Are you here: Useful

And socialism is viewed differently at the present stage historical development. Thus, for a civilization that made the individual the center of socio-economic and social life, became a major achievement. This stage of human development is perceived by liberals as the final one. Socialism criticizes modern civilization; it considers it only a step in historical evolution, but not the last. According to socialist views human history is just beginning, and the global goal of development is seen by socialists in the overthrow of the current capitalist system and the construction of an ideal society. That is why socialist ideas are often on the verge of utopian trends.

He considers entrepreneurship or the right of every person to private property to be the most important of freedoms. Whereas political freedom for him is secondary to economic freedom. An ideal society is seen as providing every individual with equal rights and equal opportunities to achieve success and social recognition. If for liberalism freedom is identical to the individual freedom of each person, then for socialism it goes beyond privacy. On the contrary, socialism is opposed to individualism and highlights the idea of social cooperation.

A great contribution of liberal teaching to the development of society can be considered its dissemination of the principles of the rule of law, equality of all before the law, limited power of the state, its transparency and responsibility. In particular, liberalism rejected the previously dominant theological theory of the emergence and functioning of power, which grounded it in the divine. If initially they were inclined towards minimal influence of the state on economic processes, then today’s theories allow government intervention to solve socially significant problems - equalizing social status, struggle, ensuring equal access to education, etc. But power, according to liberalism, exists only for the benefit of those under power and must ensure their interests.

An ideal society for a socialist is seen as one in which there is no place for the exploitation of man by man, and social equality and justice are also established. According to the ideological current, such a society can only be achieved by abolishing private property and replacing it with the collective and public. This process should lead to a reduction in the alienation of man from the results of his labor, eliminate the exploitation of man by man, and reduce social inequality, as well as ensure the harmonious development of each individual.

Dniprodzerzhinsk State Technical University

Correspondence faculty

Test in political science No. 6

Political theories of the 19th century: conservatism, liberalism, socialism

Student: Denisyuk Yu.V.

Course: 4

Group: PZ-06-1z

Plan

Introduction

Conservatism, liberalism and socialism represent the “main” political worldviews of the 19th and 20th centuries. This means that any political doctrine of the designated period can be attributed to one of these ideologies - with greater or less to a lesser extent validity; that is, any political concept or party platform, any socio-political movement can be understood through a certain combination of liberal, conservative and socialist ideas.

The “main” ideologies of the 19th and 20th centuries were formed in the process of gradual erosion of traditional political worldviews - realistic, utopian and theocratic, which were the form of existence and development of specific political concepts since the 2nd millennium BC. to the 18th century. This erosion and, accordingly, the formation of new worldviews occurred during the 17th and 18th centuries, during the period of bourgeois revolutions.

The concepts of liberalism, conservatism and socialism have multiple meanings. As a worldview, each of them has a certain philosophical basis and represents a certain way of understanding the world as a whole, first of all, society and the ways of its development. As political ideologies, liberalism, conservatism and socialism paint a picture of the desired future and the main ways to achieve it. In other words, each ideology offers a certain model of social development that seems optimal to its creators and supporters. It should be emphasized that political ideology is not a system of beliefs in the strict sense of the word. It is a more or less interdependent set of concepts, principles and ideas that usually underlie the platforms of political parties.

There is a certain correspondence between this or that ideology, on the one hand, and the interests of certain classes and social strata, on the other. However, this correspondence is neither rigid nor immutable. Conservatism usually expresses the aspirations of large owners, as well as the general population, stability social status which is under threat as a result of some recent or impending changes. Socialism represents the interests of the most disadvantaged part of society, or those who earn their living primarily through their labor. Liberalism is the ideology of political centrism. As a rule, broad sections of the bourgeoisie – middle and petty – adhere to liberal views. In a modern post-industrial society, where class no longer determines a person’s place in life, the wealthiest are often conservatives, while the less wealthy share the principles of socialism. At the same time, all modern political parties usually claim that they represent the interests of the people as a whole, offering a constructive program of rapid economic development and general welfare.

Conservatism

political liberalism socialism conservatism

The concept of “conservatism” comes from the name of the literary magazine “Conservator”, which began to be published in 1815 by the French romantic writer F. R. Chateaubriand. Conservatism is the protection of specific societies from the destructive effects of revolutionary and rationalistic ideas, based on the values of the past and present. It follows that conservatives always oppose revolutions that destroy the existing society, and against radical reforms that negative impact which in some cases can be comparable to the consequences of revolutions. Therefore, unlike liberalism, the essence of which is always unchanged, conservatism is historically changeable. The specific content of conservative concepts varies depending on what ideas these concepts are opposed to in a given historical period. However, it would be wrong to think that conservatism is opposed to any changes in general. According to the famous German conservative politician R. Weizsäcker, conservatives stand for progress, since “he who closes the way to progress becomes a reactionary.” But changes in society should occur naturally, and reforms should help the already mature changes to manifest themselves, preserving everything valuable that was achieved in the process of previous historical development. Conservatives include patriotism, discipline, a strong family and religion among the enduring values necessary for the normal functioning and development of any society. These values, as well as historically formed stable and time-tested forms of organizing people's lives, customs, traditions, cultural characteristics and mentality that have historically formed in specific societies, should not be destroyed in the process of inevitable changes in society, but reproduced in new conditions, ensuring stability and continuity.

The first historical type of conservative ideology was classical conservatism (late 18th century - first half of the 19th century). Its founder is considered to be the English political thinker and statesman Edmund Burke, who gained European fame thanks to his essay “Reflections on French Revolution", published in 1790. The fundamental tenets of classical conservatism were also formulated in the works of French émigré writers Louis de Bonald and Joseph de Maistre, and German political thinkers Karl Ludwig von Haller and Adam Müller.

Philosophical basis classical conservatism is a realistic postulate that the general is higher than the individual. (This refers to medieval realism - a direction in scholasticism that affirms the real existence of general concepts and the secondary nature of individual objects in relation to them). Accordingly, it is argued that the interests of society and the state are higher than the interests of the individual, that the general interest is not a fiction, but a reality, which also has greater value than the interest of an individual, which must be subordinated to the general interest - social and state. It should be emphasized that in practice, any state and society is guided by this principle, even if it is officially considered otherwise.

The idea that the individual is always subordinate to the general and forms a single whole with it is reflected in the concept of society as a living integral organism, not a single element of which can be arbitrarily eliminated or replaced without harm to the organism itself. Such changes lead to illness in society, and perhaps even to its death, especially if the source of the body’s vital energy – its soul – is affected.

This concept opposed the idea of society, characteristic of Enlightenment ideologists, revolutionaries and liberals, as a mechanism that can be improved by arbitrarily replacing individual parts, eliminating unnecessary things, adding new, useful ones.

The mechanism does not have own history, self-development. The body, on the contrary, is constantly developing and changing naturally. It follows that the attempts of revolutionaries and statesmen to bring to life the abstract models of society created by the mind are doomed to failure and dangerous. It is possible to reform society only gradually, preserving its features that arose as a result of previous historical development, and the basic values inherent in a given society. The ideas of the founders of classical conservatism about society as an integral structure based on the organic relationship and interdependence of its constituent elements, about the complexity of successful reform of society and about the basic principles of such reform are true and relevant for all societies in the process of active restructuring.

Only a strong state can successfully resist revolutions and demands for radical reforms, therefore such a state was considered by the founders of classical conservatism as a value. Some of them, for example, Joseph de Maistre, recognized the possibility and expediency of the widespread use of state violence in order to preserve the integrity of the social organism. But for most Western European conservative thinkers of the late 18th and first half of the 19th centuries, this was not typical.

The undoubted merit of the conservatives of the late 18th - first half of the 19th century is that. that they paid attention to the integrative role of religion in society. Unlike the ideologists of the Enlightenment, who viewed religion only as an ideological illumination of the existing socio-political system and a means of ensuring the obedience of the people, representatives of classical conservatism emphasized that the qualitative uniqueness of a particular society is largely determined by the dominant religious system, which shapes the mentality of the population and, therefore, the very thing that unites individuals into a people, a nation.

Thus, in the works of representatives of classical conservatism, the basic values were formulated, which have since become characteristic of conservative ideology in general. This is a strong state, patriotism, discipline and order in society, a strong family, the important role of religion and the church.

In the mid-19th century, based on the acceptance by conservatives of a market economy, private property and competition, as well as the liberal principles of parliamentarism and political pluralism, classical conservatism became a thing of the past and a second one was formed historical type conservative ideology - conservatism of the second half of the 19th - first decades of the 20th century.

It is the least conceptual, most pragmatic of all varieties of conservative ideology, although conservatism is generally considered much less conceptual and more pragmatic than liberalism and socialism. During this historical period, conservatives advocated maintaining the existing state of affairs, that is, freedom of enterprise and unlimited competition, non-interference of the state in relations between wage workers and employers, opposing the introduction of state regulation of the economy and state social programs, speaking out against expanding the circle of voters, then against the introduction universal suffrage.

This historical type of conservatism failed to win the fight against social reformism, the initiative of which came from liberals, and from the end of the 19th century from social democrats. Therefore, at the beginning of the 20th century, a new type of conservatism arose - revolutionary conservatism (early 20 - first half of the 40s of the 20th century), represented by two types - Italian fascism and German national socialism. On the basis of this ideology, a totalitarian society arose in Italy and Germany in the 20-30s of the 20th century, implying a market economy actively regulated by the state under conditions of political dictatorship. This social model has become one of the options - historically not promising - for overcoming the crisis of liberalism and the liberal social model. But this and subsequent types of conservatism date back to the 20th century, so they will not be considered here.

