About artistic miniature. Miniature painting on papier-mâché

Since the Abbasid era, miniature painting has become widespread. Despite the prohibition of Islam to depict living creatures, miniatures have become a favorite genre of art.

The earliest miniatures are considered to be illustrated manuscripts on astronomy, medicine, botany and history, created in Baghdad at the end of the 12th - mid-13th centuries. They are usually referred to as Baghdad, or Arab-Mesopotamian, school of painting, the style of which is characterized by linear drawing and conventional representation of a specific environment. For example, one or two trees meant a garden, and the confrontation between two warriors meant a battle. The figures of people were shown in motion, which was achieved thanks to precisely captured gestures - hugs, handshakes, animated gestures during conversation. Faces with large noses were most often depicted in profile, and eyes were always in front, which made the faces very similar to each other. Animals were depicted most vividly: fleet-footed horses, light-footed deer, sleeping near tents or camels grazing in the desert.

The color scheme of Arab-Mesopotamian miniatures is characterized by a predominance of ocher-brown tones with bright spots of green, faded blue, brick red, lilac, black, white, as well as dull shimmering gold. An example of a miniature of this school is the illustrations for the manuscript “Maqam” (see color incl.) - a collection of short picaresque stories about the adventures of the adventurer and poet Abu Zayd, who was called “the father of lies and deceit.”

Conquest of Iran and Iraq by the Mongols in the mid-13th century. led to the emergence of new schools of miniature painting with dynastic names - Timurid, Safavid, Mughal. However, their geographical division into Iranian And Central Asian, within which local schools were named after cultural centers states. The Iranian school includes Tabriz, Shiraz, Herat, etc., the Central Asian school includes Samarkand, Bukhara, etc. Each school developed its own canons for depicting people, nature and architecture.

The Iranian school of miniatures originated in Tabriz, and the stages of its development are associated with the ruling dynasties of the Hulaguids, Timurids and Safavids. The most characteristic features Tabriz school The Hulaguid era is a combination of a real image and an ornament: flowers, grass, trees, birds on branches, animals with vividly captured habits are conveyed in an unusually naturalistic way, and at the same time their silhouettes form a colorful ornamental pattern. These are, for example, miniatures from “Manafi al-Hayawan” (a book about animals), which depict hunting, playing, and resting elephants, lions, and bears. Strips of grass, bushes and trees with birds sitting on their branches give the feeling of a real landscape. Meanwhile, beige-yellow, orange-red or violet-gray figures of animals, brown tree branches shaded with gold, green leaves and grass, red, orange, yellow fruits and flowers, occupying almost the entire format of the sheet, create a unique ornament.

The images of people showed Chinese influence, associated with the fact that the Mongol army carried Chinese artisans and painters with them. It appeared in an elongated format, which resembled the horizontal scrolls of Chinese painting; in a graphic manner of execution of mountains, piled up with steep ledges, whimsically bending trunks and branches, clouds twisted into a complex pattern; in individualizing images and endowing them with expression and drama.

We find a combination of “Sinicisms” with emphasized decorativeness in the most grandiose monument of the Tabriz school of miniatures of the 13th-14th centuries. -Great Tabriz “Shah-name” of Ferdowsi. The overwhelming majority of the images traditionally depict the hero’s exploits in the fight against enemies and fantastic monsters. In addition to scenes of hunting, martial arts and military battles, there are scenes of burial and mourning of the dead, where the characters are endowed individual traits, feelings and experiences. The miniatures of the Great Tabriz “Shah-name” are unusually decorative and resemble a carpet ornament: warriors in red, orange, light brown clothes and shiny armor gallop on piebald, brown, black horses across green lawns, above which stretches a dark blue sky with a golden shimmer a myriad of stars.

The pictorial school of Tabriz miniature, which developed under the Safavids, was based, on the one hand, on already existing traditions, and on the other hand, on the experience of Herat artists. The influence of Herat art was reflected in the emergence of illusory depth and narrative. This is the composition and style of the miniature from Arifi’s manuscript “Dervish with broken ball"(see color on).

Against the background of a lawn, covered, as if with strokes, with bushes of grass and framed by hills and trees, a dervish, a Muslim mendicant monk, sadly bent over a broken ball.

