Russian culture in the XIV-XVI centuries. Russian culture XIV

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The influence of the Mongol-Tatar yoke on the development of culture 1 A heavy blow was dealt to material and cultural values2 The increased disunity of Russian lands had a negative impact on the development of all-Russian cultural processes Chronicle begins to recover from the second half of the 13th century

1 Main centers - Galicia-Volyn principality, Novgorod, Rostov, Ryazan, new centers - Moscow, Tver

2 The leading place is gradually occupied by the Moscow chronicles, with their ideas of unifying the lands around Moscow.3 Trinity Chronicle (Moscow chronicle traditions) 4 Mid-15th century, the appearance of the first brief world history - chronograph Oral folk art of Rus' 1 The epics, songs, and military stories reflect the Russian people’s idea of their past and the strengthened world 2 The first cycle of epics is a revision and revision of the old cycle of epics about the Kiev state 3 The second cycle is Novgorod A. The wealth and power of the free city are glorified B. The courage of the townspeople S. Main character - Sadko, Vasily Buslaevich

4 Other genres appear in the 14th century and are devoted to understanding the Mongol conquest A. Tales related to heroic battles or the devastation of cities b. Some of the works of this cycle were included in chronicles Literature of Rus' 1 The works contain ideas of national liberation and patriotism2 A number of works are dedicated to the princes who died in the Golden Horde3 Military story Zadonshchina, compiled by Saphonius of Ryazan in the image of The Lay of Igor's Campaign A. Written following the results of the Battle of Kulikovo B. Does not report a campaign or battle, but expresses feelings C. Zadonshchina has been preserved in the original4 Written: Voyage beyond the three seas A. Travel diary - impressions from the journey of Afanasy NikitinB. One of the few works preserved in Rus' The beginning of book printing in Rus' 1 By the 15th century, the formation of the Great Russian nationality was completed 2 The Moscow dialect became dominant

3 Formation of a centralized state and an increase in the need for literate people

4 Metropolitan Macarius, with the support of Ivan 4, initiated book printing 5 1563 - the state printing house was headed by Ivan Fedorov First publication - the book Apostle 6 1574 the first Russian alphabet was published in Lvov 7 The printing house worked mainly for the needs of the church General political thought of Rus' in the 16th century

1 Reflected several trends on the issue of the relationship between government and individual segments of the population

2 Ivan Peresvetov expresses the noble program of action A. He showed that the support of the state is service people (and their position should be determined not by origin, but by personal merit

B. The main vices leading to the death of the state are the dominance of nobles, their improper trial and indifference to the affairs of the state C. The theme associated with the fall of Byzantium is becoming more active D. He called for pushing the boyars out of the occupation and attracting those people who were really interested in military service 3 Prince Kurbsky defended the point of view that the best people in Russia should help her A. A streak of persecution of the boyars, which coincided with a streak of failures in Rus' B. Kurbsky leaves the country, Ivan 4 takes it hard C. Ivan 4 equates Kurbsky’s departure to high treason Domostroy

1 It is necessary to raise the prestige of the new state - official literature, which regulates the spiritual, legal, everyday life of people 2 Domostroy - the norm of religious and ethical behavior in Everyday life A. Compiled by Sylvester B. Legal education of children, advice on housekeeping C. Artistic language - became a literary monument of the era Painting of Rus'

1 Russian painting reached its peak by the 14th-15th centuries (Russian Renaissance) 2 Series of painters: Theophanes the Greek, Andrei Rublev, icon painter Dionysus

3 The Novgorod Icon Painting School is also functioning at the same time Architecture of Rus'

1 In the 14th-16th centuries Moscow was decorated 2 Restoration of old Russian churches 3 Tendencies towards the crystallization of the Russian national style based on the synthesis of the architecture of Kyiv and Vladimir-Suzdal land

4 Sofia Paleolog invites craftsmen from Italy. The goal is to display the power and glory of the Russian state

5 Traditions of the Russian tent style appear

No. 11. Russia during the reign of Ivan the Terrible.

XVI century – the time of Ivan IV the Terrible, who reigned for 51 years, is longer than any Russian sovereign. Ivan the Terrible, at the age of three, lived without his father (Vasily III). His mother Elena Glinskaya ruled for him, but she was poisoned when her son was 8 years old. Ivan IV grew up in an atmosphere of fierce struggle for power among boyar groups, palace intrigues, saw scenes of civil strife and reprisals, which made him a suspicious, cruel, unbridled and despotic person. Metropolitan Macarius played a major role in establishing order in the country, who crowned in 1547. 17-year-old Ivan IV to the kingdom. Ivan IV became the first Tsar of the Russian state. In the same year he married Anastasia Romanova. The autocratic monarchy “with a human face” began to be implemented under Ivan IV during the reign of the Elected Rada. The government headed by A. Adashev and Sylvester went down in history under the name of the Elected Rada. During the ten years of its stay in power, the Elected Rada carried out as many reforms as no other decade in the history of medieval Russia. IN 1550 The Zemsky Sobor adopted a new Code of Laws - a set of laws. The laws in it were much better systematized than in the Code of Laws of 1497. In the new Code of Laws, punishments were first established for bribe-takers from clerks to boyars. Ivan IV century spent and military reform. According to the “Code on Military Service”, the difference between the boyars - patrimonial owners and the nobles - landowners was finally eliminated - both of them were obliged to perform the sovereign's service. Church reform was also carried out. In 1551, a church council was held, which adopted a special document “stoglav” (consisting of 100 chapters). It unified church rituals in all Russian lands and introduced a single all-Russian pantheon of saints. The reforms of the Elected Rada were of a gradual compromise nature. They contributed to the centralization of the state, overcoming the remnants of feudal fragmentation. A continuation of the internal policy of the Elected Rada was the foreign policy of the Russian state, the task of which was to eliminate the consequences of the Horde yoke. IN 1552 Russian troops stormed the capital of the Kazan Khanate - Kazan. The Khanate was annexed to Russia. But the greatest danger to Rus' was the Crimean Khanate. While this aggressive state existed, Rus' could not safely move south and populate the fertile southern lands. IN 1558 The Livonian War begins. The beginning of the Livonian War was successful for Russia. After the first victories, the Livonian Order was defeated. The Russian army captured a number of cities on the Baltic coast. But by “turning towards the Germans,” Ivan IV, in fact, gave the Tatars the opportunity to attack Moscow. Moscow was burned. Soon Russia began to suffer military defeats in the West, in the Baltic states. Thus, Russia has ceased to be one of the centers of world trade and European politics. They stopped taking her into account. They stopped fearing and respecting her. It began to turn into a third-rate power. This transformation also occurred due to the economic catastrophe of the second half of the 16th century, which was associated, first of all, with the transition from a policy of reform to a policy of harsh violence, despotism, and to a policy of oprichnina. In December, Tsar Ivan, having gone on a pilgrimage, remained in Alexandrovskaya Sloboda and at the beginning 1565 g. informed Metropolitan Athanasius and the Duma that he was renouncing the kingdom. Reasons: discord with the nobility, boyars. In another message to the townspeople and townspeople, Ivan IV wrote that he held no grudge against them. By announcing the disgrace of the nobility, the tsar seemed to appeal to the people in his dispute with the boyars. Under pressure from the people, the Boyar Duma not only did not accept Ivan the Terrible’s abdication, but was forced to turn to him with a loyal petition. In response, Ivan IV, under the pretext of allegedly uncovering a conspiracy, demanded that the boyars grant him unlimited power and establish an oprichnina in the state. Oprichnina was the so-called “widow's share.” If a nobleman died, his estate was taken into the treasury, leaving a small plot so that the widow and children would not starve. Ivan IV hypocritically demanded that his “widow's share” be allocated to him. The land in the state was divided into two parts: zemshchina and oprichnina. The Zemshchina was still governed jointly with the Boyar Duma. And the oprichnina became the personal property of the tsar. The oprichnina included the lands of the central regions of Russia, the most economically developed, where the estates of the most ancient boyar families. The tsar took away these estates and in return provided new ones in the Volga region, on the lands of the conquered Kazan and Astrakhan khans. The meaning of this measure was that the boyars lost the support of the population, which was accustomed to seeing them as their masters. Ivan IV distributed the lands in the oprichnina to his service people for their service. Oprichnina was the first embodiment of autocracy in Russian history as a system of unlimited tsarist rule. However, judgments about it are difficult due to the scarcity of sources and the destruction of all oprichnina archives. IN 1571 g. As a result of oprichnina terror, the country was on the verge of ruin. in autumn 1572 g. The sovereign “dismissed” the oprichnina. Oprichnina also contributed to the establishment of serfdom in Russia. The first enslavement decrees of the early 1580s, which prohibited peasants from legally changing ownership, were provoked by the economic ruin caused by the oprichnina. The terrorist, repressive dictatorship made it possible to drive the peasants into the yoke of serfdom. Serfdom preserved feudalism, restrained the development of market relations in our country and, thereby, became a brake on the path of social progress.