Conservative ideology and the parties that adhere to it are currently developing successfully. Conservative parties periodically come to power, competing with social democrats, and conservative ideology has a significant impact on liberalism and socialism, on the practical policies of socialist and liberal parties.

Liberalism

The concept of “liberalism” appeared at the beginning of the 19th century. Initially, liberals were the name given to a group of nationalist deputies in the Cortes, the Spanish parliament. Then this concept entered all European languages, but with a slightly different meaning.

The essence of liberalism remains unchanged throughout the history of its existence. Liberalism is an affirmation of value human personality, her rights and freedoms. From the ideology of the Enlightenment, liberalism borrowed the idea of natural human rights, therefore, among the inalienable rights of the individual, liberals included and include the right to life, liberty, happiness and property, with the greatest attention paid to private property and freedom, since it is believed that property ensures freedom, which in its turn turn is a prerequisite for success in the life of an individual, the prosperity of society and the state. Freedom is inseparable from responsibility and ends where the freedom of another person begins. The “rules of the game” in society are fixed in laws adopted by a democratic state, which proclaims political freedoms (of conscience, speech, meetings, associations, etc.). The economy is a market economy based on private property and competition. Such an economic system is the embodiment of the principle of freedom and a condition for the successful economic development of the country.

The first historical type of worldview containing the above-mentioned set of ideas was classical liberalism (late 18th - 70-80s of the 19th century). It can be seen as a direct continuation of the political philosophy of the Enlightenment. It is not for nothing that John Locke is called the “father of liberalism”, and the creators of classical liberalism, Jeremy Bentham and Adam Smith, are considered largest representatives late Enlightenment in England. Throughout the 19th century, liberal ideas were developed by John Stuart Mill (England), Benjamin Constant and Alexis de Tocqueville (France), Wilhelm von Humboldt and Lorenz Stein (Germany). Classical liberalism differs from the ideology of the Enlightenment, first of all, in the lack of connection with revolutionary processes, as well as a negative attitude towards revolutions in general and the Great French Revolution in particular. Liberals accept and justify the social reality that has developed in Europe after the Great French Revolution, and actively strive to improve it, believing in the unlimited social progress and the power of the human mind.

Classical liberalism includes a number of principles and concepts. Its philosophical basis is the nominalistic postulate about the priority of the individual over the general. Accordingly, the principle of individualism is central: the interests of the individual are higher than the interests of society and the state. Therefore, the state cannot trample on human rights and freedoms, and the individual has the right to defend them against attacks by other individuals, organizations, society and the state.

If we consider the principle of individualism from the point of view of its correspondence to the actual state of affairs, it should be stated that it is false. In no state can the interests of an individual be higher than public and state interests. The reverse situation would mean the death of the state. It is curious that this was first noticed by one of the founders of classical liberalism, I. Bentham. He wrote that "natural, inalienable and sacred rights never existed" since they were incompatible with the state; “...citizens, demanding them, would ask only for anarchy...”. However, the principle of individualism has played a highly progressive role in the development of Western civilization. And in our time, it still gives individuals the legal right to defend their interests in the face of the state.

The principle of utilitarianism is a further development and concretization of the principle of individualism. I. Bentham, who formulated it, believed that society is a fictitious body consisting of individuals. The common good is also a fiction. The real interest of society is nothing more than the sum of the interests of its constituent individuals. Therefore, any actions of politicians and any institutions should be assessed solely from the point of view of the extent to which they contribute to reducing suffering and increasing the happiness of individual people. The construction of a model of an ideal society, according to I. Bentham, is unnecessary and dangerous from the point of view possible consequences class.

Nevertheless, based on the principles of individualism and utilitarianism, classical liberalism proposed a very specific model of society and state as optimal. The core of this model is the concept of social self-regulation developed by A. Smith. According to A. Smith, in a market economy based on private property and competition, individuals pursue their selfish interests, and as a result of their collision and interaction, social harmony is formed, which presupposes the effective economic development of the country. The state should not interfere in socio-economic relations: it is more likely to disrupt harmony than to contribute to its establishment.

The concept of the rule of law corresponds to the concept of public self-regulation in the sphere of politics. The goal of such a state is formal equality of opportunity for citizens, the means is the adoption of relevant laws and ensuring their strict implementation by everyone, including government officials. At the same time, the material well-being of each individual person is considered his personal matter, and not the sphere of concern of the state. Alleviation of the extremes of poverty is expected through private charity. The essence of the rule of law is briefly expressed by the formula: “the law is above all.”

The rule of law is a low-functional state, which is expressed in the concepts of “small state” or “minimum state”. Such a state ensures public order, that is, it fights crime and organizes the country’s defense from external enemies. In other words, this is a kind of “night watchman” who exercises his powers only in extraordinary situations. “Minimum state” does not mean a weak state. Rather, on the contrary, only a sufficiently strong system of power is capable of ensuring strict observance of the “rules of the game” in society. But most of the creators of classical liberalism did not consider a strong state a value, since the totality of their views was largely directed against the violent social regulation, corporate and state, characteristic of feudal society.

A legal “small state” must be secular. Classical liberalism advocated the separation of church and state. Supporters of this ideology considered religion to be a private matter of the individual. We can say that any liberalism, including classical, is generally indifferent to religion, which is not considered either a positive or a negative value.

Liberal party programs usually included the following demands: separation of powers; approval of the principle of parliamentarism, that is, the transition to such forms of state organization in which the government is formed by parliament; proclamation and implementation of democratic rights and freedoms; separation of church and state.

From the end of the 18th century to the first two decades of the 20th century, the initiative for social reform in the countries of Western civilization belonged to liberals. However, already at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century, a crisis of liberalism began. Let's consider its reasons.

The theory of social self-regulation has never fully corresponded to reality. Crises of overproduction occurred periodically in all developed capitalist countries and became an integral part of industrial society. Social harmony was also not observed. The struggle of the working class against the bourgeoisie began in the 20s of the 19th century in England. Industrial society already in the first half of the 19th century showed itself to be deeply conflict-ridden and economically unstable.

The contradictions between objective reality and liberal theory became obvious at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries, when the capitalist mode of production moved into the monopoly stage. Free competition gave way to the dictates of monopolies, prices were determined not by the market, but by large firms that subjugated competitors, crises of overproduction became longer and more destructive, simultaneously affecting a number of countries.

The struggle of the working class for a decent life became increasingly organized and effective. Beginning in the 60s of the 19th century, this struggle was led by social democratic parties, which initially declared their goal to establish the dictatorship of the proletariat and the elimination of private ownership of the means of production.

The need for state regulation of the economy and social conflicts became increasingly obvious. Under these conditions, the initiative for social reform began to gradually move to social democracy, which managed to develop in the 90s of the 19th century a fundamentally new program for improving bourgeois society, involving the rejection of the dictatorship of the proletariat and the elimination of private property.

Another reason for the crisis of liberal ideology was, paradoxically, the success of liberal parties in realizing their political demands. At the end of the 19th and first decades of the 20th century, all the provisions of the political programs of these parties were implemented and ultimately accepted by all major political forces and parties. Therefore, we can say that the undoubted merits of liberalism and liberal parties in establishing the basic principles and institutions of the modern democratic system contributed to the refusal of support for liberal parties from society: liberals had nothing to offer voters.

Under these conditions, liberalism changed significantly and the second stage of its development began, associated with the emergence of social liberalism as a new historical type of liberal ideology. Social liberalism (late 19 - 70s of the 20th centuries) absorbed some social democratic ideas, and, as a result, there was a rejection of some of the postulates of classical liberalism. The creators of social liberalism were such political thinkers as J. Hobbson, T. Green, L. Hobhouse (England), W. Repke, W. Eucken (Germany), B. Croce (Italy), L. Ward, J. Crowley, J. Dewey (USA).

First of all, social liberalism included in the liberal doctrine the social democratic idea of state regulation of the economy (the economic concept of state regulation was developed by J.M. Keynes and is not socialist, although it was also used by social democrats), since under the dominance of monopolies the demand for unlimited freedom competition was adopted by monopolists and acquired the function of protecting the interests of privileged segments of the population. Already at the end of the 19th century, liberal governments of European countries, one after another, began to pass antitrust laws prohibiting excessive concentration of ownership. The global economic crisis of the late 20s - mid-30s of the 20th century finally made the idea of the possibility of an effective economy without regulatory government intervention a thing of the past.

The second idea borrowed by social liberalism from social democracy is the idea of social justice, understood as the right of everyone to a decent life. A concrete way of its implementation was also the broad social programs proposed by the Social Democrats, which involved the redistribution of profits from the rich to the poor through the system of state taxes. Social insurance for illness, unemployment, old age, insurance medicine, free education, etc. - all these programs, gradually introduced and expanded in the countries of Western civilization during the late 19th - 70th years of the 20th century, existed and continue to exist thanks to the introduction of a progressive tax scale. This system of taxation requires that people with more income or capital pay a higher percentage of that income or capital than people with less means of living. Social programs simultaneously promote economic development because they expand effective demand.

Currently, the influence of liberalism as a political worldview is growing. This is due both to the resurrection by neoconservatives of a number of fundamental provisions of classical liberalism, and to the collapse of the USSR, the world system of socialism, and the transition of its European countries to a liberal economic model and Western-style political democracy, in the establishment of which liberalism and liberal parties played a decisive role. At the same time, the crisis of the liberal parties continues.