The term “miniature” comes from the Latin name for red paint (such as red lead or cinnabar) “minimum”, used to decorate manuscripts, illustrations and ornaments, and this term is also associated with the root basis of the words minium and “minor” (small).

Lacquer miniature painting - unique phenomenon world artistic culture. Having absorbed the achievements of the lacquer art of the West and East, developed over centuries, it enriched it with unique national experience and identity, expanded the scope of its figurative world. Products with lacquer miniature paintings ceased to have a purely utilitarian purpose, thanks to the high skill of Russian craftsmen; they became works of art, with a variety of themes, subjects and images. Lacquer miniatures are not only concentrated joy and a delight for the eyes, but also food for the mind and consolation for the soul. They are convenient to have with you, they do not burden the owner with their size and are delicate in the interior; they do not destroy the style of large shapes, masses and colors.

The history of artistic varnishes goes back a long way. It dates back to the 16th century, when sailors began to bring various exotic goods, including lacquerware, from the countries of the East. In the 17th century In many countries, including the Moscow state, there were masters who tried to reproduce the “Khin” letter. Thus, artistic Chinese varnishes became the subject of study and repetition; they were copied and varied locally, developing a unique type of decorative painting. Precious oriental varnishes found a home in the royal mansions and palaces of the nobility, so the successful experiments of European “varnishes” also found their way into the state halls and offices of noble nobles.

The art of lacquer painting originated several thousand years ago in China. During excavations of ancient graves, lacquerware dating back to the Shan Yin era (1766-1122 BC) was discovered. Varnish was used to cover household utensils, dishes and ceremonial vessels, horse harness, bows and arrows, and to decorate carriages. They wrote with varnishes like ink and used them to protect the surface of products and for decorative purposes.

From China, lacquer art spread to Korea, Japan, the countries of Indochina, India and Persia. The methods of making varnishes were largely determined by the existence of lacquer trees in these regions (in China “qi-shu”, in Japan “urushi-no-ki”, in Vietnam “kei-shon”). Each country developed varnish technology in its own way, borrowing something from its neighbors, improving their experience and introducing its own. The Japanese, having become acquainted with Chinese varnishes, surpassed them, especially in painting using gold and silver powders using the “makie” and “nashiji” techniques.

In Iran, they used a special varnish, the component of which was sandarak - a fragrant resin from a North African coniferous tree, inferior in quality to the varnishes of China and Japan. In India, where the art of lacquer has been known since the 15th-16th centuries, varnish was made from flaxseed and gum.

Oriental varnishes are different the highest level and technology culture. The varnish coating remains hard and flexible after drying, does not react to hot water, is odorless, and resists biological destruction. Varnish is cheap, hygienic, and can be painted, molded, sculpted and cut. The varnish can be applied to any surface, flat or shaped, wood, paper, fabric, leather, metal, stone.

Captivated by the beauty of unusual products, European craftsmen created workshops in the 17th century for the production of products with paintings “like China”. But the technology for making European varnishes differs significantly from the Eastern ones, reflecting not only differences in source materials, but also in climatic conditions, traditions, and lifestyle.

Belgian Spa is considered the birthplace of European varnishes. Lacquer production here quickly became the leading haberdashery industry. Boxes of sewing kits, bonbonnieres, snuff boxes, eyeglass cases, cigarette cases, tea and spice boxes, powder boxes, jewelry boxes, toilet sets - all this was made from beech wood. The products were very popular among vacationers at the famous European resort - the waters of Arden. Spassky lacquer art reached its peak in the 18th century, when local artists united into a special guild.

The history of Russian artistic varnishes begins in the 17th century, but the production of highly artistic products is associated with the Peter the Great era, with the period of construction of St. Petersburg and its suburbs, and therefore both Russian and foreign masters of various specialties were willingly invited to carry out these works. Among the foreigners who arrived from Holland in 1703 was the lacquer master Hendrig van Brumkorst. In St. Petersburg, he trained a “team” of future lacquer masters.