No. 12. Time of Troubles: civil war in modern times. 17th century, its consequences. Zemsky Sobor 1613

At the beginning of the 17th century, Russia was shocked by events that were called by contemporaries the Troubles, the Time of Troubles. In terms of the depth and scale of the upheavals, the turmoil can rightfully be called a national crisis. The origins of the Troubles are in the era of Ivan the Terrible, those contradictions that arose and were not resolved in the 16th century. In the region, the economic cause of the Troubles was the economic crisis caused by the Livonian War and the oprichnina. Another event greatly influenced the course of the Troubles, acting both as an occasion and as a cause of the Troubles, death in 1598 g. Fyodor Ioanovich, who left no heir. The suppression of a dynasty in a feudal, traditional in nature, society is always fraught with political upheavals. After the death of Ivan the Terrible, the Russian state stood at a crossroads. Under his weak-willed heir, Tsar Fyodor Ivanovich (1584-1598), the fate of the throne and the country was in the hands of warring boyar factions. A real threat of civil war was brewing. Already in the first months of the new reign, various political groupings and trends clearly emerged. Representatives of the highest nobility - the Shuiskys, Mstislavskys, Vorotynskys and Bulgakovs, who, due to their birth, claimed the role of first advisers to the sudar, rallied into a special group, forgetting about their parochial and other contradictions. The antithesis of this princely group were the noble “courtyard” figures, interested in preserving their privileges, which they enjoyed during the life of Tsar Ivan. But neither one nor the other managed to achieve success. During the struggle, a third force emerged, led by Boris Godunov, which gained the upper hand. In February 1598 g., after the death of Tsar Fedor, the Zemsky Sobor was convened, which elected Boris as the new tsar. For the first time in Rus', a tsar appeared who received power not by inheritance, but by “the unanimous decision of the entire people.” Godunov was a supporter of strong autocratic power. He refused to pursue the oprichnina course, which was unpopular among the people, which could not lead the country out of the crisis. Godunov’s domestic policy was aimed at stabilizing the situation in the country and consolidating the entire ruling class. This was the only correct policy in the conditions of the general ruin of the country. Under him, cities developed intensively and new ones were built. At the very beginning of the new century, the country experienced the consequences of a general cooling in Europe. Rain and cold prevented the ripening of bread in the summer 1601 g. Early frosts further aggravated the plight of the village. Famine began in the country. People died on the streets and roads and ate others. Boris Godunov tried to fight hunger, but all his measures failed. The famine led to an explosion of class hatred. The aggravation of the internal political situation led to a sharp decline in Godunov’s authority both among the masses and among the feudal class. IN 1601 g. A young man appeared in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, posing as Tsarevich Dmitry, the son of Ivan the Terrible, who declared his intention to go to Moscow to obtain the “ancestral throne” for himself. Boris Godunov, having learned about the appearance of the impostor, created a commission of inquiry to determine his identity. The commission announced that the fugitive monk of the Chudov Monastery, Grigory Otrepyev, had identified himself as the prince. Collected in the fall 1604 g. The army of False Dmitry I went to Moscow. At first, military operations were not in favor of the impostor. But residents of the southwestern cities came to the rescue: Putivl, Belgorod, Voronezh, Oskol, etc. They raised an anti-government uprising and recognized the impostor as their king. At this time in April 1605 Tsar Boris died, his 16-year-old son Fedor ascended the throne, unable to retain power in his hands. By order of the impostor, he was killed along with his mother, Queen Maria. As a result, June 20 1605 False Dmitry solemnly entered Moscow. The new tsar turned out to be an active and energetic ruler: he took the title of “emperor” and easily and quickly resolved complicated issues. Despite the desire to appear merciful and generous, the impostor failed to remain on the throne. 17 May 1606 An uprising broke out in Moscow, leading to the death of the self-proclaimed tsar. One of the organizers of the uprising was Prince Vasily Shuisky, who became the new contender for the royal crown. The election of Shuisky as tsar was not a nationwide action. He ascended the throne on the crest of the Moscow uprising. Vasily Shuisky's rise to power caused discontent on the part of both the feudal lords and the peasantry. The main opponents of the tsar concentrated on the southwestern outskirts of the state, where the former “Tsar Dmitry” was honored. Ivan Bolotnikov stood at the head of this army. A peasant uprising began. Unlike the previous stage of the Troubles, which was characterized by a struggle for power at the top ruling class, this stage was distinguished by the involvement of the middle and lower strata of society in the confrontation. The Troubles took on the character of a civil war. All its signs were present: the violent resolution of all controversial issues, complete or almost complete oblivion of all legality and customs, acute social confrontation, destruction of the entire social structure of society, the struggle for power, etc. The situation in the country was difficult. In summer 1607 A new liar, Dmitry, appeared in Starodub in the Bryansk region. An army began to gather around the new impostor False Dmitry II. In summer 1608 g. The impostor's army approached Moscow and settled in Trushino. The Shuisky government took measures to overcome the Tushins. In August 1608, the Tsar’s nephew M.V. Skopin-Shuisky was sent to Novgorod to conclude an agreement on military assistance with Sweden. In February 1609 such an agreement was concluded. The conclusion of this treaty was a serious political mistake. Swedish assistance brought little benefit, but the entry of Swedish troops into Russian territory gave them the opportunity to subsequently capture Novgorod. In addition, this treaty gave the Polish king Sigismund a pretext for open intervention. The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth began military operations against Russia and besieged Smolensk. Meanwhile, government troops led by Syupin-Shuisky, together with a Swedish detachment, moved from Novgorod to liberate Moscow. Along the way, the siege of the Sergeev Monastery was lifted and March 12, 1610. Skopin-Shuisky entered Moscow as a winner. 17 July 1610 Mr. Vasily Shuisky was overthrown from the throne and became a monk. Power in the capital passed to the Boyar Duma, headed by seven prominent boyars. The situation in the old age remained extremely difficult . 21 September 1610 Moscow was occupied by Polish interventionist troops. A new government was formed headed by A. Gonsevsky and M. Saltykov. Gonsevsky began to control the country. He generously distributed lands to supporters of the interventionists, confiscating them from those who remained loyal to their country. The actions of the Poles caused general indignation; on November 30, 1610, Patriarch Hermogenes made a call to fight against the invaders, but he soon found himself in custody. The idea of convening a national militia to liberate the country from interventionists gradually matured in the country. March 3, 1611. The militia army set out from Kolomna towards Moscow. The Poles brutally dealt with Muscovites - they burned the city and thus stopped the uprising. The situation in the country has become catastrophic. On June 3, 1611, Smolensk fell. 20 months withstood the attacks of Sigismund III. On July 16, Swedish troops captured Novgorod and besieged Pskov. In January 1613 The Zemsky Sobor met in Moscow, extremely crowded and representative: elected representatives of the nobles, townspeople, clergy and black-growing peasants took part in it. After lengthy debates, the choice fell on 16-year-old Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov, the son of Filaret - Filaret was Tsar Fedor’s cousin. His son Mikhail was Tsar Feodor's cousin. This preserved the principle of inheritance of the Russian throne. The country that Mikhail was to rule was in dire condition. Novgorod was in the hands of the Swedes, Smolensk in the Poles. In 1617 The Stolbovo Peace Treaty was concluded, according to which Novgorod was returned to Russia, but the Baltic coast was given to Sweden. In December 1618 The Deulin Truce was concluded for 14 years. Smolensk and the Seversk cities were transferred to Poland. The situation in the country began to normalize. The time of troubles is over.

No. 13. New trends in the political, economic, cultural development of the country in the 17th century. The first Romanovs.

The consequence of the Time of Troubles was severe economic devastation. Contemporaries called it “the great Moscow ruin.” It took several decades to restore the economy. The long-term nature of the restoration of production forces in agriculture was explained by the low fertility of the land and the weak resistance of peasant farming to natural conditions. The development of agriculture was predominantly extensive: a large number of new territories. The colonization of the outskirts proceeded at a rapid pace: Siberia, the Volga region, and Bashkiria. Household industry became widespread: throughout the country, peasants produced canvas, homespun cloth, ropes and ropes, felted and leather shoes, clothing, dishes, etc. The development of various crafts contributed to the growth of handicrafts. The development of crafts and trade led to the growth of cities. By the middle of the 17th century. there were 254 of them. The largest city was Moscow. The further development of the domestic market created the preconditions for the emergence of the first manufactories in Russia. Manufacturing production began in 1632. Work in factories was carried out mainly by hand; only some processes were mechanized using water engines. The development of commodity production, the growth of years and the introduction of manufactories lead to an increase in trade relations and the development of trade in the country. Sometimes artisans and peasants themselves went to the market to sell their goods. But if the market was far from their place of residence, this caused inconvenience, then intermediaries appeared - people who only bought and sold goods. This is how trade intermediaries appeared - merchants. The process of social and territorial division of labor led to economic specialization of regions. On this basis, regional markets began to emerge. Interregional connections cemented fairs of all-Russian significance. The expansion of trade relations and the growing role of commercial capital marked the beginning of a long process of the formation of an all-Russian market. This process contributed to the economic unification of the country. The development of commodity-money relations and the growth of domestic trade led to an increase in foreign trade. Features of the development of Russia in the 17th century. also affected the evolution of its political system. In the post-Trouble times, it was no longer possible to govern the country in the old way. During the Troubles, the tsarist government, when solving national problems, was forced to rely on class-representative structures - Zemsky Sobors and the Boyar Duma. From the second half of the 17th century. The country's political system evolved towards absolutism. The strengthening of autocracy was reflected in the title of the monarch. The new title highlighted two points: the idea of the divine origin of power and its autocratic character. The strengthening of autocracy was expressed in a sharp increase in the number of nominal decrees, that is, decrees adopted without the participation of the Duma, by the will of the tsar. Another evidence of the strengthening of autocracy was the significance of the Zemsky Sobors. Gradually, the role of the Boyar Duma also decreases. Along with it, under Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, there is the so-called “close” or “secret Duma,” an institution consisting of a narrow circle of people who previously discussed issues brought up at meetings of the Boyar Duma. Along with the Boyar Duma, the core of the political system of the state was the central administrative institutions - orders. By the end of the 17th century. the total number of orders exceeded 80, of which up to 40 were constantly functioning. The permanent orders were divided into three groups: state, palace and patriarchal. The order system suffered from a number of shortcomings, which became increasingly significant over time. Changes in the organization of local government that took place in the second half of the 17th century. also reflected the tendency towards centralization and the conduct of elections. Power in the counties, which were the main territorial and administrative unit, was concentrated in the hands of the governor. There was also a tendency towards increased centralization in the organization of the armed forces. XVII century became a turning point in the development of Russian culture. A new phenomenon in the development of Russian culture in the 17th century. was her secularization. It was expressed in the spread scientific knowledge, a departure from religious canons in literature. One of the manifestations of the secularization of culture was the increased attention to human personality. This was reflected in socio-political thought and literature. Socio-political thought tried to comprehend the events of the beginning of the century and find out the causes of the upheavals. This was done in the form of historical writings about the Troubles. Plot historical the story of a journalistic nature actively replaced the traditional chronicle. The development of Russia increased interest in history and put on the agenda the issue of creating a work on the history of the Russian state. XVII century marked by wonderful everyday and satirical stories by unknown authors: “The Tale of Woe-Misfortune.” In the 17th century arrived new stage in the development of the Russian language. Central regions led by Moscow played a leading role in it. The Moscow dialect became dominant, becoming a common Russian language. Development of city life, crafts, trade, manufactories, government. apparatus and connections with foreign countries contributed to the spread of literacy. In connection with the development of new territories and the expansion of ties with other countries, geographic knowledge was accumulated in Russia. Worldliness in architecture was expressed, first of all, in a departure from medieval severity and simplicity, in a desire for external picturesqueness, elegance, and decoration. In the second half of the 17th century. the beginning of the 2nd secular genres: portrait painting and the landscape. Lively relations between Russia and the West in the 2nd half of the 17th century. contributed to the emergence of a court theater in Moscow. The first dramatic performance on its stage was the Russian comedy “Baba Yaga Bone Leg”. Development of culture in the 17th century. reflected the process of formation of the Russian nation. It is associated with the beginning of the destruction of medieval religious-feudal ideology and the establishment of “worldly” secular principles in the spirit. culture.