Socialism

The concept of “socialism,” which came into general use in the third decade of the 19th century, was intended to designate a direction of social thought that sought to develop a fundamentally new model of the structure of society as a whole based on the transformation of socio-economic relations. It is difficult to give a brief meaningful definition of this ideology, since the concept of socialism unites a large number of very different concepts that can be divided into two large groups: actually socialist and communist.

The concepts of the first group assume that a decent life for workers can be achieved in a society based on a combination of public and private ownership of the means of production, and universal absolute equality is not necessary or desirable. The second group of concepts proposes to create a society based solely on social forms ah property, which presupposes complete social and property equality of citizens.

Characteristic socialist ideology, taking into account the existence of the two directions of socialist thought indicated above, can be given as follows. Socialism presupposes criticism of bourgeois society from the standpoint of a certain ideal, “located” in the thought of socialists in the future. The formulation of the main features of the future society is given from the position of the most disadvantaged part of the population, who earn their living by their labor. The society of social justice itself presupposes the essential role of social forms of ownership, the bringing together of the extremes of wealth and poverty, and the replacement of competition with solidarity and mutual assistance. The new society is conceived as capable of ensuring faster and more comprehensive social progress than the bourgeois one.

The first historical type of socialist ideology is humanistic socialism of the first half of the 19th century, also called utopian socialism (at present, the second name seems unfounded, since Marxism also turned out to be a utopia, albeit in a different sense). Its founders and largest representatives are Henri de Saint-Simon and Charles Fourier (France), Robert Owen (England). Socialism was called humanistic because its creators, formulating the main features of a society of social justice, proceeded from the interests of man in general, and not of a representative of any class or layer, although the implementation of the proposed model was supposed to bring the greatest benefit to working people.

The specific systems of thought of the founders of humanistic socialism were different, but in general, a society of social justice was conceived as based on a combination of public and private forms of property, on class cooperation. It was assumed that social and property inequality would continue to be maintained due to the unequal contribution - financial and labor - to the development of the enterprise, with the different roles of representatives of different social strata in society. Transition to new public organization was conceived as gradual and occurring exclusively peacefully. The following were proposed as means of transition: appeal to those in power, to representatives big business, creation of exemplary enterprises on new principles, promotion of positive experience. It was the designated means of transition to a society of social justice that gave rise to the name “utopian socialism.”

In the 40s of the 19th century, Marxism emerged, also called workers' or economic socialism, as well as scientific communism. This ideology emerged on the basis of Karl Marx's analysis of the economic relations of bourgeois society in the context of the growth of the labor movement. The main tenets of Marxism are as follows.

Capitalist society will inevitably lose its economic efficiency due to the inherent contradiction between the social nature of production and the private form of appropriation. To eliminate this contradiction and open up space for the development of productive forces, private ownership of the means of production should be eliminated. Accordingly, the future society of social justice will simultaneously become the most economically efficient. In it there will be public ownership of the means of production, there will be no classes, exploitation will disappear, complete social and property equality will be established, the state will cease to exist as political organization economically dominant class (it will be replaced by public self-government), creative self-realization of every person will become possible.

The transition to a new society is possible only through class struggle and social revolution, which will be carried out by the working class, led by the communist party, armed with knowledge of the laws social development. Immediately after the victory of the revolution, the dictatorship of the proletariat will be established, which will become a new one, highest form democracy, since by that time the proletariat will constitute the majority of the population in society.

The development of Marxism in the second half of the 19th and early 20th centuries led to the emergence of two modern types socialist ideology: Marxism-Leninism and the ideology of social democracy.

Marxism-Leninism, also called Bolshevism and scientific communism, arose as an adaptation of Marxism to the conditions of Russia and to the practice of socialist construction after the victory of the Russian Revolution of 1917. The parties that adopted this ideology began, as a rule, to be called communist.

An attempt to implement the Marxist model, carried out in the USSR and other countries of the world socialist system, led to the emergence of a society in which the state economy was controlled from a single center in the absence of political democracy. This was another attempt to overcome the crisis of liberalism and the liberal economic model. However, the created society did not become either more humane or more economically efficient than the capitalist one in the long term, and therefore left the historical arena.

The ideology of social democracy, formed in the 90s of the 19th century, arose as a criticism and revision of Marxism. Its main provisions were developed by the German social democrat Eduard Bernstein and gradually accepted by international social democracy, although not without a sharp struggle of opinions. There was a rejection of such fundamental provisions of Marxism as the social (socialist) revolution, the dictatorship of the proletariat, and the complete replacement of private ownership of the means of production with public property.

A revision of Marxism turned out to be possible and inevitable, since in the last decades of the 19th century it became obvious that the position of the working class was not worsening with the development of capitalism, as K. Marx predicted, but was improving. From this fact, E. Bernstein drew far-reaching conclusions that have not lost their significance today, and developed a program for building democratic socialism.

Since economic development under capitalism leads to an increase in the material well-being of workers, the task of social democratic parties should be to improve the existing society, and not to eliminate it and replace it with another that is fundamentally different from the bourgeois one.

A necessary condition for such improvement is political democracy. E. Bernstein drew attention to the fact that the consistent implementation of the basic liberal principles of the political system leads to the elimination of the political dominance of the bourgeoisie if the working class is able to organize itself and constantly support its party in elections.

Thus, it was necessary to fight for the deepening of political democracy, the victory of the working class party in parliamentary elections, formation of a social democratic government. Such a government, with the support of the parliamentary majority, must steadily implement a program of reforms extended over time, aimed at improving the financial situation of the working class, increasing its social security, raising the cultural and educational level, etc. For this purpose, as well as for the sake of increasing economic efficiency, it was necessary to gradually carry out partial nationalization of industry, especially unprofitable enterprises and industries, establish state regulation of the private capitalist sector, develop and implement broad social programs based on the redistribution of profits from the wealthy to the poor through the tax system.

As a result of consistent and comprehensive reforms, the liberal economic model must give way to the social democratic model in conditions of steady improvement and development of political democracy. The reforms initiated by the working class party must ultimately contribute to the rapid growth of social wealth and general welfare, meeting the interests of all segments of the population. Formulating the main provisions of the concept of democratic socialism, E. Bernstein constantly emphasized that it is not so much the goal itself that is important, but the process of moving towards it.

At the beginning of the 21st century, the main values of international social democracy continue to be solidarity, freedom, equality, political democracy, a state-regulated market mixed economy, and social protection of the population. A gradual increase in the public sector of the economy is no longer considered feasible.

At present, despite the fact that social democratic parties periodically come to power in European countries, replacing neoconservatives, the crisis of social democratic ideology cannot be considered overcome, since international socialism has no new constructive ideas capable of updating the program and practice of democratic socialism. there is no democracy.

Bibliography

1. Larionova I.L. Political ideologies of the 19th – 20th centuries. Liberalism. Conservatism. Socialism: Method. recommendations for the courses “Political Science”, “Global Conflicts of Modern and Contemporary Times”, “ National history» // Moscow. state Institute of Electronics and Mathematics – 2004

2. Chicherin B. N. History of political doctrines. // St. Petersburg, Russian Christian Humanitarian Academy - 2006

3. Chicherin B.N. Different types of liberalism // General. science and modernity - 2003.

The formation of the ideology of the modern Belarusian state does not happen in a vacuum. It is based on the experience of the development and functioning of long-established world ideologies: liberalism, conservatism, socialism, etc. All these ideologies originated, developed and established themselves in the conditions of Western European civilization.

For the correct understanding and interpretation of various ideologies, their essences, features, functions, methods of orientation, spheres of influence, their typology is important.

Typology ideologies can be implemented for several reasons. Depending on the spatial distribution and scale of social communities of people influenced by certain ideas, views, beliefs, value orientations, standards of behavior, etc., ideological doctrines can be divided into global, local and partial. Depending on the content of the disseminated concepts, views, principles, beliefs, ideologies can be differentiated into scientific, religious and political. According to the orientation of the proposed ideals, goals, and means of achieving them, ideologies belong to progressive or reactionary, revolutionary or counter-revolutionary, humanistic or inhumane.

1 Emergence ideologies of liberalism was associated with the establishment of capitalist society in Western Europe, and coincided in time with the period of bourgeois revolutions of the 18th - 19th centuries. Essentially, liberalism is an ideology that expresses the interests of the bourgeois class. The founders of liberalism were: J. Locke, L. Montesquieu, A. Smith, T. Jefferson, J. Miles. The central place in liberalism is occupied by the idea of individual freedom (from the Latin “liberatus” - free). The principle of freedom is considered by liberals as the most important condition realization by man of his inalienable natural rights.

In political and economic life, the principle of freedom is interpreted by liberals as freedom from excessive restrictions from the state. “The best government,” emphasized American President T. Jefferson, “is the one that governs the least.”

It was in liberal ideology that the idea of the priority of civil society over the state was put forward. As one of the founders of liberalism, J. Locke, argued: “... civil society is a constant, and the state is a derivative of it.” Another important feature of liberalism is that its ideologists from the very beginning were consistent supporters separation of powers into legislative, executive and judicial. They considered such division a reliable remedy against the usurpation of power and its abuse.

The functions of the state, according to liberals, should be reduced to a minimum: protecting private property, establishing general rules of free competition, ensuring public order and monitoring compliance with laws in society, as well as protecting the country from external dangers.

In the economic sphere, the main principles of liberalism are: private property, personal entrepreneurial initiative, free market exchange, competition.

In the social sphere, liberals are supporters of individualism and opponents of social equality.

In the spiritual sphere - supporters of freedom of opinion, speech, and conscience.