Lacquer miniatures appeared in Fedoskino at the beginning of the 19th century under the influence of the factory industry and the spread of crafts in the surrounding villages. Greatest development at local residents production of lacquered products from papier-mâché and painted metal was received. The trade began in 1795, when the merchant P.I. Korobov established a handicraft production of lacquered army visors. Then, in the village of Danilkovo, near Fedoskino, he founded the first papier-mâché lacquerware factory in Russia, producing mainly snuff boxes for snuff. Korobov traveled to Germany, to the city of Braunschweig, to the tobacco factory of I. G. Stobwasser and invited craftsmen from there to his factory in Russia. Russian craftsmen began to decorate products with images of Russian subjects. By 1812, the factory became the property of P. I. Korobov’s son-in-law, P. V. Lukutin. Since 1828, the factory’s products began to be stamped, and then they became universally known as “Lukutinsky”. In 1904, the factory closed after the death of the last Lukutin, but the craftsmen who were left without work organized an artel in 1910, which was helped by the manufacturer S.T. Morozov. Samples of Lukutin miniatures received gold and silver medals at exhibitions in 1910-1913 in St. Petersburg, Kyiv, and Kazan. They were successfully sold in Russia and abroad. There is a museum of the Fedoskino artel in the village. Fedoskino not only produces art products, but also train new masters - in 1931 a school of miniature painting was opened here.

In addition to Fedoskino, there are currently three centers for the art of miniature lacquer painting in Russia: Palekh, Mstera and Kholui. They went through a different path of development. Before the revolution of 1917, these were large icon-painting crafts, whose masters created icon-painting workshops throughout the country: in St. Petersburg, Moscow, Nizhny Novgorod, Saratov. They painted churches in Russia and embassy churches abroad. Mstera, Palekh, Kholui before the revolution were part of the Vladimir province, in Soviet time according to the new administrative division, Palekh and Kholui ended up in the Ivanovo region, and Mstera - in the Vladimir region. All these centers are known as ancient centers of icon painting. They were engaged not only in the art of small forms, but also in mural painting and restoration of old churches.

Traditions of Palekh miniature lacquer painting, the distinctive features of which are painting on a black background, treated with transparent varnish to a mirror shine, and the complexity of multi-figure compositions.

A contrasting combination of warm and cold tones is often used here to convey motifs of harsh Siberian nature, winter and autumn landscapes.

After the revolution of 1917, Palekh artists were forced to look for new forms of realizing their creative potential. In 1918, artists created the Palekh artistic decorative artel, which was engaged in painting on wood. The founders of the Palekh style are the outstanding artists Golikov Ivan Ivanovich and Glazunov Alexander Alexandrovich, in whose Moscow workshop the first work in the so-called Palekh style was written by Ivan Golikov. In 1923, his works were presented at an art and industrial exhibition in Moscow and awarded a 2nd degree diploma. At the same time, the Palesians first became acquainted with the new material papier-mâché, which for a century was the basis for Fedoskino lacquer miniatures. The masters mastered the new material, transferring to it the traditional technology of tempera painting for ancient Russian icons and the conventional style of the image. For the first time, Palekh miniatures on papier-mâché, made to order Handicraft Museum, were demonstrated at an agricultural exhibition in 1924.

In 1932, the artel was transformed into the Palekh Association of Artists, and in 1953 - into the Art and Production Workshops of the USSR Art Fund. Currently, a number of original workshops of Palesha artists operate in Palekh.

Also, Palekh artists successfully worked in the field of theatrical and decorative art, for example (P. D. Bazhenov, sketches of the scenery for the unrealized play “The Tale of the Priest and His Worker Balda” at the Bolshoi Theater, 1940; the style of Palekh painting is characterized by a thin and smooth drawing on predominantly a black background, an abundance of golden shading, the clarity of the silhouette of flattened figures, sometimes completely covering the surface of the lid and side walls of the boxes. The decorative nature of the landscape and architecture, the elongated graceful proportions of the figures, the color based on a combination of three primary colors - red, yellow and green, go back to traditions. Old Russian icon painting. The composition is usually framed with exquisite ornaments made of melted gold.

Currently, workshops of the Russian Art Fund, small private workshops and individual artists continue to work in Palekh. Among them are T. I. Zubkova, A. A. Kotukhina, N. I Golikov, A. M. Kurkin, K. Kukulieva and B. N. Kukuliev, A. D. Kochupalov, T. Khodova, V. V. Morokin, B. Ermolaev, E. Shchanitsyna and others.

