a long time was the basis and support of ancient Greek civilization, was destroyed.Greek democracy
Ancient Greece can be considered the cradle of democracy - it was there that the first democratic states were born. We should not forget that the Hellenes lived in states in which order was maintained by itself, and not due to a hypertrophied bureaucratic apparatus. The laws in the Peloponnese were based on basic living standards that were understandable to everyone. In the modern world, many do not fully know both their rights and their responsibilities. The rulers were mainly from aristocratic circles (this does not at all indicate an oligarchy, on the contrary, this is explained by the fact that they could get a good education and were always visible), but the ruler could well have come from the people. There was an interesting case with the appointment of Sophocles to the place of the Athenian military commander in the battle with the rebel Samians because his last drama was a stunning success among the people (by the way, the Athenians were defeated then). Elections were held every year. So no one could firmly gain a foothold in power, and the people could legally change the ruler he dislikes. Even when a ruler managed to win the trust of the population, either through numerous victories on the battlefield or through the reign itself, he was threatened with expulsion, no matter how ridiculous this may sound. In addition to the council, there was a court, and it also participated in political life. At one time, the famous legislator Solon issued a law: “whoever sees an insult can complain to the court.” When a citizen saw damage to the state in the actions of another, he, even if he was not affected himself, filed a lawsuit. It was impossible to hold accountable only officials in the performance of duties, but his term was ending and... everyone dissatisfied with his actions in office immediately went to court with complaints. Everyone remembered: if he did not stand up for the state, then no one else would.Seminar lesson plans and course guidelines for students of all specialties and directions St. Petersburg
Seminar lesson plansTo acquaint the student with the essence (main sections, problems) of philosophy, its role in human life and society, the most important stages in the development of philosophical thought,
Culturology guidelines for independent work for students of all specialties in the discipline “Culturology” full-time study Murmansk 2009 udk 008. 001 (075) bbk 71 i 73 to 90
GuidelinesFEDERAL AGENCY FOR FISHERIESFEDERAL STATE EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION OF HIGHER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION "MURMANSK STATE TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY"
- Working programm
- Working programm
Culturology: work program, method. instructions and control assignments for students of all specialties in foreign education / Comp. T. A. Chukhno, N. A. Nikitenkova. – Tomsk: Publishing house.
Plans for seminars and methodological recommendations for their preparation for students of all specialties Biysk
Seminar lesson plans
Ancient Greek civilization arose in 2 thousand BC. Ancient Greece gives us a unique example of a democratic structure. Ancient Greek cities were poleis. Polis is a city state that had independent political and economic development. Each had its own army and legislative system.
Sparta is a city-state that arose in the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. in the Peloponnese. Spartan warriors were trained from early childhood. If children were born weak and infirm, they were thrown off a cliff. At first, the child was raised in a family, and then came into the care of the state. In schools, children were taught rhetoric, communication skills with the public, audience, wrestling and weaponry.
Art and science were not encouraged in Spartan society. Sparta produced from its ranks military leaders, people who should rule the state, who could keep large masses of people in subjection. These skills were valued in the Spartan state and were developed.
Much attention was paid to religion, since cults constantly accompanied the Spartan warrior and before going into battle, equipping a detachment for battle, a ritual was necessarily performed, a sacrifice to the Greek gods. Spartan citizens valued religious cults and revered the Greek gods.
In general, the type of government that formed in Sparta would be more correctly called a military oligarchy, when the state was headed by people belonging to the highest nobility, and it was they who determined what economic and political development would be. This type of political relations made the culture of Sparta quite dependent on political processes.
An example of the highest democratic development in Ancient Greece is Athens. Athenian democracy provided enormous scope for the development of Athenian society and for the development of culture. Athenian democracy made it possible to create courts in which one could hope for a fair resolution of the issue. Athenian democracy contributed to the fact that citizens were interested in many cultural processes.
It was in Athens that the principle of calogathia was widely used - this is an education that assumed that a person needed to form physical culture, develop intelligence and instill aesthetic taste. If we compare the Athenian and Spartan cultures, we see significant differences. Athenian culture was more secular. Here, much attention was not paid to cults and rituals, religious and mythological, as was the case in Sparta. Spartan culture did not pay attention to art, while Athenian culture was very developed artistically. Athenian culture was more rational than Spartan culture. In the culture of Athens, great attention is paid to the individual. Here, the educational process and culture as a whole were focused on the individual. While in Sparta a person was considered as part of the state, he had to serve the state, he was considered as part of the army, as a representative of society, but his personal qualities were not very highly valued. The democratic principles of Athens lead to the creation of a democratic republic, and it is on the basis of a democratic republic that culture actively develops.
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