Thus, classical liberalism, as it was in the 19th - first third of the 20th centuries, was an ideology that had a negative attitude towards the active intervention of the state in public life.

However, as capitalist society developed, not only positive, but also negative aspects of this attitude emerged. The spontaneously functioning market economy increasingly began to experience crises of overproduction. These crises were accompanied by the closure of a huge number of enterprises, mass unemployment, the destruction of a colossal mass of goods and a catastrophic increase in social tension. In the late 20s - early 30s of the twentieth century, a global crisis broke out, affecting all countries of Western Europe and North America at the same time and putting capitalist society on the brink of destruction.

Under the influence of the crisis, liberal ideology underwent serious changes and arose neoliberalism(R. Dahl, J. Rowles, etc.). It made it possible to develop and implement a system of measures that essentially transformed capitalism and opened up new prospects for its development.

The main feature of neoliberalism is that it reinterprets the economic and social role of the state. From the point of view of neoliberals, in order to avoid destructive crises, the state must actively intervene in economic life through a flexible taxation system, state ownership, budget, and planning. It should form special social funds through which to provide assistance to the poorest segments of the population and thereby contribute to the resolution of social conflicts. Essentially, the neoliberals developed a new model of the state, which they called the “welfare state.” In their opinion, such a state is supra-class and acts as a mediator between different social communities, acting for the common good.

Neoliberals began to preach the principles of pluralistic democracy, which, in their opinion, can best ensure that the interests of all social communities are taken into account. They began to interpret the understanding of social justice in a new way. In their opinion, this is primarily political justice, i.e. equal political rights for all citizens.

It must be recognized that liberalism and neoliberalism have had a huge impact on the development of human civilization. They played a decisive role in the process of developing and approving such universal values, How democracy, freedom and self-worth of the human person. The introduction of the principles of neoliberalism into political practice most fully took place in the United States in the period from the 30s to the 70s of the twentieth century.

2 Term "conservatism“comes from the Latin “conserve”, which means “I preserve, protect”.

The most important feature of conservative ideology is that it is focused on protecting existing foundations public life, has a negative attitude towards popular movements and revolutionary changes. Conservatism is based on the priority of continuity over innovation, on the recognition of the inviolability of the order that has developed naturally, as well as the paramount importance in the life of society of morality, family, religion and property.

This ideology was formed at the beginning of the 19th century and was a counterbalance to liberalism. If liberalism expressed the interests of the bourgeoisie, then conservatism expressed the interests of the landowning aristocracy (England - E. Burke, France - de Mester and de Bonallier). What are the main principles of conservatism?

First of all, this the principle of moral absolutism, the essence of which is that moral ideals and values are recognized as unchangeable and eternal, which, according to conservatives, are completely independent of human will, but are formed by socio-economic and political conditions and institutions. An important principle of conservatism is that any project for a better society, no matter how wonderful it may seem, is fraught with uncertainty and therefore must be rejected. Conservative reforms are recognized by conservatives only as an opportunity to avoid social upheaval.

No less important is the principle of traditionalism. It provides for the preservation of all the best that was created in the past, as the basis for successful development in the present and ensuring the unity of generations.

Characteristic of conservatism and such principle, How political realism. Its essence is that all truth, according to conservatives, is concentrated not in theory, but in concrete experience, and therefore the best guide for politics is what has been repeatedly confirmed by practice.

One of the most important principles of conservatism is a negative attitude towards the idea of social equality. Conservatives do not accept social equality, based on the fact that people are naturally endowed with unequal gifts and abilities. And another principle of conservatism is a negative attitude towards the politicization of people, and therefore democracy. Conservatives deny the priority of politics in people's lives and believe that it is much more important for them to realize their private interests. Politics, in their opinion, is the sphere of activity of the most capable and specially trained people for this, i.e. political elites.

There are several varieties of conservatism depending on how it relates to social change. There is reactionary conservatism, which seeks to revive outdated orders, directing efforts to preserve the existing order, and reformist conservatism, which not only recognizes, but actively supports the necessary transformations while preserving the best of the past and present.

The great socio-political and economic changes that occurred in the world during the 19th and 20th centuries forced conservatives, as well as liberals, to reconsider some provisions of their ideology, which led in the second half of the 20th century to the emergence of neoconservatism.

The most prominent ideologists of neoconservatism are J. Bell (USA), R. Gueguen, E. Junger, G. Kaltenbrunner (Germany), R. Aron, A. de Benoit (France).

What are the distinctive signs neoconservatism? Firstly, he does not completely deny the idea of democracy, his ideologists only emphasize that a democratic political system must be combined with elite political leadership. The people have the right to vote, but they must consider that the supreme power is in the hands of the best, most capable and wise citizens. Secondly, giving, as before, preference for strong power and a strong state, neoconservatives believe that its intervention in economic life should be limited within certain limits.

Third, they advocate limited social reforms. However, neoconservatives are opposed to excessive taxation of large capital in order to redistribute funds in favor of the poor. An individual must rely on his own strength, as well as on the solidary support of his fellow citizens. The modern state, according to neoconservatives, should create equality of opportunity, but not equality of results. From the 80s of the 20th century - neoconservatism in England, from the 90s of the 20th century to the present - in the USA.

3 Ideas that later became known as socialist, first appeared in Western Europe in the 16th century. They reflected the spontaneous protest of the most disadvantaged sections of the population who were subjected to brutal exploitation in the conditions of the primitive accumulation of capital and the emerging capitalist society.

These ideas embodied the ideas of the oppressed classes about a more just social system that would forever save them from exploitation and poverty. At that time, these ideas were most fully expressed in “Utopia” by Thomas More and “City of the Sun” by Tomaso Campanella. These thinkers are considered the founders of " utopian socialism». Long time This teaching was in the nature of a dream teaching, which cannot be realized in practice.

The most important elements of socialist (communist) ideology are the ideas of collectivism, public ownership of the means of production, solidarity, social equality and justice, the elimination of the class division of society and the exploitation of man by man. There are two directions in socialist ideology - revolutionary and reformist. The idea of the transition to socialism through the implementation of a revolution was put forward and substantiated by K. Marx, F. Engels, V.I. Lenin. This direction was called Marxism.

The basic principles of Marxism-Leninism boil down to the following:

1) capitalist society, based on private property and the exploitation of man by man, must be radically transformed into a more just one socialist a society based on public property, free labor and distribution according to work;

2) transformation can only be achieved through a socialist revolution;

3) one of the main tasks of the revolution is the destruction of the bourgeois state and the creation of a workers' state;

4) only the working class (proletariat), armed with advanced revolutionary theory, can carry out a revolution and create a new state;

5) the leading force in such a state will be communist party as the most consistent spokesman for the interests of the working class and all working people;

6) the state must socialize the means of production, turning them into the property of the entire people, and ensure the planned development of the national economy in the interests of the working people;

7) after the final approval of the socialist system, the transition to communism will begin. At this stage, the development of the productive forces will reach such a high level, and the consciousness of the population will reach such a high degree that the principle “from each according to his ability, to each according to his need” will be realized. The division of society into classes will disappear and the need for the state as an institution of limitation, suppression and coercion will disappear. The system of communist public self-government will be established.

In practice, the implementation of this project encountered enormous, essentially insurmountable, difficulties. By the early 80s of the twentieth century, the influence and popularity of Marxism-Leninism had sharply declined. The decisive blow was dealt by the collapse of the USSR and the states of the “socialist camp”.

Social democratic ideology arose from Marxism at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries, its founders Bernstein and K. Kautsky, under the influence of changes in capitalist society itself, abandoned their orientation towards revolution and focused on social reforms.

Modern social democrats are guided as the most important idea of democratic socialism:

In the political sphere - the presence of free elections; real opportunity choice between different political programs; the possibility of changing the government peacefully; guarantees of individual and minority rights; the presence of an independent judicial system based on the rule of law;

In the economic field - a variety of forms of ownership with a predominance of public ownership; market relations combined with government regulation; participation of workers' representatives in the management of private sector enterprises; social orientation of the economy;

IN social area- high degree of social freedom and human security; accessibility of all levels and forms of education, spiritual values, favorable state of the environment, etc. (These ideas have been most fully implemented in the Scandinavian countries, Germany, Sweden, Norway, and Finland).

In the 20s - 40s of the twentieth century in European countries, as well as in a number of other regions of the world (Argentina, Chile, etc.), it became quite widespread ideology of fascism(Italian Fasio - bundle, bundle, association).

When forming this ideology, some elitist ideas of Plato, Hegel, as well as the Italian political scientist G. Mosca, the French sociologist G. Le Bon, the Austrian sociologist L. Gumplowicz, and the French syndicalist J. Sorel were taken. G. Gentile, B. Mussolini, A. Hitler, A. Rosenberg, and J. Goebbels played a certain role in the formation of fascist ideas.

These ideas were most fully realized in dictatorial political regimes, first in Italy (B. Mussolini) and then in Germany (A. Hitler). Fascism acquired less theoretically and aggressively developed forms in the regimes of General Franco in Spain, A. Salazar in Portugal, Horthy in Hungary, Peron in Argentina, and Pinochet in Chile.

Fascism rejects all directions of socio-political thought that preach freedom and social equality of people, regardless of their nationality, race, religious and political preferences. It is based on the idea of an “organist state”, which justifies the aggressive actions of the authorities in relation to the population absolutely subordinate to it, preaches the “limitless will” of the state and the leader leading it (the Fuhrer, Duce, Caudillo, etc.), glorifies militaristic expansion and war as a means to achieve it.