In lacquer miniatures, the Palekh people used tempera paints, preserved thanks to Russian icon painting," this is the main wealth of Palekh and its artistic capital, which was carefully guarded as a living tradition from generation to generation, from the roots of Byzantium and ancient culture "Special role in the Palekh miniature, the gold script plays in all volumes at the last stage. Gold is not only a key element, but also part of the artistic worldview in Palekh art. It is inextricably linked with the symbol of light, which has great historical traditions, coming from medieval ideas about two principles of life - light and dark. In Christian symbolism, light acquires a special aesthetic meaning, becoming a prototype of Divine grace. Material carrier This light is served by gold, which symbolizes it, is the materialized Divine clarity. The example of Palekh helped the former icon painters of Mstera. try your hand at a new art. Even earlier than the Paleshans, the Msterians were looking for ways to use their craft in new conditions. Western European painting, in particular Dutch, with its melting distances, Persian miniatures with their carpet ornamentation, influenced Mstera lacquer miniatures. The peculiarity of the Mstera style in lacquer painting and its content was influenced by Russian lubok. Before the revolution, in Mstera there was a center for the production of popular prints, the production of which was undertaken by the famous archaeologist I.A. Golyshev (1838-1896) - a zealous collector of everything related to people's life , connoisseur of antiquity. He was a serf of Count Panin, who owned Mstera. N.A. Nekrasov specially came to him in Mstera regarding the release of his works in the “Red Books” series and their dissemination among the people through ofen. Popular pictures, published by Golyshev, were a detailed book with illustrations, accompanied by lengthy texts of a moralizing nature and humor. The pictures were printed on printing stone and painted by women and teenagers of Mstera. The brilliant experience of Palekh encouraged the people of Mstera to persistently move towards their intended goal. On June 22, 1931, the “Proletarian Art” artel was created in Mstera to master miniature lacquer painting. Its founders were five masters: N.P. Klykov (1861-1944), A.I. Bryagin (1888-1948), E.V. Yurin (1898-1983), I.A. Serebryakov (1888-1967), V.I. Savin (1880-1957). Serebryakov and Yurin were sent to Moscow for courses to study the technique of painting on papier-mâché. After the revolution, the artists of Kholuy painfully searched for the use of their craft and, later than Palekh and Mstyora, created an artel for miniature varnish painting. This took place in 1934, and its founders were S.A. Mokin (1891-1945), K.V. Kosterin (1899-1985), D.M. Dobrynin (?) and V.D. Puzanov-Molev (1892-1961). All of them graduated from icon painting and drawing school and were talented and educated artists with extensive experience. A V.D. Puzanov-Molev graduated from the Stroganov Art School in Moscow in 1912. The path to lacquer miniatures was more difficult for the residents of Kholui. The brilliant debut of Palekh, and then the successes of Mstera, pushed people to imitate them. In addition, such major art critics as A.V. Bakushinsky and V.M. Vasilenko, were soon repressed and the lackeys were deprived of the professional assistance that they had once provided to their colleagues in Palekh and Mstera. The style of Kholuy miniatures developed gradually over several decades. The landscape of Central Russian nature serves as the backdrop against which historical events, folklore and genre plots of their miniatures unfold. An interesting direction of architectural landscape was formed in Kholuy, represented by the works of N.N. Denisov (born in 1929), B.I. Kiselev (born in 1928), V.N. Sedov (born in 1952). ), V. Teplova (born in 1955), in a variety of creative interpretations. The artists of Palekh, Mstyora and Kholuy wrote and are now painting not only miniatures, but also large panels for the decoration of secular buildings and institutions, they were and are engaged in book design and theater decoration, painting furniture and porcelain, decorating award metal cups, collaborating with jewelers, creating original works of art. Early XVIII century is the era of many innovations associated with the activities of Peter the Great, and, of course, this is the time of the founding of St. Petersburg. It was in St. Petersburg, on the banks of the Fontanka, that the first lacquer shop was organized, where Russian craftsmen studied lacquer painting under the guidance of the Dutchman Hendrik van Brumkorst. Upon arrival in St. Petersburg, Brumkoster was first engaged in finishing ships using the Chinoiserie technique, varnishing (finishing cabins in chinese style). In 1715, Monplaisir, Peter's favorite country palace, was built in Peterhof. Among the rooms of this small charming building, the most amazing was the Lacquer Cabinet, or “Lacquery Chamber”. Its walls were decorated with panels made of thin linden boards, primed, varnished and painted on a black background with fantastic dragons and other oriental subjects, creatively reinterpreted by Russian masters. Peter was very pleased with the design of Monplaisir and ordered several more works from Brumkorst and his artists. Among them are varnishing cabinets for exhibits and books in the Kunstkamera, painting one of the ceremonial rooms of the Summer Palace, decorating the Senate hall in the building of the Twelve Colleges, etc. The tradition of varnish painting strengthened in Russia and began to develop. According to the Charter of 1764, varnish artists were also supposed to be on the staff of the Academy of Arts. Under Elizaveta Petrovna, such craftsmen participated in the decoration of the Winter Palace. The St. Petersburg workshop of varnishing artists owns round snuff boxes with portrait images of Peter II and Elizabeth Petrovna. The collection of the State Hermitage contains samples of varnish painting XVIII centuries, made in our city. One of the most interesting is the “cabinet” bureau. Its lid is decorated with relief gilded figurines of the Chinese, and the front wall is decorated with patterns of medallions characteristic of European art, with images portrait of a woman, a squirrel gnawing nuts, birds on a branch, etc. In addition to oriental motifs, Russian craftsmen loved to paint furniture imitating marble, malachite, and turtle. Descriptions of the samples are known: “... two red cabinets, painted with herbs... two shelves, one painted with “nut”, the other with black paint.”