No. 14. Church schism and its consequences.

The growing Russian autocracy, especially in the era of absolutism, demanded the further subordination of the church to the state. By the middle of the 17th century. It turned out that in Russian liturgical books, which were copied from century to century, many clerical errors, distortions, and changes had accumulated. The same thing happened in church rituals. In Moscow there were two different opinions on the issue of correcting church books. Supporters of one, to which the government also adhered, considered it necessary to edit the books according to the Greek originals. They were opposed by "zealots of ancient piety." The circle of zealots was headed by Stefan Vonifatiev, the royal confessor. The work of carrying out church reform was entrusted to Nikon. Power-hungry, with a strong will and seething energy, the new patriarch soon dealt the first blow to “ancient piety.” By his decree, the correction of liturgical books began to be carried out according to Greek originals. Some rituals were also unified: two fingers during the sign of the cross were replaced by three fingers, the system changed church service etc. Initially, opposition to Nikon arose in the spiritual circles of the capital, mainly from the “zealots of piety.” Archpriests Avvakum and Daniel wrote objections to the king. Having failed to achieve their goal, they began to spread their views among the lower and middle strata of the rural and urban population. Church Cathedral 1666-1667 declared a curse on all opponents of the reform, brought them before the court of the “city authorities,” who were supposed to be guided by the article of the Code of 1649, which provided for the burning at the stake of anyone “who blasphemes the Lord God.” In different places of the country, bonfires burned, on which the zealots of antiquity perished. After the council of 1666-1667. disputes between supporters and opponents of the reform gradually acquired a social connotation and put the beginning of the split in Russian Orthodox Church, the emergence of religious opposition (Old Belief or Old Believers). The Old Believers are a complex movement, both in terms of the composition of participants and in essence. The general slogan was a return to antiquity, a protest against all innovations. Sometimes social motives can be discerned in the actions of the Old Believers, who evaded the census and the fulfillment of duties in favor of the feudal state. An example of the development of a religious struggle into a social one is the Solovetsky Uprising of 1668-1676. The uprising began as a purely religious one. Local monks refused to accept the newly printed “Nikonian” books. The monastery council in 1674 issued a resolution: “to stand and fight against statesmen"to death. Only with the help of a defector monk, who showed the besiegers a secret passage, the archers managed to break into the monastery and break the resistance of the rebels. Of the 500 defenders of the monastery, only 50 remained alive. The crisis of the church was also manifested in the case of Patriarch Nikon. Carrying out the reform, Nikon , defended the ideas of Caesaropapism, i.e. the superiority of spiritual power over secular power. As a result of Nikon's power-hungry habits, a gap occurred between the tsar and the patriarch in 1658. If the church reform carried out by the patriarch met the interests of the Russian autocracy, then Nikon's theocratism clearly contradicted the trends of growing absolutism. When Nikon was informed of the tsar’s anger against him, he publicly resigned his rank in the Assumption Cathedral and left for the Resurrection Monastery. Popular uprisings Mid-century urban uprisings. In the middle of the 17th century. tax burden has increased. The treasury felt the need for money both for the maintenance of the expanding apparatus of power, and in connection with an active foreign policy (wars with Sweden, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth). By figuratively IN. Klyuchevsky, “the army seized the treasury.” The government of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich increased indirect taxes, raising the price of salt by 4 times in 1646. However, the tax increase for salt did not lead to replenishment of the treasury, since the solvency of the population was undermined. The salt tax was abolished in 1647. It was decided to collect arrears for the last three years. The entire amount of the tax fell on the population of the “black” settlements, which caused discontent among the townspeople. In 1648 it resulted in an open uprising in Moscow. At the beginning of June 1648, Alexei Mikhailovich, returning from a pilgrimage, was presented with a petition from the Moscow population demanding to punish the most selfish representatives of the tsarist administration. However, the demands of the townspeople were not satisfied, and they began to destroy merchants' and boyars' houses. Several major dignitaries were killed. The tsar was forced to expel boyar B.I. Morozov, who headed the government, from Moscow. With the help of bribed archers, whose salaries were increased, the uprising was suppressed. The uprising in Moscow, called the “salt riot,” was not the only one. Over the course of twenty years (from 1630 to 1650), uprisings took place in 30 Russian cities: Veliky Ustyug, Novgorod, Voronezh, Kursk, Vladimir, Pskov, and Siberian cities. Copper Riot 1662. Exhausting wars waged in the middle of the 17th century. Russia has depleted the treasury. The pestilence of 1654-1655 hit the country's economy painfully, claiming tens of thousands of lives. In search of a way out of the difficult financial situation, the Russian government began minting copper coins instead of silver coins at the same price (1654). Over the course of eight years, so much copper money (including counterfeit money) was issued that it became completely worthless. In the summer of 1662, for one silver ruble they gave eight copper ones. The government collected taxes in silver, while the population had to sell and buy products with copper money. Salaries were also paid in copper money. The high cost of bread and other products that arose under these conditions led to famine. Driven to despair, the Moscow people rose in rebellion. In the summer of 1662, several thousand Muscovites moved to the Tsar’s country residence, the village of Kolomenskoye. Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich went out onto the porch of the Kolomna Palace and tried to calm the crowd, which demanded that the most hated boyars be handed over for execution. As a contemporary of the events writes, the rebels “beat the tsar on the hands” and “held him by the dress, by the buttons.” While negotiations were going on, boyar I.N., sent by the tsar. Khovansky secretly brought rifle regiments loyal to the government to Kolomenskoye. Entering the royal residence through the rear utility gate of Kolomenskoye, the archers brutally dealt with the rebels. More than 7 thousand Muscovites died. However, the government was forced to take measures to calm the masses; the minting of copper money was stopped, which was again replaced by silver. The uprising in Moscow in 1662 was one of the harbingers of a new peasant war. In 1667 under the leadership of S.T. Razin's golutvennye (poor) Cossacks, going on a campaign for zipuns, captured the Yaipky town (modern Uralsk) and made it their stronghold. In 1668-1669 they subjected a devastating raid to the Caspian coast from Derbent to Baku, defeating the fleet Shah of Iran. Rebellion 1670-1671 In the spring of 1670 S.T. Razin began a new campaign against the Volga. In the spring of 1670 S.T. Razin captured Tsaritsyn. In October 1670, the siege of Simbirsk was lifted, the 20,000-strong army of S.T. Razin was defeated, and the leader of the uprising himself, seriously wounded, was taken to the town of Kagalshsky. Wealthy Cossacks captured S.T. by deception. Razin and handed him over to the government. In the summer of 1671, S.T., who courageously held his ground during torture. Razin was executed on Red Square in Moscow. Individual detachments of rebels fought with the tsarist troops until the fall of 1671. In the fall of 1670, Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich reviewed the noble militia, and a 30,000-strong army moved to suppress the uprising.

No. 15. Russia during the period of reforms of Peter I.

The active transformative activity of Peter I began immediately after his return from abroad. The beginning of the reforms of Peter I is usually considered to be the turn of the 17th-18th centuries. and at the end of 1725 those. year of the reformer's death. Peter’s radical transformations were “a response to the comprehensive internal crisis, the crisis of traditionalism, that befell the Russian state in the second half of the 17th century.” Reforms were supposed to ensure the progress of the country, eliminate its lag behind Western Europe, preserve and strengthen independence, put an end to the “old Moscow traditional way of life.” Reforms covered many areas of life. Their sequence was determined, first of all, by the needs of the Northern War, which lasted more than twenty years (1700-1721). In particular, the war forced the urgent creation of a new combat-ready army and navy. In 1705, Peter I introduced recruitment from tax-paying classes (peasants, townspeople). Recruits were recruited one at a time from twenty households. Soldier's service was for life. Until 1725, 83 recruitments were carried out. They gave the army and navy 284 thousand. Recruit sets solved the problem of the rank and file. To solve the problem of the officer corps, a reform of the estates was carried out. Boyars and nobles united into a single service class. Each representative of the service class was required to serve from the age of 15. Only after passing the exam could a nobleman be promoted to officer. In 1722, by decree of the tsar, the so-called "Table of ranks." 14 military personnel and equivalents were introduced civil officials. Each officer or official, having started his service from the lower ranks, depending on his diligence and intelligence, could move up the career ladder right up to the very top. Thus, a rather complex military-bureaucratic hierarchy emerged with the tsar at its head. All classes were in public service and bore responsibilities for the benefit of the state. As a result of the reforms of Peter I, a regular army of 212 thousand people and a powerful fleet were created. The maintenance of the army and navy absorbed 2/3 of state income. The most important means of replenishing the treasury was taxes. Under Peter I, direct and indirect taxes were introduced (on oak coffins, for wearing Russian dress, on beards, etc.). In order to increase tax collection, tax reform was carried out. In 1718, a census of all tax-paying people, both state and landowner, was carried out. All of them were taxed. A passport system was introduced; without a passport, no one could leave their place of residence. The monetary reform was supposed to significantly increase treasury revenues. The reform was carried out gradually, starting from the 17th century. the old account for money and altyns was done away with; sums of money were calculated in rubles and kopecks. Income from monetary reform helped Russia win the Northern War without resorting to foreign loans. Constant wars (out of 36 years - 28 years of war), radical transformations sharply increased the burden on central and local authorities. Peter I reorganized the entire system of power and management. Peter stopped convening the Boyar Duma, and decided all the most important matters in the Nearest Chancellery. In 1711 the Governing Senate was created. The Senate was tasked with monitoring local government bodies and checking the compliance of the administration's actions with the laws issued by the tsar. Members of the Senate were appointed by the king. In 1718-1720 A collegiate reform was carried out, replacing the system of orders with new central bodies of sectoral management - collegiums. The boards were not subordinate to each other and extended their action to the entire country. The local government system was reorganized. In 1707, the tsar issued a decree, according to which the entire country was divided into provinces. The provinces were headed by governors appointed by the tsar. Governors had broad powers, exercised administrative and judicial powers, and controlled the collection of taxes. The provinces were divided into provinces headed by voivodes, and the provinces into districts, districts into divisions, which were abolished later. Reforms of central and local government were supplemented church reform . Peter in 1721 abolished the patriarchate. Instead, a board for church affairs was created - the Holy Synod. The members of the Synod were appointed by the Tsar from among the highest clergy; the Synod was headed by the Chief Prosecutor appointed by the Tsar. Thus, the church was finally subordinated to the state. This role of the church remained until 1917. The economic policy of Peter I was also aimed at strengthening the country's military power. Along with taxes, the most important source of funds for the maintenance of the army and navy was domestic and foreign trade. In foreign trade, Peter I consistently pursued a policy of mercantilism. Its essence: the export of goods should always exceed their import. To implement the policy of mercantilism, state control over trade was necessary. It was carried out by the Kammertz Collegium. An important component of Peter's reforms was the rapid development of industry. Under Peter I, industry, especially those industries that worked for defense, made a breakthrough in its development. New factories were built, the metallurgical and mining industries developed. The Urals became a major industrial center. By the end of the reign of Peter I, there were over 200 manufactories in Russia, ten times more than before him. Particularly impressive were the transformations of Peter I in the fields of education, science and technology, culture and everyday life. The restructuring of the entire education system was due to the need to train a large number of qualified specialists, which the country urgently needed. In Peter's time, a Medical School was opened (1707), as well as engineering, shipbuilding, navigation, mining and craft schools. In 1724, a mining school was opened in Yekaterinburg. She trained specialists for the mining industry of the Urals. Secular education required new textbooks. In 1703, Arithmetic was published. “A Primer”, “Slavic Grammar” and other books appeared. The development of science and technology in Peter's time was primarily based on the practical needs of the state. Great successes have been achieved in geodesy, hydrography and cartography, in the study of subsoil and the search for minerals, and in invention. The result of the achievements of Peter's time in the field of education and science was the creation of the Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg. It was opened after the death of Peter I in 1725. During the reign of Peter I, Western European chronology was introduced (from the Nativity of Christ, and not from the creation of the world, as before). Printing houses and a newspaper appeared. Libraries, a theater in Moscow and much more were established. A characteristic feature of Russian culture under Peter I is its state character. Peter assessed culture, art, education, and science from the standpoint of benefits brought to the state. Therefore, the state financed and encouraged the development of those areas of culture that were considered most necessary.

No. 16. Foreign policy of Peter I.

Under Peter, serious changes took place in Russian foreign policy and, especially, in the practice of its implementation. How big statesman and a capable diplomat with extensive knowledge, Peter was able to correctly assess the main goals and objectives of Russia in the international arena - strengthening its independence and international authority, acquiring access to the Baltic and Black seas, which was of exceptional importance for the economic development of the country. Peter managed to prepare the creation of the Northern Union, which finally took shape in 1699. It included Russia, Saxony, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (Poland) and Denmark. According to Peter’s plans, the military defeat of Sweden, which dominated the Balkan Sea, became the primary task; if successful, Russia would return the territories seized from it by the Treaty of Stolbovo in 1617 (Sweden received territories from Lake Ladoga to Ivan-Gorod) and access to the sea would open. However, in order to launch military operations against Sweden, it was necessary to achieve peace with Turkey and thereby avoid a war on two fronts. This problem was solved by the embassy of clerk EI. Ukraintsev: on July 17, 1700, a truce was concluded with the Sultan for 30 years. Russia received the mouth of the Don with the Azov fortress and was freed from paying a humiliating tribute to the Crimean Khan. After the settlement of relations with Turkey, Peter I directed all his efforts to fight Sweden. The Northern War lasted more than twenty years (1700 - 1721). The turning point in the Northern War was the Battle of Poltava (June 27, 1709), during which the Swedish troops were defeated. Having won the Northern War, Russia became one of the great European powers. During the Northern War, Peter I had to return again to the southern direction of his foreign policy. Incited by Charles XII and diplomats from leading European countries, the Turkish Sultan, in violation of the 30-year isolation treaty, declared war on Russia on November 10, 1710. The war with Turkey was short-lived. On July 12, 1711, the Prut Peace Treaty was signed, according to which Russia returned Azov to Turkey, tore down the Taganrog fortress and the Stone Castle on the Dnieper, and withdrew troops from Poland. An important direction The foreign policy of Peter's Russia was eastern. In 1716 - 1717 Peter I sent a 6,000-strong detachment of Prince A. Bekovich - Cherkassky to Central Asia across the Caspian Sea with the goal of persuading the Khiva Khan to become a citizen and to scout out the route to India. However, both the prince himself and his detachment, located in the cities of Khiva, were destroyed by order of the khan. In 1722 - 1723 The Persian campaign was undertaken led by Peter I. On the whole, it turned out to be successful. Peter ensured the political and economic sovereignty of the country, restored its access to the sea, and carried out a real cultural revolution. He borrowed widely from European experience, but took from it what served to achieve his main goal - the transformation of Russia into a powerful independent power. Peter's reforms not only strengthened the autocracy, but with Peter's reforms the most brutal period of serfdom began. Peter I, being a supporter of Western rationalism, carried out his reforms in an Asian way, relying on the state, and brutally dealt with those who interfered with the reforms. The negative consequences of the reforms of Peter I, along with the conservation of autocracy and serfdom, should also include the civilizational split in Russian society. This split occurred back in the 17th century. in connection with Nikok's church reform, and in the Petrine era it deepened even more. The schism took over everyday life, culture, and the church. But the most dangerous thing for Russian society was the split between the ruling class and the ruling elite, on the one hand, and the bulk of the population, on the other. As a result, two cultures of the master and lower strata emerged, which began to develop in parallel.

No. 17. The period of palace coups in Russia (1725-1762). Their causes and consequences.

The period of Russian history that followed the death of Peter I was called the “Era of Palace Revolutions.” It was characterized by an intense struggle between noble factions for power, which led to frequent changes of reigning persons on the throne and reshuffles in their immediate circle. On the night of January 28, 1725, the noble nobility gathered in anticipation of Peter's death for a meeting about his successor. There were two main contenders: the wife of Peter I, Catherine, and the son of Tsarevich Alexei, 9-year-old Peter. While discussing the issue of the receiver, guard officers somehow found themselves in the corner of the hall. They openly began to express their opinions about the course of the meeting, declaring that they would break the heads of the old boyars if they went against Catherine. Thus the issue of power was resolved. The Senate proclaimed Catherine empress. Russia saw an unprecedented phenomenon: on the Russian throne there was a woman, and not of Russian origin, a captive, a second wife, barely recognized by many as a legal wife. The reign of Catherine I can only partially be called a continuation of the reign of Peter I. Some of the plans outlined by Peter were carried out: in 1725, the Academy of Sciences was opened, and the Order of Alexander Nevsky was established. However, Catherine I did not understand anything about state affairs. Menshikov's ambition, which knew no bounds, reached its limit at this time. Being, after the death of Peter I, actually the ruler of Russia, he also intended to become related to the royal family. Menshikov now achieved Catherine’s consent to the marriage of Peter Alekseevich with his daughter. Gradually, the program of Peter I as a transformer of Russia began to be forgotten. Retreats began, first in domestic and then in foreign policy. Most of all, the empress was interested in balls, feasts and outfits. On May 6, 1727, Catherine I died after a long illness. 11-year-old Peter II was declared emperor, under the regency of the Supreme Privy Council. Menshikov took measures to further enhance his position. But soon Peter II began to feel burdened by his tutelage. Taking advantage of the illness of His Serene Highness, the Dolgorukys and Osterman managed to win Peter II over to their side in five weeks. In September 1727, Menshikov was arrested and deprived of all ranks and awards. The fall of Menshikov actually meant a palace coup. Firstly, the composition of the Supreme Privy Council changed. Secondly, the position of the Supreme Privy Council has changed. Twelve-year-old Peter II soon declared himself a full-fledged ruler; This put an end to the regency of the Council. At the beginning of 1728 Peter II moved to the capital of Moscow for his coronation. Peter II was almost not interested in the affairs of the state; the Dolgorukys, like Menshikov, tried to consolidate their influence by concluding a new marriage alliance. In mid-January 1730 The wedding of Peter II with the daughter of A.G. was planned. Dolgoruky Natalya. But chance confused all the cards. Peter II contracted smallpox and died the day before the planned wedding. And along with him, the Romanov family in the male line also ended. Eight members of the Supreme Privy Council discussed possible candidates for the throne. The choice fell on Anna Ioanovna, the niece of Peter I. In deep secret D.M. Golitsyn and D.M. Dolgoruky compiled “standards”, i.e. conditions for Anna's accession to the throne, and sent them to her for signature in Mitau. According to the “conditions,” Anna was supposed to rule the state not as an autocratic empress, but together with the Supreme Privy Council. She signed the “conditions” and promised to “maintain them without any exception.” The reign of Anna Ivanovna (1730-1740) is assessed by most historians as a dark and cruel time. The empress herself, rude, uneducated, had little interest in state affairs. Main role Ernest von Biron, the favorite of the Empress Yagan, played a role in governing the country. The Empress had fun, organizing luxurious festivities and entertainment. Anna generously spent government money on organizing these holidays and feeding her favorites. After the death of Anna Ivanovna in October 1740, Russia was presented with another surprise: according to Anna’s will, three-month-old Ivan VI Antonovich was on the throne, and Biron became regent. Thus, the fate of Russia was placed in the hands of Biron for 17 years. Less than a month after Anna's death, Field Marshal B-Kh. Minikh, with the help of the guards, arrested Biron, who was sent into exile in Siberia, and the infant emperor's mother, Anna Leopoldovna, was proclaimed regent. Anna Leopoldovna had neither the ability nor the desire to rule Russia. Under these conditions, the eyes of the Russian nobility and guard turned to the daughter of Peter I, Tsarevna Elizabeth. On November 25, 1741, a new coup took place. By the forces of the guard, Elizaveta Petrovna was elevated to the throne. Elizabeth reigned for 20 years (1741-1761). At this time, the supreme power gained some stability. All the rights given to it by Peter I were returned to the Senate. The Empress patronized industry and trade, founded loan banks, and sent the children of merchants to study trade and accounting in Holland. Laws were relaxed and abolished the death penalty , torture was used in exceptional cases. Fearing a palace coup, she preferred to stay awake at night and sleep during the day. Elizabeth had no children, so back in 1742 she appointed her nephew (the son of her sister Anna) Duke of Schleswig-Holstein Karl Peter Ulrich as heir to the throne. In 1744, Elizabeth decided to marry him and sent him a bride from Germany. It was a 15-year-old girl, Sophia Augusta Frederica. She converted to Orthodoxy with the name Ekaterina Alekseevna. In 1745, Catherine was married to Pyotr Fedorovich. In 1754 their son Pavel was born. December 24, 1761 Elizaveta Petrovna died. Her nephew ascended the throne under the name Peter III. In February 1762, he issued a manifesto freeing the nobility from the unconditional obligation imposed on them by Peter the Great to serve the state. On March 21, 1762, a decree appeared on the complete secularization of church lands and on the assignment of salaries to monks from the government. This measure was aimed at the complete subordination of the church to the state and caused a sharply negative reaction from the clergy. Peter III also thought about measures to increase the combat effectiveness of the army and navy. The army was hastily rebuilt in the Prussian way, and a new uniform was introduced. Both the clergy and part of the nobility were dissatisfied. Both the clergy and part of the nobility were dissatisfied. Ekaterina Alekseevna, who had long been striving for power, took advantage of this dissatisfaction. a manifesto is drawn up on Catherine’s accession to the throne to save the church and state from the dangers that threaten them. On June 29, Peter III signed an act of abdication from the throne. During the six months of his reign, the common people did not have time to recognize Peter III. Ekaterina Alekseevna found herself on the Russian throne without having the right to do so. Trying to justify her actions to society and history, she, with the help of the courtiers, managed to create an extremely negative image of Peter III. So, in the 37 years after the death of Peter I, 6 emperors changed on the Russian throne. Historians still argue about the number of palace coups that occurred during this time. What was their reason? What were their consequences? The struggle of individual figures was a reflection of the struggle between various groups of society over class interests. The “Charter” of Peter I only provided an opportunity for the struggle for the throne, for carrying out palace coups, but was not at all the reason for them. The reforms that took place during the reign of Peter I introduced significant changes to the composition of the Russian nobility. The composition was distinguished by the diversity and diversity of the elements included in it. The struggle between these heterogeneous elements of the ruling class was one of the main reasons for the palace coups. There was another reason for the numerous changes on and around the Russian throne. It consisted in the fact that after each new coup the nobility sought to expand their rights and privileges, as well as reduce and eliminate responsibilities to the state. Palace coups did not pass without a trace for Russia. Their consequences largely determined the course of the country's subsequent history. First of all, attention is drawn to changes in the social structure of society. Since the end of the 18th century. life began to deal cruel blows to the ancient Russian aristocracy. Social changes also affected peasants. Legislation increasingly depersonalized the serf, erasing from him the last signs of a legally capable person. Thus, by the middle of the 18th century. Two main classes of Russian society finally emerged: noble landowners and serfs.

No. 19. The reign of Paul I: domestic and foreign policy.

A madman on the throne - this is how the four-year reign of Paul I (1796-1801), who succeeded his mother Catherine II on the Russian throne, is often imagined. And there are more than enough reasons for such an opinion. To understand the logic of Paul I’s actions, it is necessary to dwell on two main points. The first is what Russia was like in late XVI II V. The second is what preceded the accession to the throne of the new emperor. A clear indication of the state of the Russian economy was its budget. In 1796, the total amount of state revenue was 73 million rubles. The total amount of expenses in 1796 amounted to 78 million rubles. Of these, 39 million rubles were spent on maintaining the royal court and state apparatus. From the data presented it is clear that in 1796 state expenses exceeded income by 5 million rubles. The budget deficit was associated not only with an active foreign policy, but also with terrible embezzlement. It was covered by external loans. The ruling circles understood that one of the main reasons for the state’s financial difficulties was the increase in peasants’ duties in favor of the landowners. However, the government did not want and could not limit landowners' rights. And since it was no longer possible to increase direct taxes on peasants, indirect taxes (on salt, wine) were increased. Thus, the serf-dominated economic system in the second half of the 18th century. began to show cracks. The autocratic government faced the threat of losing its control over social processes. An alarming warning for her was the peasant war led by Pugachev. Paul's accession to the throne was preceded by a long court struggle and conflicts within the royal family itself. Rival factions at court tried to make the heir a tool in their political game. Surviving sources give reason to say that in the 1770-1780s. the heir was filled with the best intentions to limit autocracy and serfdom in Russia. However, the French revolutionary thunder of 1789 made an indelible impression on Paul. Frightened by the execution of Louis XVI and the Jacobin terror, he completely loses his youthful liberal dreams. By the end of the reign of Catherine II, Paul sought to immediately begin strengthening autocratic power and discipline in the army and state. From the very first hours of the new reign, feverish work began to strengthen the centralization of power; orders, manifestos, laws, and decrees began to pour in. During the four years of Paul's reign, 2,179 pieces of legislation were issued, or an average of about 42 per month. In 1797, Paul abolished the “Charter” of Peter I, which encouraged the struggle of different factions to seize the throne. From now on, the throne was to pass from father to eldest son, and in the absence of sons, to the eldest of the brothers. Another measure of the new government was the immediate conscription of all those enrolled in military service “in absentia.” This was a crushing blow to the long-standing practice of enrolling noble children into regiments literally from the moment of birth, so that by the time they reached adulthood they were already in “decent rank.” The state of finances, the need to increase the solvency of the population, considerations of international prestige, and the danger of a new peasant war forced Paul I to look for ways to resolve the peasant issue. On April 5, 1797, a manifesto was issued, commonly (but incorrectly) called the Three-Day Corvee Manifesto. In reality, the manifesto contained only a ban on forcing peasants to work on Sundays. One should not think that the actions of Paul I were aimed at improving the situation of the peasants. His main concern was state interests, the desire to increase the flow of funds into the treasury, to prevent peasant uprisings. The same can be said about soldiers. Of course, the increased drill made the service extremely difficult. But at the same time, the emperor sought to eliminate embezzlement and other abuses in the army that were so characteristic of the end of Catherine’s reign, Paul was also interested in technical progress, released

large sums for cleaning canals. His interests include issues of streamlining forestry, saving state-owned forests from felling, establishing a forestry charter,

Stage I – XIV-XV centuries

The main idea is to overcome catastrophic consequences

Mongol-Tatar invasion, elimination of the Horde yoke

through the collection of Russian lands

Stage II – XVI century

The main idea is to strengthen the state,

unity and centralization

Literary works

Main genres:

Historical:

Theme of the fight against the Mongol-Tatar yoke:

2. “The Tale of the Massacre of Mamaev” (XV century).

Topics related to foreign policy events of the 16th century:

2. “The Tale of the Coming of Stefan Batory to Pskov” (resident of Pskov, icon painter Vasily, 80s of the 16th century);

3. Chronograph (a popular Russian encyclopedia on general history, compiled in Russia (in the Moscow region) by a Serbian scribe, in the 1st half of the 15th century. Contains, firstly, brief retelling biblical events, followed by a sketch of general history, with more detail given to the history of the Roman state, Alexander the Great and the Byzantine Empire until the fall of Constantinople in 1453; then there are excerpts from history southern Slavs and a fairly extensive Russian section, brought in some editions of the X. to the beginning of the 16th century. X.'s editor was a native of the Yugoslav lands, apparently the Serbian hieromonk Pachomius, who worked on the chronograph in 1442, most likely in the Trinity Lavra. The 1512 edition could have been compiled in Pskov by the monk of the Spaso-Eleazar Monastery, Elder Philotheus, known in old literature.

Literary works

Main genres:

2. “The Life of Metropolitan Peter” (XIV century);

Walking:

1. “Walking across the three seas of Afanasy Nikitin (a literary monument in the form of travel notes made by the merchant from Tver Afanasy Nikitin during his journey to the Indian state of Bahmani in 1468-1474).

Collections for everyday reading:

1. “Chets Menaion” - books of the lives of saints of the Orthodox Church, and these narratives are presented in the order of the months and days of each month, hence their name “Minea” (author Metropolitan Macarius, 16th century);

2. “Domostroy” - a collection of rules of conduct (priest Sylvester, 16th century).

Literary works

“The Degree Book” is a monument of Russian historical literature of the 16th century. Compiled on the initiative of Metropolitan Macarius by the confessor of Ivan IV Vasilyevich the Terrible Andrei (future Metropolitan Afanasy) in the second half of the 16th century. The Degree Book was an attempt at a systematic presentation of Russian history. It is divided into 17 facets or degrees and covers the time from the reign of Vladimir Svyatoslavich to Ivan IV (inclusive). The Book of Degrees glorifies the Moscow monarchy and affirms the idea of the divine origin of autocratic power. The “Book of Degrees” connects the origin of the reigning family with the Roman Emperor Augustus, whose heirs were declared to be the Kyiv, and then the Vladimir and Moscow princes. The second set of ideas in the Degree Book is dedicated to the union of secular and spiritual power. Descriptions of Russian princes and rulers are hagiographic in nature (the praise of their “holy deeds” and “true piety”). Each facet also includes a biography of the “holiest” of Russian metropolitans.

Chronicle

Chronicle - presentation historical events in chronological order.

The centers of Russian chronicle writing during this period were:

Moscow (from the 14th century)
Novgorod
Pskov (Pskov-Pechersky Monastery)
Tver (until the end of the 15th century)

Most Russian chronicles were based on the Tale of Bygone Years.

The most famous chronicles of the 14th-16th centuries:

Laurentian (dated 1377). The name of the chronicle was given by the name of the monk Lawrence, indicated as having written this book. The Laurentian Chronicle also influenced later chronicles - the Trinity, Novgorod-Sophia vault.

Trinity (1408) - the first all-Russian chronicle collection. It is assumed that the author is Epiphanius the Wise, a monk of the Trinity-Sergius Lavra. The account of events begins with the Tale of Bygone Years and continues until 1408, ending with the Edigean invasion. It tells about the Battle of Kulikovo, the invasion of Tokhtamysh, etc. The last 20 pages tell about the life of Sergius of Radonezh. The chronicle speaks disapprovingly of Dmitry Donskoy, and, on the contrary, speaks in favor of his opponents, the Grand Duke of Lithuania Olgerd and Mikhail Alexandrovich Tverskoy.

Nikon Chronicle (XVI century)

The Nikon Chronicle is the largest monument of the Russian chronicles XVI century. Named after Patriarch Nikon, who owned one of its lists.

Facial vault (2nd half of the 16th century)

Litsevoy chronicle corpus (Litsevoy chronicle corpus of Ivan the Terrible, Tsar-Book) is a chronicle collection of events in world and especially Russian history, created in the 60-70s of the 16th century specifically for the royal library in a single copy. The word “facial” in the title of the Code means illustrated, with images “in faces”.

Consists of 10 volumes containing about 10 thousand sheets of rag paper, decorated with more than 16 thousand miniatures. Covers the period “from the creation of the world” to 1567.

Literary works

In the XV - XVI centuries. Moscow finally becomes the center of Russian lands, the process of creating a centralized state is completed. The idea of a special mission for Moscow appears, which takes shape in theory “Moscow is the third Rome" Elder of the Pskov Spaso-Eleazar Monastery Filofey wrote: “The first Rome fell from wickedness, the second (Constantinople) - from the dominance of the Anarians, the third Rome - Moscow, and the fourth - will not exist.” IN "Tales of the Princes of Vladimir"(a monument of Russian literature of the 16th century, author unknown) the succession of Russian grand dukes and tsars from the Roman and Byzantine emperors is substantiated.

Twelve panels of Monomakh's throne in the Assumption Cathedral are illustrated with scenes from the Tale. On each door, two inscriptions are carved in circles, containing a story about the war of Vladimir Monomakh with the Greeks.

Social thought

Strigolniki(Novgorod, Pskov; XIV century)

They denied the need for the church, rejected rituals and

church sacraments

Judaizers(Novgorod, Moscow; XV century)

They denied the need for the church, did not recognize icons and

Holy Trinity

Non-covetous people

Josephites

(Joseph Volotsky):

(Nil Sorsky, Maxim Grek,

Vassian Patrikeev)

The church should be

rich, own land

Refusal of church and

property

monastery property

Filofey(I half of the 16th century)

"Moscow is the third Rome"

Controversy between Josephites and non-possessors:

Works of Joseph Volotsky, directed against heretics;

Works by Vassian Patrikeev (“Debate with Joseph of Volotsky”) and Maxim the Greek (“Struggle about a famous monastic residence”)

Works by Ivan Peresvetov (“The Tale of Books”)

Writing technique

In the XIV century. The writing technique changes: the charter is replaced by a semi-charter.

In the 15th century, paper began to be actively used in Russia. The number of documents is rapidly increasing and it becomes difficult to write out each letter; cursive writing appears instead of semi-character.

Typography

In 1564 Deacon Ivan Fedorov and his assistant Peter Mstislavets published the first printed book of the Apostle (although there is information about an earlier beginning of printing), and in 1565 they published the Book of Hours. But along with printed books, handwritten ones were preserved.

USSR , 1933

USSR , 1983

After the Mongol-Tatar invasion, stone construction stopped in most Russian lands. It was preserved only in the north-west: in Pskov and Novgorod. XIV-XV centuries - time further development Pskov-Novgorod architecture. The buildings are erected from cut stone, the facades are covered with plaster.

An important political center of Novgorod throughout its history was Gorodishche. In 1103 son Prince of Kyiv Vladimir Monomakh, Novgorod prince Mstislav Vladimirovich founded the Church of the Annunciation on the Settlement. In 1342 - 1343, a new temple was built on the site of the ruined temple of the 12th century, which existed until 1941.

Located in the south-eastern part of the commercial side of Novgorod, in one of the oldest areas. Built in 1367

14th century temple in Veliky Novgorod. Located at the intersection of Andreevskaya and Fedorovsky Ruchey streets.

Architecture:

Trinity-Sergius Lavra

Trinity-Sergius Lavra, in church literature usually the Holy Trinity Sergius Lavra is the largest Orthodox monastery Russia (ROC), located in the center of the city of Sergiev Posad, Moscow region, on the Konchura River.

The date of the founding of the Holy Trinity Hermitage is considered to be the settlement of St. Sergius of Radonezh on Makovets Hill (70 km north-east of Moscow) in 1337.

Architecture: Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery

The monastery arose in the wake of the founding of new monasteries at the end of the 14th and beginning of the 15th centuries by the followers of Sergius of Radonezh. In 1397, monk Kirill Belozersky dug a cave on the shore of Lake Siverskoye, from which the history of the future monastery began. His companion Ferapont Belozersky subsequently founded the Ferapontov Monastery nearby. The charter of the Belozersk monasteries was particularly strict. In the XV-XVII centuries - one of the largest and richest monasteries in Russia, the center of the spiritual life of the Russian North.

Architecture: Ferapontov Belozersky Monastery

The monastery was founded in 1397 by Saint Ferapont. At the same time, major church leaders who fought for the priority of church power in the state were exiled here

(Patriarch Nikon). The Cathedral of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary is of particular significance for Russian and world culture. According to the text of the chronicle, on the slope of the northern door it was painted by Dionysius and his sons from August 6 to September 8, 1502.

Cathedral of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary 1490. Mural painting of Dionysius 1502.

Architecture: Moscow Kremlin

White stone Kremlin

(1367-1368)

Moscow Kremlin

(red brick)

under Ivan III

(late 15th – early 16th centuries)

1530s – China Town

(built by Italian architect Petroc Maly)

Con. XVI century – White City

(built under the direction of Fedor Kon)

Blagoveshchensky

Cathedral

Pskovskie

masters

Cathedral of the Archangel

Aleviz Fryazin New

Assumption Cathedral

Aristotle

Fiorovanti

Bell tower

Ivan the Great

Bon Fryazin

Completed

in 1660

Faceted Chamber

Mark Fryazin

(Ruffo)

Pietro Antonio

Solari

Architecture: Ensemble of Cathedral Square of the Moscow Kremlin

In 1487-91. Marco Rufo and Antonio Solari build the Great Chamber of Facets.

In 1485-95. New Kremlin walls and towers were built: under the leadership of Marco Rufo - Spasskaya Tower, Cathedral Tower - Antonio Solari and Marco Rufo.

The Faceted Chamber got its name from the facing of its outer walls with faceted slabs. The Faceted Chamber served as the ceremonial hall of the old Kremlin Palace, ambassadors were received here, ceremonies, important meetings. The original painting of the interior decoration has not been preserved.

Architecture: Ensemble of Cathedral Square of the Moscow Kremlin

The architectural center of the Kremlin ensemble is the Ivan the Great Bell Tower. In the early 16th century. a watchtower of the Moscow Kremlin was erected, which after completion in 1600. acquired a height of more than 80 meters and began to serve as a bell tower (received the name Ivan the Great Bell Tower).

Architecture: tented temples

In the 16th century a new style appears in architecture - the tented one; during the construction of hipped-roof churches, elements were borrowed from wooden architecture: an octagonal tower topped with a tent, the outlines of the underlying volume and the terrace surrounding the structure.

Church of the Ascension in the village of Kolomenskoye

(1532). Built by order of Grand Duke Vasily III in honor of the birth of his son Ivan, the future Tsar Ivan the Terrible.

Cathedral of the Intercession, on the Moat

(St. Basil's Cathedral) built in memory of the capture of Kazan and the victory over the Kazan Khanate

(1555-1561)

Barma and Postnik Yakovlev

Architecture Construction of fortresses

In the 16th century The territory of the Moscow state is rapidly expanding. Fortress structures are being built on the borders of the Russian state: the fortress on the Solovetsky Islands, the walls and towers of the Astrakhan Kremlin, the Smolensk Fortress (architect Fyodor Kon)

Painting by Theophanes the Greek (c.1340 – after 1405)

Originally from Byzantium.

Worked in Constantinople

Novgorod (Church of the Savior on

Ilyina street), Moscow

(Blagoveshchensky and

Arkhangelsk Cathedrals in

Moscow Kremlin).

Emotionality. Dramatic.

Discreet, ascetic

Dormition of the Virgin Mary. 1392

Painting Andrei Rublev (1370 – 1430)

Monk of the Trinity-Sergius,

then Spaso-Andronikova

monastery

Frescoes of the Annunciation Cathedral

Moscow Kremlin,

Assumption Cathedral in

Vladimir.

Softness. Humanity.

More reserved manner

letters than that of Theophanes the Greek.

Trinity. 1410-1420s

Icon of Christ. 1410-1415

Painting Dionysius (c.1400 – after 1503)

Monk of Joseph-Volokolamsk

monastery

Frescoes and icons of the Assumption

Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin,

Church of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary

Ferapontov Monastery.

Sophistication. Sophistication.

Festiveness. Smartness.

Delicate tones.

Almighty. Fresco. 1502-1503

Metropolitan

The Tsar Cannon is a medieval artillery gun (bombard), a monument to Russian artillery and foundry art, cast in bronze in 1586 by Russian master Andrei Chokhov at the Cannon Yard.

Decorated with belts of reliefs, on the right side of the muzzle there is an image of Tsar Fyodor Ivanovich (wearing a crown and with a scepter in his hand) riding on a horse. There are four brackets on each side of the barrel, designed to secure ropes when moving the gun.

Location: Moscow, Ivanovskaya Square

Slide 1 -
Slide 2- http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1 %82%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D1%81%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4
Slide 8 - http://www.biografguru.ru/about/kurbskiy/?q=4978
Slide 9 - http://intoclassics.net/news/2008-08-11-1277
Slide 10 - http://www.hist.msu.ru/ER/Palaeo/index.html ;

http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%83%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B2_(% D1%88%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%84%D1%82)

Slide 11 - http://www.kostyor.ru/4-03/apteka4-03.php
Slide 13-14 - http://www.uer.varvar.ru/spas-na-ilyine1.htm

http://www.emc.komi.com/03/20/008.htm

http://www.taday.ru/text/184964.html

Slide 15-16 - http://bibliotekar.ru/rusRublev/index.htm

Internet resources used:

Slide 17 - www.bg-gallery.ru/image.php%3Fim...id%3D471

http://www.liveinternet.ru/users/alexis7/post63604739/

http://www.humanities.edu.ru/db/msg/33909

http://community.livejournal.com/medievalrus/tag/%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%81 %D1%8B

Slide 18 - http://www.novgorod.ru/read/information/sightseen/novgorod/spasa-preobrazheniya/

http://www.novgorod.ru/read/information/sightseen/novgorod/peter-paul/

http://www.russiancity.ru/text/nov28.htm

Slides 20-24- http://history-life.ru/post67215992 ;

http://www.moscowvision.ru/walks/sk50.html ;

http://www.msk-guide.ru/page_152.htm

http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D1 %8F_%D0%98%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3 %D0%BE ;

http://www.ufastation.net/readarticle.php?article_id=518 http://www.temples.ru/show_picture.php?PictureID=1371

Internet resources used:

Slide 26 - http://ekibaztus.livejournal.com/48134.html ;

http://sergius-caesar.livejournal.com/60811.html

http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0 %B9_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8B%D1%80%D1%8C

Culture of Rus' XIV–XVI centuries.

Literature . In Russian literature great place was occupied by the topic of the fight against the Horde yoke. The works of the Kulikovo cycle (“Zadonshchina”, “The Tale of Mamaev’s Massacre”) stand out especially. They are imbued with a sense of patriotism and admiration for the exploits of Russian soldiers.

In the second half of the 15th century. experiencing a new birth old genre travels (descriptions of travel). Especially popular was reading about the adventures of the Tver merchant Afanasy Nikitin, who reached India. “Walking Beyond Three Seas” is a description of an eight-year dramatic journey that ends with a return to his native land.

Chronicle traditions were preserved and multiplied. In the 14th century An all-Russian chronicle was created in Moscow, and the Chronograph, compiled in 1442, includes a description of world history.

In the first half of the 16th century. a group formed around Metropolitan Macarius educated people, who created the famous “Great Chetya Menaion”. This is a collection of the most widely read books in Rus': hagiographic literature, teachings, legends, etc. - as a rule, not of a liturgical nature, but directly related to the Orthodox tradition.

An important cultural event was the advent of printing. It is associated with the names of Ivan Fedorov and Peter Mstislavets, who created the first printed book “Apostle” (1564). This book was produced at a high printing level for that time. Due to persecution and accusations of heresy, Ivan Fedorov moved to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and continued his educational activities there. The first Russian primer with grammar was published in Lvov. Despite the difficulties, book printing continued to develop in the Moscow state - printing houses were appearing here again. The church's reaction to printing was so negative that even in the 17th century. The printed book could not supplant the handwritten one.

Socio-political thought. Among Russian written sources of the 15th–16th centuries. There are many works in which the authors reflect on the fate of Russia. The Tale of the Princes of Vladimir emphasized the idea of succession of power of Moscow rulers from the Byzantine emperors. The Pskov monk Philotheus, in a letter to Vasily III, argued that Moscow is the “Third Rome”. “Two Romes have fallen, but the third stands, and the fourth will not exist,” he argued.

Certificate secularization culture are the journalistic works of Fyodor Karpov and Ivan Peresvetov. Both talked about the nature of a strong, fair state, about power.

A notable monument of spiritual culture of the 16th century. – “Domostroy”, one of the editors of which was Ivan IV’s close associate – Sylvester. In this work, which has become a model of the organization of life and behavior of Russian people over the centuries, we find instructions of a different nature: on the performance of religious rituals, advice on raising children, on the relationship between husband and wife, how to store supplies and dry clothes, when to buy goods at the market and how to receive guests.

The correspondence between Tsar Ivan the Terrible and Prince Andrei Kurbsky is interesting from the point of view of the development of the Russian language, as well as in content. It was a dispute between two ardent opponents about ways to centralize power, about the relationship between the sovereign and his subjects. The tsar defended the idea of servility of all subjects in relation to autocratic power. He formulated the basic principle of despotism this way: “I am free to reward my slaves, but I am also free to execute them.” Kurbsky imagined royal power otherwise, the king is responsible for his actions not only before God, but also before people, he cannot violate the rights of his subjects, he must listen to wise advisers.

Architecture . Moscow becomes the capital of a huge power, the accumulation of wealth in the hands of the Moscow prince makes it possible to begin stone construction on an unprecedented scale. Dmitry Donskoy in 1366–1367 began construction of the new Moscow Kremlin. On the site of the wooden fortifications built under Ivan Kalita, a new white-stone Kremlin arose. Moscow became an impregnable fortress at that time.

The flourishing of architecture at the end of the 15th century. associated with intensive construction in Moscow. Ivan III invites Italian architects to work, among whom Aristotle Fioravanti stands out. Under his leadership, a new Assumption Cathedral was built in the Kremlin - the cathedral church of the metropolitans. The Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir was taken as a model. Fioravanti drew up a project for the construction of new walls and towers. The Kremlin and walls were built of red brick (they still exist today). True, the Kremlin towers did not yet have tents - they were erected later, in the 17th century. The internal layout of the Kremlin was finally formed. The Faceted Chamber for ceremonial receptions, the Archangel Cathedral (the burial vault of Moscow princes and tsars), the house church for sovereigns - the Annunciation Cathedral and other buildings were built here. One of the most remarkable buildings in the Kremlin is the Ivan the Great Bell Tower. It was erected on the site of the ancient church of Ivan the Climacus, and therefore received the name Ivanovskaya. It was called Great for its extraordinary height - more than 80 m. The bell tower was for a long time the tallest building in Rus'. It was founded at the beginning of the 16th century. simultaneously with the Archangel Cathedral, and was completed only in 1600, under Boris Godunov.

The construction of Moscow fortifications continued throughout the 16th century. A semi-ring of Kitay-Gorod fortifications was added to the Kremlin, and at the end of the century, “city master” Fyodor Kon erected the “White City” about 9.5 km long. F. Kon also built the walls of the Kremlin in Smolensk.

In the second half of the 16th century. From the traditions of wooden architecture, but already in stone, the tent style emerges. A remarkable example of it is the Church of the Ascension in Kolomenskoye. Tent-roofed church architecture did not spread widely, since it contradicted church canons and was prohibited by church authorities. In 1551–1561 masters Postnik Yakovlev and Barma built the Intercession Cathedral (better known as St. Basil's Cathedral) on Red Square. This building was dedicated to the capture of Kazan.

Painting . In the second half of the 14th - first half of the 15th century. two great Russian artists worked - Feofan the Greek and Andrei Rublev. Theophanes, a native of Byzantium, lived in Novgorod and then in Moscow. His frescoes and icons are characterized by a special emotionality. A. Rublev's painting is unique in its composition and its unique coloring. These features were most clearly manifested in his famous Trinity icon. The traditions of Andrei Rublev were continued after his death. The fresco paintings of Dionysius are especially notable (they are best preserved in the Ferapontov Monastery in the Belozersky region). The decisions of the Stoglavy Cathedral influenced not only architecture, but also painting. Painters were obliged to strictly adhere to Greek models and A. Rublev’s icon painting. This led to the fact that only technical writing techniques were improved.

Craft. In the XIV–XVI centuries. The development of the craft continued. The main centers of handicraft production were cities, monasteries, and some large estates. At the end of the 15th century. The Cannon Yard is being created in Moscow. The first cannons appeared in Rus' in the last third of the 14th century. In subsequent centuries, a whole school of cannon masters emerged. One of its representatives was Andrei Chokhov, creator of the famous Tsar Cannon. Its production took about 2.5 pounds of non-ferrous metals, its caliber is 89 cm, and the barrel length is almost 5.5 m.

The Tatar-Mongol invasion dealt a terrible blow to the development of Russian culture. This was reflected in the fact that the development of stone architecture stopped for a while, and some crafts disappeared. The entire XIII century. characterized by stagnation in Russian culture.

From the beginning of the 14th century. a new one has emerged rise of culture in Russian lands, which lasted during the XIV-XV centuries. In almost all large cities, such as Moscow, Novgorod, Tver, Rostov, Pskov, Nizhny Novgorod and others, monastery schools and colleges were expanded and restored; in the monasteries the correspondence of old books continued and the creation of new books, of which there were more and more.

Novgorod birch bark documents that have survived to this day indicate the presence high literacy rate among the urban population. In oral folk art, there was a noticeable spread of epics that belonged to an earlier historical period. Along with them, new legends appeared (for example, “The Tale of the City of Kitezh”). In the XIV century. expensive parchment began to be replaced by paper, more fluent and free letter- half-tired.

New chronicles are being created. The first all-Russian chronicle collection is the “Trinity Chronicle”, created in Moscow in 1408 (it was lost in the Moscow fire of 1812). The creation of the Moscow chronicle code dates back to 1480. In 1442, the first Russian Chronograph appeared, compiled by Pachomius Lagofet, which uniquely examined world history, including the history of Rus'.

One of the most common literary genres was historical stories: “About the Battle of Kalka”, “About the destruction of Ryazan by Batu”, “About Mamaev’s massacre”, “Zadonshchina”. An outstanding monument of Russian culture of the 15th century. appeared “Walking across Three Seas” by the Tver merchant Afanasy Nikitin (observations about India and other countries lying between India and Russia). Valuable geographical descriptions other territories are represented in the “walks” of the Novgorodian Stefan and the Smolensk Ignatius to Constantinople.

Church (“hagiography”) literature also became widespread: “The Life of Dmitry Donskoy”; “The Life of Stephen of Perm” by Epiphanius the Wise, “Praise of Sergius’ Virtue”, “The Life of Metropolitan Peter” by the same author.

Resumes active stone construction. Under Dmitry Donskoy, a white stone Kremlin was built in Moscow in the 15th century. - brick Kremlin with the help of Italian craftsmen. In the 15th century The Assumption Cathedral (architect - Aristotle Feoravanti), the Archangel Cathedral (the tomb of the Moscow princes), the Annunciation Cathedral (by Pskov craftsmen), and the Chamber of Faceted Stones are being built.

Russian painting XIV-XV centuries. rose to a new, higher stage of its development. In Novgorod, during the painting of the Volotovo Church, and later in Moscow at the end of the 14th and beginning of the 15th centuries. have worked outstanding artist Theophanes the Greek. Together with Simeon Cherny, he painted the Moscow Church of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary and participated in the design of the Archangel Cathedral in Moscow. The largest Russian artist of the late XIV - early XV centuries. was Andrei Rublev. Together with Theophan the Greek and the painter Prokhor from Gorodets, he painted the Annunciation Cathedral in Vladimir and the Trinity Cathedral in the Trinity-Sergius Monastery. Rublev created famous work"Trinity". Rublev’s work is characterized by a departure from the church canons of painting; his works are striking in their emotionality.

Russian has reached great development applied arts . Outstanding examples of jewelry, wood and stone carvings, wooden sculpture, and silk embroidery have been preserved. The rise of Russian culture reflected the development of the Great Russian people.

In the 16th century, Russian culture developed under the sign of the state unification of the country and the strengthening of its independence. Regional differences are increasingly being overcome and all-Russian trends are coming to the fore.

Literature XVI century was distinguished by her journalisticism. This was explained by the struggle in society between the boyars and the progressive nobility. One of the most prominent publicists of the 16th century. - Ivan Peresvetov. He came up with reform projects aimed at creating a strong autocratic government. Another author, Ermolai-Erasmus, spoke out against the excessive strengthening of serfdom. It should be noted that the bright, talented publicists A. Kurbsky and Ivan the Terrible - in the polemic that Andrei Kurbsky opened with his message to Ivan after fleeing to Lithuania in 1564, express an archaic position: an attitude towards the state as a divine creation. True, they draw the opposite conclusions from this. Ivan - about the right to autocracy, Kurbsky - about the duty of the sovereign to take care of his subjects.

From the middle of the 16th century. Russian begins its history typography. Book publishing in Moscow began back in 1553. So-called anonymous publications were published. In 1563, Ivan Fedorov began work in Moscow. He was not only a publisher, but also an editor of books. His first publications in Moscow were books of Holy Scripture. In total, in the second half of the 16th century. About 20 large printed books were published in Russia.

Reaches a high level during this period architecture. In the first half of the 16th century. In Russia there is an intensive construction of stone churches and fortresses. The originality of Russian architecture is associated with the appearance in the 16th century. tent style: the roof of the temple was made in the shape of a multifaceted pyramid - a tent. The Church of the Ascension in Kolomenskoye (1532) and the Intercession Cathedral on Red Square (St. Basil's Cathedral) are outstanding monuments of this style. Painting in the 16th century. represented, as in the previous period, by painting of churches and iconography. Dionysius is called the continuer of Rublev’s traditions in icon painting. His works are distinguished by exquisite, sophisticated colors and designs. His most famous works are the icons of the Assumption Cathedral in the Moscow Kremlin and the painting of the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary in the Ferapontov Monastery (near Vologda).

Foundry has developed greatly in Russia. In the 80s of the 15th century. A state cannon yard began to operate in Moscow. At the end of the 16th century. The guns were made by master Andrei Chokhov. In 1586, he cast the famous Tsar Cannon, weighing 40 tons, 5 m long and 890 mm in diameter, which is a true work of art.

Second half of the 16th century. turned out to be unfavorable for the development of Russian culture. In the disasters of the end of the century, many cultural processes go deep and reassert themselves only in the next century. The fall of Byzantium and the weakening of cultural relations with the countries of Central and South-Eastern Europe. But main reason- the creation of a centralized Russian state, which required the mobilization of all spiritual forces and material resources, which caused increased social tension in society, a fierce struggle against heresies and freethinking, and strict state control over all forms of art.

The development of Russian culture during this period was influenced by many factors. This is also the development of previous traditions, especially those related to Christian values and church interests. New factors influencing culture also appeared: the gathering of Russian lands around the Moscow Principality and the creation of a single centralized state, the establishment of national identity in the fight against the Golden Horde yoke. From century to century, the role of Moscow and the Moscow Grand Dukes becomes more and more noticeable. Muscovite Rus' turned into a center not only of unification processes, but also of cultural development.
Literature. In Russian literature, the theme of the fight against the Horde yoke occupied a large place. The works of the Kulikovo cycle (“Zadonshchina”, “The Tale of the Massacre of Mamayev”) stand out especially. They are imbued with a sense of patriotism and admiration for the exploits of Russian soldiers. In the second half of the 15th century. the old genre of walks (descriptions of travel) is experiencing a new birth.

Chronicle traditions were preserved and multiplied. In the XIV century. An all-Russian chronicle was created in Moscow, and the Chronograph, compiled in 1442, includes a description of world history.

In the first half of the 16th century. A group of educated people formed around Metropolitan Macarius who created the famous “Great Chetya Menaion”. This is a collection of the most widely read books in Rus': hagiographic literature, teachings, legends, etc. - as a rule, not of a liturgical nature, but directly related to the Orthodox tradition.
An important cultural event was the advent of printing. It is associated with the names of Ivan Fedorov and Peter Mstislavets, who created the first printed book “Apostle” (1564). The first Russian primer with grammar was published in Lvov. The church's reaction to printing was so negative that even in the 17th century. The printed book could not supplant the handwritten one.
Socio-political thought. Among Russian written sources of the XV-XVI centuries. There are many works in which the authors reflect on the fate of Russia.

Architecture. Moscow becomes the capital of a huge power, the accumulation of wealth in the hands of the Moscow prince makes it possible to begin stone construction on an unprecedented scale. Dmitry Donskoy in 1366-1367 began construction of the new Moscow Kremlin. On the site of the wooden fortifications built under Ivan Kalita, a new white-stone Kremlin arose.

In the second half of the 16th century. From the traditions of wooden architecture, but already in stone, the tent style emerges. Tent-roofed church architecture did not spread widely, since it contradicted church canons and was prohibited by church authorities. Painting. Theophanes, a native of Byzantium, lived in Novgorod and then in Moscow. His frescoes and icons are characterized by a special emotionality. The decisions of the Stoglavy Cathedral influenced not only architecture, but also painting. This led to the fact that only technical writing techniques were improved. Craft. In the XIV-XVI centuries. The development of the craft continued. The main centers of handicraft production were cities, monasteries, and some large estates. At the end of the 15th century. The Cannon Yard is being created in Moscow. The first cannons appeared in Rus' in the last third of the 14th century. In subsequent centuries, a whole school of cannon masters emerged. One of its representatives was Andrei Chokhov, creator of the famous Tsar Cannon.

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