One of the widespread ideologies of the global type is nationalism. It is a system of ideas, views, perceptions and practical actions based on ethnocentrism (absolutization of the outstanding role of one’s own ethnic group or nation and disdain for other ethnonational communities) and focused on discrimination against the rights and freedoms of people and groups of other nations. The main idea of this doctrine is the understanding and interpretation of the nation as the basis and dominant subject of the state-political and socio-cultural system of society.

The ideas of nationalism began to take shape in the process of formation of nations and nation states during the period of industrial revolutions to the XVIII - early XIX centuries. The Great French Revolution contributed to the establishment of the principle of sovereignty of the nation as a subject state life. For the first time, the revolution substantiated the idea of the right of the nation state to establish the rights and obligations of citizens.

Modern researchers of ethnonational relations distinguish two main forms of nationalism: ethnic and state.

Ethnic nationalism proceeds from the fact that the nation is the highest, most developed form ethnic community, endowed with the exclusive right to possess statehood, as well as all social institutions (culture, education, law, etc.) and all types of resources - human, natural, financial, material and technical. Its main ideas and principles were formed during the emergence of nations and national states in late XVIII- first half of the 19th centuries. All major political, economic and sociocultural relations and the institutions corresponding to them were built on the principle of the priority value of national components, according to the priority of national interest.

Ethnic nationalism became widespread in the 19th - first quarter of the 20th centuries, especially in those countries in which wide circles of the public advocated national independence and the creation of an independent national state. Extremely aggressive forms of nationalism - fascism, national socialism).

The second form of nationalism is civil (state) nationalism, which was formed in the twentieth century. This form of nationalism is aimed at justifying the legitimacy and priority of the national state, state expansion or isolationism and widely uses state symbols, the media, and oral propaganda for the purpose of consolidating the nation (or citizens of the country). Various varieties of state nationalism are actively used in modern USA, India, Pakistan, Brazil and other countries.

At the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries, another ideological doctrine on a global scale began to actively and on a large scale develop and function intensively - the ideology of globalism. Globalization represents the gradual transformation of a heterogeneous world social space into a single global system in which information flows, ideas, values and their carriers, capital, goods and services, standards of behavior and fashion move freely, modifying the worldview, the activities of social institutions, communities and individuals, mechanisms their interactions.

Most Western sociologists and political scientists assess the process of globalization clearly positively and optimistically, believing that this will lead to the consolidation of the world and the overcoming of conflicts, a rise in the standard of living of peoples, social stability, and universal equality. However, social reality turns out to be more complex, contradictory and unpredictable. The intensification of transnational relations inevitably reduces the status of nation states and their socio-political significance, and this causes a backlash - strengthening of nationalist orientations and indignation of the peoples of underdeveloped countries.

Along with global ideologies, local and partial ideologies function. Local ideologies are formed and developed, as a rule, in one or several neighboring countries that have similar or similar in content features of language, culture, religious beliefs, mental self-affirmation and self-expression (Arab states).

A typical example of such an ideology is Islamic fundamentalism. Local ideologies also perceive ideologies of a global type, but they perceive and transform them in accordance with the traditions, national and cultural characteristics of the countries in which they develop and operate.

Partial ideologies are usually included in the national-ideological panorama of a particular state, and in their content, forms of manifestation, ideological orientation, and goal settings express the multiplicity of interests and value orientations of different social groups and communities. A concrete manifestation of the presence of partial ideologies in society is the multi-party system characteristic of many modern states - Italy, France, Russia, Poland, Germany, Belarus, Ukraine and others. Partial ideologies perceive, transform in their content and methods of manifestation elements of both local and global ideologies, often expressing claims to the national and even broader significance of their doctrines, for example, the party ideologies of the LDPR, Yabloko, the Union of Right Forces of Russia.

With all the desire of any local or partial ideology to construct its own “spiritual-ideological world,” not one of them represents an absolutely closed system. All of them interact with each other in one way or another, resulting in a multicolored panorama modern world.

Belarus is one of those states where the process of forming its own ideology is underway, where there are supporters of socialist, social-democratic, liberal and nationalist ideological platforms.

Only time will tell which of these ideologies will take root better.

Control questions

1. What is an idea, and what is its role in the life of society?

2. How did the concept of “ideology” arise?

3. What is political ideology and what are its main functions?

4. Name the main types of ideologies.

5. How do global ideologies differ from local ones?

Literature

1. Melnik, V. A. Ideology and challenges of postmodernity ( State ideology) / V. A. Melnik // Belarusian thought. – 2001. - No. 10. – P. 104-116.

2. Vasilevich, G. Constitutional development and the Belarusian state / G. Vasilevich // Belarusian Thought. – 2003. – No. 2. – P. 24.

3. Fundamentals of the ideology of the Belarusian state: history and theory: textbook. allowance for students of institutions providing higher education/ S. N. Knyazev [etc.]; under general ed. S. N. Knyazeva, V. I. Chueshova. – Minsk: Information Computing Center of the Ministry of Finance, 2007. – 312 p.

4. Babosov, E. M. Fundamentals of the ideology of a modern state / E. M. Babosov. – Minsk: Amalfeya, 2004. – 352 p.

5. Yaskevich, Ya. S. Fundamentals of the ideology of the Belarusian state: worldview values and strategic priorities / Ya. S. Yaskevich. – Minsk: RIVSH BSU, 2003. – 360 p.

6. Vasilevich, G. A. Fundamentals of the ideology of the Belarusian state /
G. A. Vasilevich, Ya. S. Yaskevich. – Minsk: RIVSH, 2004. – 477 p.

7. Makarenko, V. P. Main ideologies of our time / V. P. Makarenko. – Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix monograph, 2000. – 480 p.

8. Malakhov, V. S. Nationalism as a political ideology / V. S. Malakhov. – Moscow: University, Book House, 2005. – 320 p.

Related information.

Political theories of the 19th century: conservatism, liberalism, socialism

test

Conservatism

political liberalism socialism conservatism

The concept of “conservatism” comes from the name of the literary magazine “Conservator”, which began to be published in 1815 by the French romantic writer F. R. Chateaubriand. Conservatism is the protection of specific societies from the destructive effects of revolutionary and rationalistic ideas, based on the values of the past and present. It follows that conservatives always oppose revolutions that destroy the existing society, and against radical reforms, the negative impact of which in some cases can be comparable to the consequences of revolutions. Therefore, unlike liberalism, the essence of which is always unchanged, conservatism is historically changeable. The specific content of conservative concepts varies depending on what ideas these concepts are opposed to in a given historical period. However, it would be wrong to think that conservatism is opposed to any changes in general. According to the famous German conservative politician R. Weizsäcker, conservatives stand for progress, since “he who closes the way to progress becomes a reactionary.” But changes in society should occur naturally, and reforms should help the already mature changes to manifest themselves, preserving everything valuable that was achieved in the process of previous historical development. Conservatives include patriotism, discipline, a strong family and religion among the enduring values necessary for the normal functioning and development of any society. These values, as well as historically formed stable and time-tested forms of organizing people's lives, customs, traditions, cultural characteristics and mentality that have historically formed in specific societies, should not be destroyed in the process of inevitable changes in society, but reproduced in new conditions, ensuring stability and continuity.

The first historical type of conservative ideology was classical conservatism (late 18th century - first half of the 19th century). Its founder is considered to be the English political thinker and statesman Edmund Burke, who gained European fame thanks to his essay “Reflections on the French Revolution,” published in 1790. The fundamental tenets of classical conservatism were also formulated in the works of French émigré writers Louis de Bonald and Joseph de Maistre, and German political thinkers Karl Ludwig von Haller and Adam Müller.

The philosophical basis of classical conservatism is the realistic postulate that the general is higher than the individual. (This refers to medieval realism - a direction in scholasticism that asserts the real existence of general concepts and the secondary nature of individual objects in relation to them). Accordingly, it is argued that the interests of society and the state are higher than the interests of the individual, that the general interest is not a fiction, but a reality, which also has greater value than the interest of an individual, which must be subordinated to the general interest - social and state. It should be emphasized that in practice, any state and society is guided by this principle, even if it is officially considered otherwise.

The idea that the individual is always subordinate to the general and forms a single whole with it is reflected in the concept of society as a living integral organism, not a single element of which can be arbitrarily eliminated or replaced without harm to the organism itself. Such changes lead to the illness of society, and perhaps to its death, especially if the source of vital energy of the body - its soul - is affected.

The mechanism does not have its own history or self-development. The body, on the contrary, is constantly developing and changing naturally. It follows that attempts by revolutionaries and statesmen to implement abstract models of society created by reason are doomed to failure and are dangerous. It is possible to reform society only gradually, preserving its features that arose as a result of previous historical development, and the basic values inherent in a given society. The ideas of the founders of classical conservatism about society as an integral structure based on the organic relationship and interdependence of its constituent elements, about the complexity of successful reform of society and about the basic principles of such reform are true and relevant for all societies in the process of active restructuring.

In the mid-19th century, based on the acceptance by conservatives of a market economy, private property and competition, as well as the liberal principles of parliamentarism and political pluralism, classical conservatism became a thing of the past and the second historical type of conservative ideology was formed - conservatism of the second half of the 19th - first decades of the 20th century.

Conservatism as a political theory

The end of the Second World War marked the collapse of not only the National Socialist and Fascist systems, but also a sharp criticism of real socialism as a totalitarian formation...