ABOUT high art Russian masters of the 18th century are evidenced by the activities of one of the talented followers of the first generation “lacquer making” teachers - Fyodor Vlasov, extraordinary personality, a gifted person who worked in St. Petersburg and its suburbs. In the paintings of the premises of the palaces of Oranienbaum and Peterhof, St. Petersburg artists interpreted the exoticism of oriental design in their own way; the bird of paradise from Russian folklore resembled oriental images of birds, and the spreading oak tree resembled a Far Eastern pine. Thus, the world of fairy tales and fantasy contributed to the assimilation of images of a completely different culture.

The fashion for lacquer painting in St. Petersburg spread not only to interiors and furniture, but also to small household items: screens, lanterns, fans, dishes, trays and boxes. The fan “in Chinese style” from the Hermitage collection is particularly elegant: its surface resembles an open carnation flower, and on a black background there are gilded figures of children playing. Other fans from this collection have a more strict shape and restrained painting.

IN late XVIII- at the beginning of the 19th century, masters of lacquer painting appeared in many parts of our country, and the Ural craftsmen became especially famous. But the beginning of this tradition in Russian decorative and applied arts was laid in our city.

The ideas and taste of the time, the artistic trends along which development was carried out, were reflected in the work of the miniaturists. visual arts generally.

Miniature - painting, which at first glance captivates with the precision of each stroke and the elegance of the lines. In such small pictures, everything is thought out to the smallest detail, which is what makes them so bright and effective. This type appeared as an art of decorating books, in which capital letters, patterns, borders, frames, etc. were particularly prominent. And already in the 13th century. miniature images went beyond the book pages and turned into beautiful paintings.

What makes miniatures so special and good?

Nowadays, miniature paintings arouse interest and are gaining more and more fans. Regardless of whether we are talking about modern or classic miniatures, all of them, painstakingly worked out on a small scale, are executed with exceptionally fine strokes. In terms of quality, such images should not lag behind full-fledged paintings, while withstanding significant magnification. That is why our gallery offers to buy miniature paintings only of the most impeccable quality.

Images made in the form of miniatures can bewitch, especially when viewed at a distance of 10-15 cm. In such works, the artist shows all his talent and skill, which can be seen by examining the drawing with a magnifying glass.

All miniature oil paintings presented in our catalog will become a valuable gift both for yourself and for close friends and relatives. Such miniature canvases can depict beautiful landscapes, still lifes, birds, animals, and insects. All of them have harmonious colors, clarity of lines and shapes. It is this careful approach to creating miniatures that makes them so original and attractive. The miniature is sure to be a worthy addition to every home.

Fedoskino lacquer miniature

Fedoskino is associated with this word as Russian lacquer painting using oil paints. The fishery appeared in the village of Fedoskino near Moscow in the second half of the 18th century. The design was applied to papier-mâché products and then covered with several layers of varnish. The art of Fedoskino miniatures was started by the Russian merchant P.I. Korobov, who visited the German city of Braunschweig and adopted there technologies for creating snuff boxes, beads, boxes and other products decorated with picturesque pictures.