Conservatism: its place and role in the life of Belarusian society and state

In political vocabulary the concept of conservatism for a long time used with a negative connotation. It served, as a rule, to designate an inert adherence to everything that is unchangeable and outdated in public life and was defined in no other way...

Review of Russian political thought of the 19th–early 20th centuries

An incredible model for the political arrangement of Russia from the point of view of classical liberalism was proposed by one of the classics of domestic liberalism, Konstantin Dmitrievich Kavelin (1818 - 1885). The only possible structure of life for Russia...

The main political ideologies of the modern West

Conservatism (French conservatism from Latin conservo I protect, preserve), a set of heterogeneous ideological, political and cultural movements based on the idea of tradition and continuity in social and cultural life...

Features of the development of political thought in Russia

Orientation towards Western values, the desire for reforms of one part of Russian society (entrepreneurs, intellectuals) gave rise to the growth of the opposite tendency in another part of it, which led to an increase in vomitism...

Political ideology, its main types

Conservatism (from the Latin conservo - I preserve) is a political ideology that advocates the preservation of the existing social order, primarily moral and legal relations embodied in the nation, religion, marriage, family, property...

Political ideas of our time

The formation of classical liberalism is associated with the era of bourgeois revolutions of the 17th-18th centuries. It emerged as the political ideology of the bourgeoisie and proclaimed freedom as a priority value...

Political ideologies of the modern world

Conservatism as an ideology arose as a counterweight to bourgeois liberalism, which supported democratic revolutions in Europe at the turn of the 18th-19th centuries...

Political theories XIX Art.: conservatism, liberalism, socialism

political liberalism socialism conservatism The concept of “conservatism” comes from the name of the literary magazine “Conservator”, which began to be published in 1815 by the French romantic writer F. R. Chateaubriand...

Lipinsky's political views

Universities with its points of his own gestures by V. Lipinsky, a mean, the teritatorial patriotism of the Ukrainian National Conservatism, Yaki, on Yogo Duma, the Bust of the Old Organized Organic Wonderland ...

Russian conservatism

Declaring adherence to conservative principles is gradually becoming one of the signs of good form in modern Russian society. However, not all...

Russian conservatism

Conservatism as an ideology. To live means to change, while remaining unchanged yourself. That which is worth living for, that which cannot be given up under any circumstances, is called “identity.” Conservatism is an ideology...

Modern political ideologies

Political ideology is a socio-cultural phenomenon, a form of social worldview, a set of conceptual views on political life, the ideals of people and social groups regarding the organization of political power...

Modern conservatism

We imagine with a greater or lesser degree of clarity how the events of the Patriotic War of 1812 (as well as those that preceded this year, as well as the foreign campaigns of 1813 - 1814...

The essence of political ideology

Conservatism (from Latin conservare - to protect, preserve) is an ideological and political movement that puts forward as its main requirements the preservation and maintenance of historically formed forms of political and social life...

Date: 09/28/2015

Lesson: story

Class: 8

Subject:“Liberals, conservatives and socialists: what should society and the state be like?”

Goals: introduce students to the basic ideological methods of implementing the ideas of liberals, conservatives, socialists, and Marxists; find out which segments of society’s interests were reflected by these teachings; develop the ability to analyze, compare, draw conclusions, and work with historical sources;

Equipment: computer, presentation, materials for checking homework

Download:

Preview:

Date: 09/28/2015

Lesson: history

Grade: 8

Subject: “Liberals, conservatives and socialists: what should society and the state be like?”

Goals: introduce students to the basic ideological methods of implementing the ideas of liberals, conservatives, socialists, and Marxists; find out which segments of society’s interests were reflected by these teachings; develop the ability to analyze, compare, draw conclusions, and work with historical sources;

Equipment: computer, presentation, materials for checking homework

During the classes

Organizational start of the lesson.

Checking homework:

Testing knowledge on the topic: “Culture of the 19th century”

Assignment: according to the description of the picture or work of art try to guess what it is about and who its author is?

1. The action in this novel takes place in Paris, engulfed in popular phenomena. The strength of the rebels, their courage and spiritual beauty are revealed in the images of the gentle and dreamy Esmeralda, the kind and noble Quasimodo.

What is the name of this novel and who is its author?

2. The ballerinas in this picture are shown in close-up. The professional precision of their movements, grace and ease, and a special musical rhythm create the illusion of rotation. Smooth and precise lines, the finest nuances blue color envelops the dancers' bodies, giving them a poetic charm.

___________________________________________________________________

3. A dramatic story about a horseman who rushes with a sick child through an evil fairy-tale forest. This music portrays to the listener a gloomy, mysterious thicket, a frantic racing rhythm, leading to tragic ending. Name musical composition and its author.

___________________________________________________________________

4. The political situation sends the hero of this work in search of a new life. Together with the heroes, the author mourns the fate of Greece, which was enslaved by the Turks, and admires the courage of the Spaniards fighting Napoleonic troops. Who is author of this work and what is it called?

___________________________________________________________________

5. The youth and beauty of this actress captivated not only the artist who painted her portrait, but also many admirers of her art. Before us is a personality: talented actress, a witty and brilliant conversationalist. What is the name of this painting and who painted it?

___________________________________________________________________

6. This author’s book is dedicated to stories about distant India, where he lived for many years. Who doesn’t remember the wonderful little hippopotamus, or the exciting story of how a camel got a hump or a baby elephant’s trunk? BUT what amazes the most is the adventure of a human cub, fed by wolves. What book are we talking about and who is its author?

___________________________________________________________________

7. The basis of this opera is the plot of the French writer Prosper Merimee. Main character opera - a simple-minded country guy, Jose, finds himself in the city where he performs military service. Suddenly a frantic gypsy bursts into his life, for whose sake he commits crazy acts, becomes a smuggler, leads a free and dangerous life. What opera are we talking about and who wrote this music?

___________________________________________________________________

8. The painting by this artist depicts rows of endless benches on which are seated deputies called upon to dispense justice, disgusting monsters - a symbol of the inertia of the July Monarchy. Name the artist and the title of the painting.

___________________________________________________________________

9. One day, while filming street traffic, this man got distracted for a moment and stopped turning the camera handle. During this time, the place of one object was taken by another. While watching the tape, we saw a miracle: one object “turned” into another. What phenomenon are we talking about and who is the person who made this “discovery”?

___________________________________________________________________

10. This canvas depicts the doctor who treated our hero. When the artist presented him with this painting as a token of gratitude, the doctor hid it in the attic. Then he covered the yard outside. And only chance helped to appreciate this picture. What picture are we talking about? Who is its author?

___________________________________________________________________

Key to the task:

	"Notre Dame Cathedral" V. Hugo
	"Blue Dancers" by E. Degas
	“The Forest King” by F. Schubert.
	"Childe Harold's Pilgrimage" by D. Byron
	"Jean of Samaria" by O. Renoir
	"The Jungle Book" by R. Kipling
	"Carmen" by J. Bizet
	“Legislative Womb” by O. Daumier
	The emergence of a cinematic trick. J. Méliès
	"Portrait of Doctor Ray" by Vincent Van Gogh.

Communicate the topic and objectives of the lesson.

(slide) Lesson objectives: Consider the specific features of the intellectual life of Europe in the 19th century; Characterize the main directions of European politics in the 19th century.

Learning new material.

teacher's story:

(slide) Philosophers and thinkers of the 19th century were concerned with the following questions:

1) How does society develop?

2) What is preferable: reform or revolution?

3) Where is history going?

They were also looking for answers to the problems that arose with the birth of industrial society:

1) what should be the relationship between the state and the individual?

2) how to build relationships between the individual and the church?

3) what is the relationship between the new classes - the industrial bourgeoisie and wage workers?

Almost until the end of the 19th century, European states did not fight poverty, did not carry out social reforms, and the lower classes did not have their representatives in parliament.

(slide) In the 19th century, 3 main socio-political trends took shape in Western Europe:

1) liberalism

2) conservatism

3) socialism

When studying new material, you and I will have to fill out this table(slide)

Comparison line	Liberalism	Conservatism	Socialism
Main principles
The role of the state in economic life

(slide) - consider the basic principles of liberalism.

from Latin – liberum - related to freedom. Liberalism received its development in the 19th century, both in theory and practice.

Let's take a guess, what principles will they proclaim?

Principles:

The human right to life, liberty, property, equality before the law.
The right to freedom of speech, press and assembly.
The right to participate in public affairs

Considering individual freedom to be an important value, liberals had to define its boundaries. And this boundary was defined by the words:"Everything that is not prohibited by law is permitted"

How do you figure out which of the two paths of social development they will choose: reform or revolution? Justify your answer(slide)

(slide) The demands put forward by the liberals:

Restriction of government activities by law.
Proclaim the principle of separation of powers.
Freedom of the market, competition, free trade.
Introduce social insurance for unemployment, disability, and pensions for the elderly.
Guarantee a minimum wage, limit the length of the working day

In the last thirds of the XIX century, a new liberalism appeared, which declared that the state should carry out reforms, protect the least significant strata, prevent revolutionary explosions, eliminate hostility between classes, and achieve general welfare.

(slide) The new liberals demanded:

Introduce unemployment and disability insurance

Introduce pensions for the elderly

The state must guarantee a minimum salary

Destroy monopolies and restore free competition

(slide) The English House of Whigs brought forward from its midst the most prominent figure of British liberalism - William Gladstone, who carried out a number of reforms: electoral, school, self-government restrictions, etc. We will talk about them in more detail when we study the history of England.

(slide) - But still, conservatism was the more influential ideology.

from Latin conservatio - protect, preserve.

Conservatism - a doctrine that arose in the 18th century, which sought to justify the need to preserve the old order and traditional values

(slide) - Conservatism began to strengthen in society as a counterweight to the spread of the ideas of liberalism. Chief of it principle - preserve traditional values: religion, monarchy, national culture, family and order.

Unlike liberals, conservatives admitted:

The right of the state to strong power.
The right to regulate the economy.

(slide) - since society had already experienced many revolutionary upheavals that threatened the preservation of the traditional order, conservatives recognized the possibility of carrying out

“protective” social reforms only as a last resort.

(slide) Fearing the rise of “new liberalism,” conservatives agreed that

1) society should become more democratic,

2) it is necessary to expand voting rights,

3) the state should not interfere in the economy

(slide) As a result, the leaders of the English (Benjamin Disraeli) and German (Otto von Bismarck) Conservative parties became social reformers - they had no other choice in the face of the growing popularity of liberalism.

(slide) Along with liberalism and conservatism, socialist ideas about the need to abolish private property and protect public interests and the idea of egalitarian communism became popular in Western Europe in the 19th century.

Social and government system, principles which are:

1) establishment of political freedoms;

2) equality in rights;

3) participation of workers in the management of the enterprises where they work.

4) the duty of the state to regulate the economy.

(slide) “The Golden Age of humanity is not behind us, but ahead” - these words belong to Count Henri Saint-Simon. In his books, he outlined plans for the reconstruction of society.

He believed that society consists of two classes - idle owners and working industrialists.

Let's determine who could belong to the first group and who to the second?

The first group includes: large landowners, rentier capitalists, military personnel and high-ranking officials.

The second group (96% of the population) includes all people engaged in useful activities: peasants, hired workers, artisans, manufacturers, merchants, bankers, scientists, artists.

(slide) Charles Fourier proposed transforming society through the unification of workers - phalanxes that would combine industrial and agriculture. There will be no wages or hired labor. All income is distributed in accordance with the amount of “talent and labor” invested by each person. Property inequality will remain in the phalanx. Everyone is guaranteed a living minimum. The phalanx provides its members with schools, theaters, libraries, and organizes holidays.

(slide) Robert Owen went further in his works, deeming it necessary to replace private property with public property and the abolition of money.

work from the textbook

(slide)

teacher's story:

(slide) Revisionism - ideological trends that proclaim the need to revise any established theory or doctrine.

The person who revised the teachings of K. Marx for compliance with the real life of society in the last third of the 19th century was Eduard Bernstein

(slide) Eduard Bernstein saw that

1) the development of the joint-stock form of ownership increases the number of owners, along with monopolistic associations, medium and small owners remain;

2) the class structure of society becomes more complex, new layers appear

3) the heterogeneity of the working class is increasing - there are skilled and unskilled workers with different wages.

4) workers are not yet ready to take on independent management of society.

He came to the conclusion:

The reconstruction of societies can be achieved through economic and social reforms carried out through popularly and democratically elected authorities.

(slide) Anarchism (from the Greek anarcia) – anarchy.

Within anarchism there were a variety of left and right movements: rebellious ( Act of terrorism) and cooperators.

What features characterized anarchism?

(slide) 1. Faith in the good side human nature.

2. Faith in the possibility of communication between people based on love.

3. It is necessary to destroy the power that carries out violence against the individual.

(slide) prominent representatives of anarchism

Summing up the lesson:

(slide)

(slide) Homework:

Paragraph 9-10, records, table, questions 8.10 in writing.

Application:

When explaining new material, you should get the following table:

Comparison line	Liberalism	Conservatism	Socialism
Main principles
			State regulation of the economy
Attitude to social issues
Ways to solve social issues

Annex 1

Liberals, Conservatives, Socialists

1. Radical direction of liberalism.

After the end of the Congress of Vienna, the map of Europe took on a new look. The territories of many states were divided into separate regions, principalities and kingdoms, which were then divided among themselves by large and influential powers. The monarchy was restored in most European countries. The Holy Alliance made every effort to maintain order and eradicate any revolutionary movement. However, contrary to the wishes of politicians, capitalist relations continued to develop in Europe, which conflicted with the laws of the old political system. At the same time, the problems caused economic development, difficulties associated with issues of infringement of national interests in various states were added. All this led to the appearance in the 19th century. in Europe, new political directions, organizations and movements, as well as numerous revolutionary uprisings. In the 1830s, national liberation and revolutionary movement covered France and England, Belgium and Ireland, Italy and Poland.

In the first half of the 19th century. In Europe, two main socio-political movements emerged: conservatism and liberalism. The word liberalism comes from the Latin “Liberum” (liberum), i.e. related to freedom. The ideas of liberalism were expressed back in the 18th century. in the Age of Enlightenment by Locke, Montesquieu, Voltaire. However, this term became widespread in the 2nd decade of the 19th century, although its meaning at that time was extremely vague. Liberalism began to take shape into a complete system of political views in France during the Restoration period.

Supporters of liberalism believed that humanity would be able to move along the path of progress and achieve social harmony only if the principle of private property was the basis for the life of society. The common good, in their opinion, consists of the successful achievement by citizens of their personal goals. Therefore, it is necessary, with the help of laws, to provide people with freedom of action both in the economic sphere and in other areas of activity. The boundaries of this freedom, as stated in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen, must also be determined by laws. Those. The motto of the liberals was the phrase that later became famous: “everything that is not prohibited by law is permitted.” At the same time, liberals believed that only those people who are able to be responsible for their actions can be free. They included only educated property owners in the category of people who are capable of being responsible for their actions. State actions must also be limited by laws. Liberals believed that power in the state should be divided into legislative, executive and judicial.

In the economic field, liberalism advocated free markets and free competition among entrepreneurs. At the same time, in their opinion, the state did not have the right to interfere in market relations, but was obliged to play the role of a “guardian” of private property. Only in the last third of the 19th century. the so-called “new liberals” began to say that the state should support the poor, curb the growth of inter-class contradictions and achieve general welfare.

Liberals have always been convinced that transformations in the state should be carried out through reforms, but in no case through revolutions. Unlike many other movements, liberalism assumed that there is a place in the state for those who do not support the existing government, who think and speak differently than the majority of citizens, and even differently than the liberals themselves. Those. supporters of liberal views were convinced that the opposition had the right to legitimate existence and even to express its views. She was categorically forbidden only one thing: revolutionary actions aimed at changing the form of government.

In the 19th century Liberalism has become the ideology of many political parties, uniting supporters of the parliamentary system, bourgeois freedoms and freedom of capitalist entrepreneurship. At the same time, there were various shapes liberalism. Moderate liberals considered a constitutional monarchy to be the ideal government system. Radical liberals who sought to establish a republic held a different opinion.

2. Conservatives.

Liberals were opposed by conservatives. The name “conservatism” comes from the Latin word “conservatio”, which means “to guard” or “to preserve.” The more liberal and revolutionary ideas, the stronger became the need to preserve traditional values: religion, monarchy, national culture, family and order. Conservatives sought to create a state that, on the one hand, would recognize the sacred right of property, and on the other, would be able to protect customary values. At the same time, according to conservatives, authorities have the right to intervene in the economy and regulate its development, and citizens must obey the instructions of government authorities. Conservatives did not believe in the possibility of universal equality. They said: “All people have equal rights, but not the same benefits.” They saw individual freedom in the opportunity to preserve and maintain traditions. Conservatives considered social reforms as a last resort in conditions of revolutionary danger. However, with the development of the popularity of liberalism and the emergence of the threat of losing votes in parliamentary elections, conservatives had to gradually recognize the need for social reforms, as well as accept the principle of state non-interference in the economy. Therefore, as a result, almost all social legislation in the 19th century. was adopted on the initiative of the Conservatives.

3. Socialism.

In addition to conservatism and liberalism in the 19th century. The ideas of socialism are becoming widespread. This term comes from the Latin word “socialis”, i.e. "public". Socialist thinkers saw the full hardship of life for ruined artisans, factory workers and factory workers. They dreamed of a society in which poverty and hostility between citizens would disappear forever, and the life of every person would be protected and inviolable. The main problem Representatives of this trend saw the society of their time as private property. The socialist Count Henri Saint-Simon believed that all citizens of the state are divided into “industrialists” engaged in useful creative work and “owners” who appropriate the income of other people’s labor. However, he did not consider it necessary to deprive the latter of private property. He hoped that by appealing to Christian morality, it would be possible to convince owners to voluntarily share their income with their “younger brothers” - the workers. Another supporter of socialist views, Francois Fourier, also believed that in an ideal state classes, private property and unearned income should be preserved. All problems must be solved by increasing labor productivity to such a level that wealth will be ensured for all citizens. State revenues will have to be distributed among the residents of the country depending on the contribution made by each of them. The English thinker Robert Owen had a different opinion on the issue of private property. He thought that only public property should exist in the state, and money should be abolished altogether. According to Owen, with the help of machines, society can produce sufficient quantities material goods, you just need to distribute them fairly among all its members. Both Saint-Simon, Fourier, and Owen were convinced that an ideal society awaits humanity in the future. Moreover, the path to it must be exclusively peaceful. Socialists relied on persuasion, development and education of people.