The process of making Fedoskino miniatures

The body of the box is made of papier-mâché, which is based on pure wood cardboard. The product is soaked in hot linseed oil, then dried in an oven at high temperature. The box is primed and sanded until a completely smooth surface is obtained. They are coated several times with black and with red varnish on the inside. In total, the entire process takes from 4 to 6 months!!!

Boxes made using this technology do not warp, do not dry out and last a very, very long time. Fedoskino lacquer miniatures are painted with oil paints in four steps: first, a sketch of the drawing is made ("painting"), then detailed study ("painting"), glazing - covering with transparent paints, the last process is highlighting, which conveys highlights and shadows in the image. The Fedoskino drawing technique involves the use of an underpainting layer of reflective components: gold leaf, metal powder or gold leaf. In some cases, the master can make a lining from mother-of-pearl. Transparent glaze paints together with the lining create a unique deep glow effect. The colorful layer is emphasized by a black background.

Mstera miniature

Mstera was called that by the Russians folk craft, which appeared in the mid-18th century in the Vladimir province. It all started with “petty letters” - miniature icons with drawings the smallest details. After the revolution of 1917, when there was no longer a need for icon painting, the craftsmen switched to boxes and boxes made of papier-mâché. The drawing was applied with tempera paints mixed with egg yolks. By the middle of the 20th century, the master's lacquer miniature technologies were finally formed. The village of Mstera, freely spread out on the hilly right bank of the Klyazma River, 110 kilometers from ancient Vladimir to the side Nizhny Novgorod. In the past, it was the Epiphany churchyard of the Romodan inheritance, which was part of the Starodub principality. In the 17th century, from which historical evidence about Mstera begins, it was already a vibrant craft and trading village - the Bogoyavlenskaya settlement. Lack of land forced people to turn to crafts and crafts: icon painting, embroidery, lace-making, embossing and making popular prints.

After the split in Russian Orthodox Church Under Patriarch Nikon, part of the settlement’s inhabitants were Old Believers, which had a significant influence on the nature of Mstera icon painting. In one of her directions, she constantly gravitated towards imitation of ancient models, towards their direct repetition. Masters with desire and knowledge of the matter created icons in ancient styles - Novgorod, Moscow and Stroganov. Based on a deep knowledge of ancient letters, the art of restoration was widely developed in Mstera ancient Russian painting.

The basis for the development of Mstera lacquer miniatures was the local icon painting traditions that existed here since the end of the 17th century.

Icon painting originated in Epiphany monastery in the 17th century and by the middle of the 18th century it spread in Bogoyavlenskaya Sloboda, becoming one of the main occupations of its male population. Gradually, rather large workshops of icon painters grew from small family productions. Icon painting style of the Epiphany Settlement of the 18th-19th centuries. was determined by the requests of the Old Believers, who sought to preserve the ancient Russian icon-painting tradition: the iconography of ancient Novgorod, Moscow of the 16th century and the Russian North - the so-called “northern (Pomeranian) letters” - was considered exemplary. Icons of this trend are characterized by a restrained dark color, exquisite planar ornamental compositions that cover the icon board like a carpet, and a moderate use of gold for detailing.

By the beginning of the 19th century. Icons from the masters of the Epiphany Settlement were sold throughout Russia, as well as in other Orthodox countries - Romania, Serbia, Bulgaria.

A major role in the development of the art of Mstera icon painters was played by the scientist, educator and public figure Ivan Aleksandrovich Golyshev, a native of the serf peasants of the Epiphany Settlement. In the late 1850s - early 1860s. He opened a rural lithography in the village of Sarskoye-Tatarovo near Mstera, where he printed popular prints and “Albums of Russian Antiquities.” Printed drawings on the themes of Russian fairy tales, songs, epics, and lives of saints were painted at home by women and children. I.A. Golyshev was engaged in collecting and studying ancient manuscripts, was a member of eight scientific societies in Russia, but the main work of his life was studying the history of the ancient Mstera icon painting craft, which reached its peak in the mid-19th century.

Manufacturing technology of Mstera miniatures

In the development of performing skills, experience plays a huge role - repeated repetition of technical techniques of writing - which is developed on the basis of knowledge of the icon-painting canon.

A canon is a certain traditional condition, characterized by its constancy and immutability. Plastic definiteness of forms, clear and precise elaboration of details are also of great importance. In ancient Russian painting, line played an outstanding role. IN best works In medieval icon painting, the line is always emotional, it vibrates, it lives. As a means of expressing an artistic form, the line is also determined by the canon. Any form must be limited by a linear contour, shadow or light painting.

Light painting represents a whitewash or cut-off contouring of a form in bright areas. Line and flow determine the structure of the shape of the spaces with their characteristic features in different icon painting schools. For example, in Novgorod letters the spaces are strict and laconic; in Stroganov ones they are more complex and united.

Melting is a painting technique in which this or that paint is mixed on a palette with white and then liquidly melted according to the main local color of the paint within a given shape. For example, gaps on the clothing of a human figure, the slides and slides.

The canon determines not only the nature of the form, but also its original constancy, the location of one or another boundary of the form, determining both the place where the shadow inventory should be and where the boundary of the light painting should be. The meaning of the canon is that it does not make it possible to depersonalize the artistic tradition and strives to keep it within the limits of the local style.

The canon also determines the sequence of the painting process, with each operation preceding the subsequent stage of execution from the very beginning to the end of the work. Consequently, the rational basis and the sensory principle are united by the integral and inseparable process of painting. All this is an important condition for understanding the features of Mstera art and mastering them in practice.

How is the technological process of miniature painting constructed? It all starts with a detailed line drawing, which is first done in pencil on paper. Then the drawing is very carefully transferred to tracing paper. The reverse side of the scalded design is rubbed with dry paint powder (usually brown), applied to the primed surface of the papier-mâché box and transferred onto it using circling. A cipher is a needle with a smoothed point. It is usually mounted on a wooden rod holder.

After this, they begin to reveal the drawing with color, this process is called a special term - “reveal”. The opening determines the entire pictorial basis of the work as its preparatory stage. Revealing is a technological technique of painting during the primary layout of color within a given shape of the drawing.

Then the details of the drawing are sequentially modeled using shadow painting and near-contour shading.

The next stage of the painting process is to work in the light parts of the form. It consists of a whole series of half-tone melts, revives, splashes and glazes. A highlight is nothing more than a white mark in the lightest part of a finished form. Splashes are a tonal softening of color during the final modeling of a form. Glazing is a pictorial technique of working with liquid transparent paints, which enhances the depth of color tone or color.

At the last final stage, cutting is done with created gold or silver.

Kholuy miniature. Manufacturing technology

The making of the box is made by hand at all stages of its production. It all starts with making papier-mâché tubes that serve as the body of the box. The cardboard is wound in layers, pressed and boiled in linseed oil. This is a long and labor-intensive process, which subsequently guarantees many years of life for the lacquer miniature product. After this, the finished tubes are polished, cut to the height of the future work, and the resulting semi-finished products are joined using natural-based glue. Then each edge is finally sanded.

	First, papier-mâché is made from wood cardboard. Cardboard cut into strips is wound onto blanks to shape the products.
	The blanks are primed. The boxes are primed with a mixture of linseed oil, soot and clay. And they prepare it for painting, varnishing it several times with black varnish on the outside and red on the inside. Moreover, each layer of varnish must dry for at least a day.
	Before applying a design to a product, the artist creates it on paper with a pencil, then transfers it to tracing paper. The reverse side of the drawing on tracing paper is rubbed with dry chalk or whitewash and applied to the surface of the object. The drawing is traced along the contour, after which a clear imprint remains. Since black varnish absorbs the brightness of the paint, the artist whitewashes the surface and the drawing then looks like a light silhouette.
	The very recipe for preparing paints used in Kholui for properly prepared paints is one of the components of the artist’s successful work when creating lacquer miniatures. The artist makes and selects paints individually. The paint base is mineral powder, which is ground together with egg yolk, water and vinegar.
	They draw on a special stand. The ornament is made with specially prepared gold leaf with the addition of cherry resin, which gives the Kholuy lacquer miniature originality and uniqueness. The Kholuy artist works with the finest squirrel brushes. Gold leaf is polished with a wolf's tooth. And after that - varnishing again, at least five times, and polishing.

Miniature painting

Easel painting

Cologne, Nuremberg and Prague are three German cities famous for the fact that in the 14th century they already had their own schools of painting. There is no doubt that of these schools the Cologne one is the most important. It is less clear whether Prague showed Cologne where development easel painting

began somewhat earlier and occurred, obviously, under Italian influence, or the direction of the Cologne school was determined by the influences of Italian art, which could also penetrate through Avignon and Burgundy. A small altarpiece was made in the craftsman style of the first half of the 14th century. fold of the Cologne Museum with the image of the Crucifixion

. The figures are long and lifeless, the movements are simple and angular, written in the calligraphic style characteristic of Gothic painting, while within the contours hints of modeling with brown shadows and white highlights are already visible. But all the skill of the Cologne school of the late 14th century is manifested in the altarpiece main altar of Cologne Cathedral , located formerly in the church of St. Clara. This is the decoration of the altar of St. Clara consists from carved sculptures and painted panels. When only the inner pair of doors is closed, the worshipers are presented with two parallel rows of images, each row containing 12 paintings on a golden background inside frames in the form of pointed arches. The twelve lower paintings depict episodes of the Savior’s youth, the upper 12 depict the Passion of the Lord, but only the 6 middle paintings of the lower row represent events relating to the Savior’s childhood and have character traits Cutting outline drawing gave way to softer, wider brush painting and modeling through shadows and highlights, with imperceptible transitions from light to shadow; light harmonious tones of clothes stand out effectively against a golden background. The style of these paintings, despite all their closeness to French and Italian works of the same time, must be recognized as the German, Cologne ideal style.

One of the basic directions of Gothic painting was stained glass, which gradually replaced fresco painting. The technique of stained glass remained the same as in the previous era, but the color palette became much richer and more colorful, and the subjects were more complex - along with images of religious subjects, stained glass windows on everyday themes appeared. In addition, not only colored glass, but also colorless glass began to be used in stained glass.

(Illuminated manuscripts are handwritten medieval books decorated with colorful miniatures and ornaments.)

In German workshops the influence of Romanesque miniatures was felt until the end of the 13th century, although artistic ideas The Romanists were not uniform and were not tied to any national body of formal concepts. In general, the aesthetic ideal of the German miniaturists was determined by Byzantine influences and, to an even greater extent, by French tastes.

Until the beginning of the 15th century, German miniatures had not yet switched to landscape depiction of space, but there are some differences between the styles of the first and second half of the 14th century: already after 1350. The strip of land is enlivened by colorful flowers, and in the 80s. XIV century attempts to deepen the space are noticeable; buildings and their interiors are still depicted conventionally, but they are gradually becoming larger and more promising; human figures lose the Gothic curve of the body, faces become rounded, full, and their features become more individual; the muscles are carefully modeled, movements become freer and more varied, and soft, flowing draperies little by little give way to the broken folds characteristic of the 15th century. 1400 ᴦ. it could be considered turning point this direction.

Along with medieval poems and song collections in Germany, mainly Bibles, chronicles, travel accounts and judicial codes were illustrated with miniatures.

Of the Upper Rhine manuscripts, the most remarkable are two famous collections of songs: the Weingarten manuscript, in the private royal library in Stuttgart, and the Manesse manuscript, in the Heidelberg University Library. Both of them were made, in all likelihood, not far from Constanta. The first was written and decorated with drawings around 1280, the second - around 1330

Miniatures of both manuscripts, mainly depicting the poet himself in his favorite activities and pastimes, drawn with a pen and then painted with symbolically selected paints applied in a thin layer. The language of forms is Gothic, but whereas in the Weingarten manuscript the eyes are given a mostly almond-shaped shape, with pointed corners, and the shadows are indicated only by strokes, in the Manesse manuscript the eyes are wide open and have an oval shape, and the shadows are applied here and there with a brush.

Manesse Manuscript (Great Heidelberg Songbook)) - a handwritten collection of works by German minnesingers, compiled in Zurich in the 1st half of the 14th century. This book was written over approximately 40 years, from 1300 to 1340. The book consists of 426 parchment sheets measuring 35.5x25 cm. On the pages on the left side you can see a portrait of the creator of the work or genre scenes, on the right - the work itself, made in the best traditions of the medieval manuscript. The uniqueness of this manuscript is explained primarily by the unusual theme of the miniatures.. The Minnesingers, also called the “royal manuscript,” contains songs and poems by 140 poets. A selection of works by each poet is illustrated with a separate miniature, as well as, as a rule, a small scene related to the text.

Miniature painting - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Miniature painting" 2017, 2018.