The ideas of socialists were further developed in the works of the German philosopher Karl Marx and his friend and comrade-in-arms Friedrich Engels. The new doctrine they created was called “Marxism.” Unlike their predecessors, Marx and Engels believed that there is no place for private property in an ideal society. Such a society began to be called communist. Revolution must lead humanity to a new system. In their opinion, this should happen in the following way. With the development of capitalism, the impoverishment of the masses will intensify, and the wealth of the bourgeoisie will increase. The class struggle will become more widespread. It will be led by social democratic parties. The result of the struggle will be a revolution, during which the power of the workers or the dictatorship of the proletariat will be established, private property will be abolished, and the resistance of the bourgeoisie will be completely broken. In the new society, political freedoms and equality of rights for all citizens will not only be established, but also respected. Workers will accept Active participation in the management of enterprises, and the state will have to control the economy and regulate the processes occurring in it in the interests of all citizens. Each person will receive every opportunity for comprehensive and harmonious development. However, later Marx and Engels came to the conclusion that the socialist revolution is not the only way to resolve social and political contradictions.

4. Revisionism.

In the 90s XIX century There have been great changes in the life of states, peoples, political and social movements. The world has entered a new period of development - the era of imperialism. This required theoretical understanding. Students already know about changes in the economic life of society and its social structure. Revolutions were a thing of the past, socialist thought was experiencing a deep crisis, and the socialist movement was in schism.

The German social democrat E. Bernstein criticized classical Marxism. The essence of E. Bernstein’s theory can be reduced to the following provisions:

1. He proved that the growing concentration of production does not lead to a decrease in the number of owners, that the development of the joint-stock form of ownership increases their number, that, along with monopolistic associations, medium and small enterprises remain.

2. He pointed out that the class structure of society was becoming more complex: middle strata of the population appeared - employees and officials, the number of which was growing in percentage terms faster than the number of hired workers.

3. He showed the increasing heterogeneity of the working class, the existence in it of highly paid layers of skilled workers and unskilled workers, whose work was paid extremely low.

4. He wrote that at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. workers did not yet constitute the majority of the population and were not ready to take on independent management of society. From this he concluded that the conditions for a socialist revolution were not yet ripe.

All of the above shook E. Bernstein’s confidence that the development of society can only proceed along a revolutionary path. It became obvious that the reconstruction of society could be achieved through economic and social reforms carried out through popularly and democratically elected authorities. Socialism can win not as a result of revolution, but in conditions of expansion of voting rights. E. Bernstein and his supporters believed that the main thing was not revolution, but the struggle for democracy and the adoption of laws that ensured the rights of workers. This is how the doctrine of reformist socialism arose.

Bernstein did not consider development towards socialism as the only possible one. Whether development will follow this path depends on whether the majority of people want it, and on whether socialists can lead people to the desired goal.

5. Anarchism.

Criticism of Marxism was also published from the other side. Anarchists opposed him. These were followers of anarchism (from the Greek anarchia - anarchy) - a political movement that proclaimed its goal the destruction of the state. The ideas of anarchism were developed in modern times by the English writer W. Godwin, who in his book “An Inquiry into Political Justice” (1793) proclaimed the slogan “Society without a state!” Anarchist teachings included a variety of teachings - both “left” and “right”, a variety of actions - from rebellious and terrorist to the cooperator movement. But all the numerous teachings and speeches of anarchists had one thing in common - the denial of the need for a state.

M.A. Bakunin set before his followers only the task of destruction, “clearing the ground for future construction.” For the sake of this “clearing”, he called on the masses to perform and carry out terrorist acts against representatives of the oppressor class. Bakunin did not know what the future anarchist society would look like and did not work on this problem, believing that the “work of creation” belongs to the future. In the meantime, a revolution was needed, after the victory of which the state should first be destroyed. Bakunin also did not recognize the participation of workers in parliamentary elections or in the work of any representative organizations.

In the last third of the 19th century. The development of the theory of anarchism is associated with the name of the most prominent theorist of this political doctrine, Peter Aleksandrovich Kropotkin (1842-1921). In 1876, he fled from Russia abroad and began publishing the magazine “La Revolte” in Geneva, which became the main printed organ of anarchism. Kropotkin's teachings are called "communist" anarchism. He sought to prove that anarchism is historically inevitable and is a mandatory step in the development of society. Kropotkin believed that state laws interfere with the development of natural human rights, mutual support and equality, and therefore give rise to all sorts of abuses. He formulated the so-called “biosociological law of mutual assistance,” which supposedly determines the desire of people to cooperate rather than fight each other. He considered the ideal of organizing society to be a federation: a federation of clans and tribes, a federation of free cities, villages and communities in the Middle Ages, and modern state federations. How should a society in which there is no state mechanism be cemented? It was here that Kropotkin applied his “law of mutual assistance,” pointing out that the role of a unifying force would be played by mutual assistance, justice and morality, feelings inherent in human nature.

Kropotkin explained the creation of the state by the emergence of land ownership. Therefore, in his opinion, it was possible to move to a federation of free communes only through the revolutionary destruction of what separates people - state power and private property.

Kropotkin considered man to be a kind and perfect being, and yet anarchists increasingly used terrorist methods, explosions occurred in Europe and the USA, and people died.

Questions and tasks:

Fill out the table: “The main ideas of socio-political doctrines of the 19th century.”

Comparison Questions	Liberalism	Conservatism	Socialism (Marxism)	Revisionism	Anarchism
Role of the State in economic life
Position on a social issue and ways to solve social problems
Limits of individual freedom

How did representatives of liberalism see the path of development of society? What provisions of their teaching seem relevant to modern society to you?
How did representatives of conservatism see the path of development of society? Do you think their teachings are still relevant today?
What caused the emergence of socialist teachings? Are there conditions for the development of socialist teaching in the 21st century?
Based on the teachings you know, try to create your own project of possible ways for the development of society in our time. What role do you agree to assign to the state? What ways do you see to solve social problems? How do you imagine the limits of individual human freedom?

Liberalism:

the role of the state in economic life: the activities of the state are limited by law. There are three branches of government. The economy has a free market and free competition. The state interferes little in the economy; position on social issues and ways to solve problems: the individual is free. The path of transforming society through reforms. New liberals came to the conclusion that social reforms were necessary

limits of individual freedom: complete personal freedom: “Everything that is not prohibited by law is permitted.” But personal freedom is given to those who are responsible for their decisions.

Conservatism:

the role of the state in economic life: the power of the state is practically unlimited and is aimed at preserving old traditional values. In economics: the state can regulate the economy, but without encroaching on private property

position on social issues and ways to solve problems: they fought for the preservation of the old order. They denied the possibility of equality and brotherhood. But the new conservatives were forced to agree to some democratization of society.

limits of individual freedom: the state subjugates the individual. Individual freedom is expressed in its observance of traditions.

Socialism (Marxism):

the role of the state in economic life: unlimited activity of the state in the form of the dictatorship of the proletariat. In economics: the destruction of private property, free markets and competition. The state completely regulates the economy.

position on a social issue and ways to solve problems: everyone should have equal rights and equal benefits. Solution social problem through social revolution

limits of individual freedom: the state itself decides all social issues. Individual freedom is limited by the state dictatorship of the proletariat. Labor is required. Private enterprise and private property are prohibited.

Comparison line	Liberalism	Conservatism	Socialism
Main principles	Providing individual rights and freedoms, maintaining private property, developing market relations, separation of powers	Preservation of strict order, traditional values, private property and strong government power	Destruction of private property, establishment of property equality, rights and freedoms
The role of the state in economic life	The state does not interfere in the economic sphere	State regulation of the economy	State regulation of the economy
Attitude to social issues	The state does not interfere in the social sphere	Preservation of estate and class differences	The state ensures the provision of social rights to all citizens
Ways to solve social issues	Denial of revolution, the path of transformation is reform	Denial of revolution, reform as a last resort	The path of transformation is revolution

Editor's Choice

Day of Remembrance of Fallen Russian Internal Affairs Officers Heroism of Police Officers

In recent years, the bodies and troops of the Russian Ministry of Internal Affairs have been performing service and combat missions in a difficult operational environment. Wherein...

Northern coast of Neva Bay

Members of the St. Petersburg Ornithological Society adopted a resolution on the inadmissibility of removal from the Southern Coast...

Enviable beauties in politics (17 photos)

Russian State Duma deputy Alexander Khinshtein published photographs of the new “chief cook of the State Duma” on his Twitter. According to the deputy, in...

The best ballet performances

Home Welcome to the site, which aims to make you as healthy and beautiful as possible! Healthy lifestyle in...

Biography, political activity

The son of moral fighter Elena Mizulina lives and works in a country with gay marriages. Bloggers and activists called on Nikolai Mizulin...

The magical world of crystals

Purpose of the study: With the help of literary and Internet sources, find out what crystals are, what science studies - crystallography. To know...

How to salt milk mushrooms: a quick recipe

WHERE DOES PEOPLE'S LOVE FOR SALTY COME FROM? The widespread use of salt has its reasons. Firstly, the more salt you consume, the more you want...

Ten Surprisingly Profitable Illegal Trades

The Ministry of Finance intends to submit a proposal to the government to expand the experiment on taxation of the self-employed to include regions with high...

Management project based on the example of an enterprise presentation

To use presentation previews, create a Google account and sign in:...

New

Popular

World ideologies: liberalism" conservatism socialism" fascism. Lesson summary on the topic “Conservatism, liberalism, socialism, change”

Correspondence faculty

Test in political science No. 6

Political theories of the 19th century: conservatism, liberalism, socialism

Student: Denisyuk Yu.V.

Course: 4

Group: PZ-06-1z

Introduction

Conservatism

Liberalism

Socialism

Bibliography

Political theories of the 19th century: conservatism, liberalism, socialism

Conservatism

Download:

Preview: