Glossary of terms on the history of Russia. History of Russia XVII-XVIII centuries

Abstract art - direction in the art of the XX century, which refused to depict real objects and phenomena.

Absurdism(lat. "absurd") - a trend in European literature, mainly in drama and theater, which arose in the early 50s. XX century. Absurdist plays create a picture of the causelessness, aimlessness and illogism of human words of deeds.

Vanguard- Russian avant-garde(from the French avant-garde - forward detachment). The term "avant-garde", denoting innovative phenomena that break with the classical continuity in art and literature, came into use in France in the middle of the 19th century.

Avant-garde(fr. "vanguard") is an artistic phenomenon of the 20th century, which united various schools and trends under a single slogan of a radical renewal of artistic practice.

Altar(lat. Altaria - altus - high) - the eastern part of the Christian temple, where the throne is located; in the Orthodox Church, the altar is separated from the rest of the temple by an iconostasis.

Empire style(fr. "empire") – artistic style in architecture and applied art of late classicism, which is based on imitation of antique samples.

Amphitheater– auditorium for theater, stadium, circus, located in stepped rows. Initially, the amphitheaters were open.

Antiquity- history and culture of Ancient Greece and Rome, as well as states that came under their cultural influence in the period from the 1st millennium BC. NS. 5th century AD NS.

Apse- the protrusion of the building, covered with a semi-dome or semi-vault; appeared in ancient Roman basilicas; in Christian churches it is located in the eastern (altar) part of the temple.

Arch - arcuate overlapping of openings in the wall between two supports, for example, windows, doors, gates.

Architecture(Greek "chief builder") - 1. The system of buildings and structures that organize the spatial environment for the life and activities of people. 2. The art of shaping this spatial environment, creating a new reality that has a functional meaning, benefits a person and delivers aesthetic pleasure.

Assist - golden rays covering the clothes depicted in ancient Russian painting, symbolically denoting heavenly light.

Basilica- an oblong building, consisting of several naves - parts of a room divided by pillars or columns. In ancient times, the basilicas were used as market, court buildings, later they became the first Christian churches.

Baptistery- a special building that was built in antiquity exclusively for the sacrament of baptism.

Drum- the crowning part of the building, which has a cylindrical and sometimes multifaceted shape; carries a dome (head) and rises above the main, wider part of the building; if there are windows, it is called light.

Bas-relief- a type of sculpture, where the image protrudes from the plane by less than half of its volume.

Baroque(it. "artsy, strange") - a style that developed in the 17th and first half of the 18th century. The artistic features of the style were determined by a new (in comparison with the Renaissance) understanding of the place of man in the universe, the flourishing of religious feelings, the restoration of the role of the church in the formation of the spiritual world of man.

Household painting genre dedicated to the events and scenes of everyday life.

Vase painting - decorative painting of vessels, ornamental or graphic. It is usually carried out using a ceramic method, that is, with special paints followed by firing.

Vignette - graphic decoration used in the design of books, magazines, invitation cards, greeting card and other printed works as headpieces, endings or as an addition to the initial letters (initials).

Stained glass(fr. glazed windows or glass door, partition) - paintings or ornamental compositions made of glass or other material that transmits light, and used for decorative purposes, mainly as filling window, less often doorways.

Renaissance (Renaissance)- the era, covering the 14-16 centuries in Italy; in countries north of the Alps (Northern Renaissance) - 15-16 centuries; significant revival of interest in antiquity.

Volute- decoration in the form of a spiral, an indispensable accessory to the capital of the columns of the Ionic order.

Gimatius- cloak. Together with the tunic, it was interpreted as the clothing of itinerant preachers, in which Jesus Christ is most often depicted in icon painting in the events of his earthly life and the apostles.

Tapestry- fr. hand-woven carpet of very high artistic quality, made in Paris at the so-called tapestry manufactory and intended for wall decoration.

High relief- a kind of sculpture, where the image protrudes from the plane by more than half of its volume.

Gothic- a symbolic designation of the style that prevailed in the art of the countries of medieval Europe from about the 12th to the 14th-15th centuries. The center of culture of this period is the city.

Engraving- a drawing cut out on a smooth surface and its imprint.

Graphics(Greek "I write, draw") - one of the types of fine art, which has artistic features that determine its place in a number of other arts and human life. The main means of expressing graphics is drawing.

Graffiti(it. Graffiti - scratching) - the direction of painting of the twentieth century; flashy, vivid spray drawings in an avant-garde manner.

Count - drawing scratched with a sharp tool on the ground.

Grisaille(fr. "gray") - monochrome (one-color) painting in a gray tone, mainly for decorative purposes. In the form of a decorative mural or panel, it usually imitates a sculptural relief.

Soil - in painting covering canvas, wood, cardboard, etc. the layer to which the paints are applied.

Dadaism(fr. "horse, wooden horse", "baby talk") is a literary and artistic movement that took shape in 1916-1922. The Dadaists created compositions that were deliberately illogical, sometimes abstract, sometimes composed of real everyday objects.

Deesis(Greek "prayer") - a row of icons, in the center of which is a triptych: Christ, to the right of him the Mother of God, to the left - John the Baptist, prayerfully stretching out his hands to Christ.

Decadence(fr. "decline") - a term denoting a set of crisis ("decline") phenomena in the art of the late 19th - early 20th century. The art of decadents is characterized by emphasized individualism, indifference or rejection of the surrounding life, hopelessness, apathy.

Decor - decoration of an architectural structure or product.

Arts and crafts(lat. "decorate") - an art form that has its own special artistic meaning and decorative imagery and at the same time is directly related to the everyday needs of people.

Doric order - marked by manly simplicity. The column has no base. The capital consists of a half-shaft - echina and an upper square slab - abacus.

genre(fr. Genre - genus, species) - 1. Division of each art form according to certain characteristics: theme, structure, functions performed. 2. A historically developed, stable type of work of art.

Genre painting(the same as everyday painting) - paintings depicting the daily life of people.

Painting - one of the main types of fine arts; artistic representation of the world on a plane by means of colored materials.

Sketch - a drawing from life, made mainly outside the workshop, in order to preserve the landscape, the appearance of a person, any motive that made a strong aesthetic impression on the artist; also for the purpose of gathering material for more significant work or for the sake of exercise.

Grain - jewelry technique; small gold, silver or copper balls are soldered onto a product decorated with filigree.

Aesthetic ideal - outwardly, a sensual expression of the perfect state of the world and man, which the artist foresees in life and tries to embody by means of this or that art.

Tiles (shoes) - ceramic tiles for facing fireplaces, stoves, walls.

Icon(Greek "image", "image") - pictorial, cut relief images of Jesus Christ, the Mother of God, saints, events of sacred history, serving as objects of religious veneration as images that raise the feeling of worshipers to the depicted prototype.

Iconography - a system of options for the image of a certain character, person, event, Christian holiday, interpretation of the plot. In antiquity and in the Middle Ages, strictly defined iconographic canons were formed, which artists followed.

Iconographic Canon - a sample of the rules for depicting plots and images of Christ, the Mother of God, and other characters recorded in the iconographic lines ..

Iconography - the area of ​​easel religious painting, the works of which are the object of cult, worship, mainly in states where the eastern branch of Christianity (Orthodoxy) has taken root.

Iconostasis - a wall with icons installed in a certain order; in an Orthodox church, it separates the altar part from the room for worshipers; developed from the altar barrier that existed in early Christian churches.

Impressionism(from fr . "Impression") - an artistic trend in the visual arts that emerged and flourished in France in the 1860s and early 1880s. One of the founders of the new movement was Manet, who rebelled against the official academic art. The Impressionists asserted a new vision of the world based on direct visual impression, observation of nature.

Inlay - images of wood, metal, mother-of-pearl, embedded in the surface of the product.

Ionic order has a base. The fluted column tapers upwards and ends with a capital, the main feature of which is the large curls - volutes, twisting on both sides of the upper part of the trunk.

Hesychasm(from the Greek. "Peace", silence ") - inner peace, detachment - a mystical current that arose in Byzantium. In a broad sense, it is an ethical-ascetic teaching on the path to the unity of man with God through cleansing the heart with tears and self-concentration of consciousness.

Art- a special form of consciousness and human activity, in which artistic knowledge of the world is organically combined with creativity according to the laws of beauty.

Historical genre- the image of any significant events that took place not during the life of the artist, but much earlier.

Canon(gr. kanon - norm, rule) – a set of strictly established rules that determine the main set of plots, the norms of iconography, proportions, composition, sculpture, drawing, color for a given type of work.

Small caps- the final top of the column.

Caryatid(from the Greek. "Carian virgins") - a female statue that plays the role of a column, that is, it is a supporting part of the architectural structure.

Cinnabar - mineral paint of various shades of scarlet.

Kitsch(from German "hack", "cheap" or English "kitchen") - a specific phenomenon of mass culture, imitating art, but devoid of its artistic value.

Classicism(lat.Classicus - first-class, exemplary) - artistic style in European art XVII- the beginning of the XIX century, one of the important features of which was the appeal to antique samples.

The ark - 1) a small indentation in the board prepared for the icon for the main composition of the plot; 2) the shape of the temple, interpreted as a ship, a symbol of the salvation of believers from the abyss of sins.

Kokoshniks - in Russian architecture of the 16th – 17th centuries. decorative completion of walls and vaults, framing drums and tents of churches; have the form of arches with a filled field, sometimes with a pointed top (keeled); often arranged in tiers.

Color - combination of colors in a work of art; by nature it can be cold (blue, green shades predominate) or warm (red, yellow, orange tones predominate), calm or tense, light or dark; according to the degree of saturation and color strength - bright, restrained, faded, etc.

Koncha - a semi-dome serving to cover the semi-cylindrical parts (apses, niches) of the building; often shaped like a shell.

Corinthian order has the shape of a capital in the form of a basket of stylized leaves and curls - volutes.

Cross-domed church - a type of Christian temple that arose in the architecture of Byzantium: a dome on sails (elements of a dome structure in the form of spherical triangles) rests on four pillars in the center of the building, from where mutually perpendicular passages diverge.

Cubism- artistic direction the beginning of the 20th century, which became widespread in Europe. In this direction, the forms of objects of the real world are interpreted with emphasis on volume and are reduced to simple geometric bodies.

The culture- a set of material and spiritual values ​​created by man in the process of social and historical practice.

Dome- a convex floor of a building, installed on a circular or polygonal base with a central axis.

Levkas- the ground covering the board on which the icon is painted.

Chronicle - consistent description of historical events by their witness or participant; the oldest type of storytelling in ancient Russian literature.

Mannerism - artistic movement in Italian art of the 16th century, which marked the end of the Renaissance.

Mass culture - a kind of culture focused on the "average" mass consumer, on commercial success and actively replicated by the mass media.

Maforiy - a long veil up to the knees, a must-have for Palestinian and Syrian women. The maforia always depicts the Mother of God and the holy wives.

Meander - a long and widespread variety of geometric ornament, formed by a continuous line broken at a right angle and having the appearance of a narrow strip as a whole.

Mentality - a deep level of collective and individual consciousness, a set of attitudes and preferences of an individual or social group, which determines the actions, thoughts and feelings of people, as well as their perception of the world.

Miniature(from the name of the red paint - minium, which was used to color the capital letters in handwritten books) - a) picturesque images that adorned and illustrated medieval manuscripts; b) a small piece of painting, as well as a small piece of music or literature.

Myth(gr. mythos - legend) - a legend as a symbolic expression of some events.

Mythology(gr. "legend" and "word", "knowledge") – a set of legends expressing the attitude and world outlook of ancient people. A holistic "picture of the world", which tells how an ordered cosmos arose from some initial undivided state; about the deeds of the gods and heroes who caused the current state of the world.

Modern(from the French "modern", the same - "Art Nouveau") - a trend in European and American art of the late 19th - early 20th century. The priority importance of architecture in the formation of the stylistic features of other types of art, as well as the creation, by means of various arts, of a refined aesthetic ideal.

Modernism - many relatively independent artistic movements of the 20th century, a common feature of which is a decisive departure from the traditions of classical art.

Mosaic- a kind of monumental painting, painting or ornament, made up of separate small particles. These particles can be marble, precious and semi-precious stones, smalt cubes.

Monumental art- art designed for mass perception and, unlike easel art, acquiring the final figurative completeness in the corresponding ensemble - architectural or natural.

Museum(from the Greek. "Temple of the Muses", a place dedicated to the muses) - an institution in which works of various types of art are collected, stored, exhibited, studied, as well as monuments and documents related to other areas of spiritual and material culture, samples of natural resources and etc.

Sketch - in the visual arts a work of small size, fluently and quickly executed by the artist in order to record individual observations.

Folk art - a type of synthetic art, initially associated with human labor activity, representing both material and spiritual culture.

Rock paintings, petroglyphs - images made by ancient man on the rocks and walls of caves in the places of his settlements in Europe, Africa, North America, Siberia, etc. during the late Paleolithic period (about 40-30 thousand 10-8 thousand BC).

Still life(fr. Nature morte - inanimate nature) - in the visual arts - the image of inanimate objects, in contrast to portrait, genre, historical, landscape themes.

Nave(lat. "ship") – an elongated part of a basilica or temple separated by pillars or columns.

Halo - a circle surrounding the head of the Savior, the Mother of God and the saints in their images, as a sign of the eternal light emanating from them, and therefore having a round, "beginningless" shape.

Salary - decorative cover of an icon or book cover. It is made of gold, silver, gilded or silver copper, decorated with chasing, graining, filigree, niello, enamels, pearls, precious stones or their imitation.

Op art(English abbr. "optical art") - current in European and American art - painting and graphics of the 1940s. (founder V. Vasarely, France). Rhythmic combinations of homogeneous geometric shapes, lines and colors that create the illusion of movement are used as a neo-avant-garde variety of abstract art or as a purely decorative effect - in applied and decorative art, industrial graphics, and posters.

Architectural order(from Lat. "system", "order") - certain combinations of bearing and bearing parts of the structure, their structure and artistic treatment. Classical Greek orders: Doric, Ionic, Corinthian.

Ornament(Latin Ornamentum - decoration) - a pattern consisting of rhythmically ordered elements.

Etching - a) an engraving method in which recessed printing elements are obtained by multi-stage etching with nitric acid. Preliminarily, a copper or zinc plate is covered with a protective soil, on which the strokes of the image are scratched; b) an imprint from a board, engraved in the indicated way.

Ocher - yellow mineral paint in various shades, from brown to pink.

Pavoloka - cloth glued to the board on which the icon is written. Levkas is applied over the pavoloka.

Palladium - a shrine that constitutes the guarantee of social happiness and well-being, under the protection and patronage of which is a certain human community and the area inhabited by this community.

Papyrus - a scroll made of glued strips of the stem of a perennial herb called papyrus. The ancient Egyptians and some other ancient peoples wrote on this type of paper. So the manuscripts on these scrolls are also called papyri.

Landscape(fr. "locality, country") - a genre of painting dedicated to the image of natural or man-altered nature.

Perspective(from Lat. "to penetrate with gaze", "to see through") – such an image of space and objects on a plane, which gives a sense of depth and volume.

Pilaster(from Lat. "pillar") - a flat vertical rectangular protrusion on the surface of a wall or pillar, reminiscent of a flattened column; has the same parts and proportions as the column. Serves for dividing the plane of the wall in order to decorate it and reveal the tectonic features of a building or furniture.

Pysanka - painted egg, a widespread form of folk decorative art, dating back to ancient pagan rites, later included in the celebration of Christian Easter.

Poster(from Lat. "certificate") - a widespread type of graphics, artistic features which are determined by its propaganda and explanatory function.

Plastic - a) sculpture, creation of volumetric images; b) expressiveness.

Plein air(French "open", literally "full of air"); the painter's work "in the open air" - work on sketches and landscapes directly from nature, as opposed to work in the studio.

Pop Art(English abbr. "public art") is an artistic movement that emerged in the second half of the 1950s in the United States and Great Britain. Rejecting the usual methods of painting and sculpture, pop art cultivates a deliberately random combination of ready-made household items, mechanical copies, fragments of mass printed publications.

Portico- gallery on columns, usually in front of the entrance to the building.

Portrait- a genre dedicated to the image of a person.

Primitivism(from Lat. "initial") - one of the artistic trends in the art of the 20th century, whose representatives, in their desire to return to art the immediacy of perception and naive reflection of the world, turn to folk art - to "primitives".

Prophet - a biblical term for special heralds of the will of God.

Pointillism(from the French "point") - an artistic movement that arose with the aim of developing the achievements of impressionism in the field of light and color. Guided by the law of spectral analysis, representatives of this direction decomposed color into its component parts, covering their canvases with separate point strokes of pure paint, counting on their optical mixing in the process of visual perception.

Rationalism - a) a philosophical trend that recognizes reason as the source of true knowledge; b) the architectural direction of the XX century, whose representatives use modern building materials and industrial methods construction to create the most rational (expedient, economical) architectural and artistic solutions.

Realism -(from Lat. "material", "real") - a term that has two main meanings in art history: 1.- the artistic direction that replaced romanticism and prevailed in European and Russian art of the middle and second half of the 19th century. Realism presupposes "truthful reproduction of typical characters in typical circumstances" (F. Engels). 2. - a synonym for truthfulness in art, its ability to reflect something that really exists both in the human soul and in the outside world.

Religion(lat.relegio) - one of the forms of social consciousness - a set of spiritual ideas based on belief in the existence of God or gods, in supernatural forces, as well as corresponding behavior and specific actions.

Relief(from Italian "protrusion", "bulge"; from Latin "raise") – a sculptural image on a plane that serves as its background. In relation to the background plane, a deep relief (counter-relief) and convex relief are distinguished, subdivided into low (bas-relief) and high (high relief).

Reproduction(from Latin “again”, “again” and “production”, from French “reproduction”) - as applied to the fine arts, mass reproduction of an artistic original by printing means, mainly on a reduced scale.

Rococo(fr. "a pattern of stones and shells") - a trend in art, a characteristic feature of which was the departure from real life into the invented world. It is characterized by the strengthening of the decorative principle in all types of art, especially in architecture.

Romanticism - direction in art of the late 18th - first quarter of the 19th century, opposing the canons of classicism and characterized by the desire for national and individual originality, for the image ideal heroes and feelings.

Sarcophagus- an artistically designed coffin made of stone or other materials.

Sentimentalism(from the French "feeling", "sensitive") - a trend in European art of the second half of the 18th century, named after L. Stern's novel "Sentimental Journey" (1768), which describes in detail the subtle, deeply intimate experiences and impressions of the hero. Sentimentalism took shape in opposition to classicism. The pathos of this trend is a sympathetic poeticization of mental life, fate, appearance, everyday life of an ordinary person.

Symbolism(from the Greek. "symbol", "sign", "identifying omen") - a trend in European art of the late 19th - early 20th century. For symbolists the world meaningful not in itself, but as a symbol of another, invisible and unknowable by the mind of reality.

Scan - from the Old Russian "skat" - to twist, twist, a kind of jewelry technique; the same as filigree. It is often used in the manufacture of icon frames from gold and silver.

Sculpture(from Lat. "sculpt", "carve") - a kind of fine art. The work of this art itself is called a sculpture - a bust, a statue, a bas-relief, etc.

Smalta - cubes of special, opaque glass.

Socialist realism - from the mid-1930s to the early 1980s was the official theoretical principle and artistic direction in Soviet art. Its main principles were: communist ideology, partisanship and nationality, which determined the range of subject-thematic compositions, typified portraits, thematic landscapes, paintings, etc.

Easel art - a kind of fine art that unites works of painting, sculpture, graphics that have independent artistic significance (not being elements of any complex, part of the decor of a building, etc.).

The statue - a large-scale work of round sculpture, usually depicting a human figure, less often other real or imaginary creatures.

Suprematism(from Latin "higher") - a kind of abstractionism, founded in 1913 by Malevich. Rejecting the image of the surrounding world and any association with it, Suprematism sought figurative expression patterns of higher order using simple geometric shapes.

Sphinx - a fantastic creature with the body of a lion and the head of a man, especially often found in the art of Ancient Egypt.

Surrealism(fr. "superrealism") - an artistic direction that arose in France after the First World War. Relying on the doctrine of the subconscious, the representatives of surrealism sought to get rid of the pressure of logic, reason, various norms and traditions that "fetter" creativity.

Tablet - the modern accepted in science name of those that existed in Ancient Rus small icons, written not on a board, but on a primed cloth (the old Russian name for "towel").

Tempera(from Italian "mix paints") - painting with paints, the binder in which are emulsions from water and egg yolk, as well as from vegetable or animal glue diluted in water, mixed with oil (or with oil and varnish).

Transept - a transverse nave or several naves crossing at right angles the main longitudinal nave.

Triptych(from the Greek. "triple folded") - a work of painting (occasionally graphics or sculpture in the form of relief), consisting of three independent parts and dedicated to a common theme.

Facade - the outside, usually the front of the building.

Fayum portrait- the departed pictorial portraits in Ancient Egypt using the technique of wax painting on a blackboard, then inserted into bandages of mummies in place of the face of the deceased.

Fauvism(fr. Fauves - wild) - the first, definitely declared itself, direction in the visual arts of the 20th century; the period of the highest activity of Fauvism dates back to 1905-07. The direction was headed by Matisse. The Fauves' paintings are defiantly bright, sonorous in colors.

Folklore(English folklore - folk wisdom) is the name of folk art accepted in international scientific terminology.

Fresco(it. "fresh, damp") - painting on damp, not yet set and easily absorbing paint plaster.

Gable- triangular end Greek temple, later - palace facades, doors and windows of other buildings.

Futurism(from Lat. "future") - a trend in the art of the 20th century, the adherents of which sought to create a new dynamic style that destroys all the traditions, canons and techniques of the old art.

Heaton - clothes of wide, loose fit. Together with the himation, it was interpreted as the clothes of itinerant preachers, in which Jesus Christ was depicted in the events of his earthly life and the apostles in icon painting.

Expressionism(from Lat. "expression") - a trend in European art of the first third of the 20th century. Expressionism is dominated by the artist's desire to express himself, his inner world with maximum nudity and sharpness.

Elite art - art that deliberately focuses on the "elite of society": on a narrow circle of readers, viewers, listeners who, unlike most others, are considered capable of understanding and appreciating the works of such art.

Hellenism- a period in the history of ancient culture from the 4th to the 1st century. BC e., from the word "Hellene" - Greek.

Encaustic(from the Greek. "I burn out") - wax painting; it is performed in a hot way with paints mixed with melted wax.

Epoch (gr. Eposhe)- a time point from which a new development begins or a certain period of time.

Print(fr. "imprint") - this is usually the name of the signature imprint of easel graphics, made by the author himself.

Aesthetic ideal- the idea of ​​perfect beauty, the highest criterion for aesthetic assessment.

Paganism- a religious belief that denies a single god and adheres to polytheism.

Here is all the terminology that you will need when passing the story - questions on terms are in parts A and B.

The material is great. For convenience, all terms are arranged not only in alphabetical order, but also in accordance with the chronological period.

Empire style - a style in architecture and art, mainly decorative) of the first three decades of the 19th century, completing the evolution of classicism. Like classicism, the Empire style incorporated the heritage of the ancient world: archaic Greece and imperial Rome.

Anarchists are a political philosophy that contains theories and views that advocate the elimination of any coercive rule and power of man over man. Anarchism is the idea that society can and should be organized without government coercion. At the same time, there are many different directions of anarchism, which often diverge on certain issues: from minor to fundamental (in particular, regarding views on private property, market relations, ethno-national issue). Prominent representatives of anarchism in Russia were P. Kropotkin and M. Bakunin.

Anti-Napoleonic (anti-French) coalitions are temporary military-political alliances of European states that sought to restore the monarchical Bourbon dynasty in France, which fell during the French Revolution of 1789-1799. A total of 7 coalitions were created. In the scientific literature, the first two coalitions are called "anti-revolutionary", starting with the third - "anti-Napoleonic". At various times, the coalitions included Austria, Prussia, England, Russia, the Ottoman Empire and other countries.

Great reforms of the 1860-1870s - the bourgeois reforms carried out by Alexander II after the defeat of Russia in the Crimean War (1853-1856), which began with the abolition of serfdom (1861). The great reforms also include the zemstvo reform (1864), urban (1870), judicial (1864), military (1874). Reforms were also carried out in the field of finance, education, the press and affected all spheres of life in Russian society.

Military settlements - a special organization of the armed forces in 1810-1857, combining combat service with housekeeping. Some of the state peasants were transferred to the position of military settlers. The villagers combined agricultural labor with military service. It was supposed to eventually transfer the entire army to a settled position. The creation of settlements was supposed to reduce the cost of maintaining the army, destroy recruitment kits, to rid the mass of state peasants from recruiting, turning them essentially into free people. Alexander I hoped in this way to take one more step towards the elimination of serfdom. Life in military settlements, subject to detailed regulations, turned into hard labor. Settlements and A.A. Arakcheev evoked universal hatred. The villagers rebelled several times. The largest uprising was the uprising of the Chuguevsky and Taganrog settlements regiments in 1819.

The Eastern question is the designation of international contradictions in the 18th - early 20th centuries, accepted in diplomacy and historical literature, associated with the outlined collapse of the Ottoman Empire and the struggle of the great powers for its division.

Temporarily liable peasants - peasants who have emerged from serfdom and are obliged to fulfill their previous obligations in favor of the landowner before switching to ransom.

Redemption payments - in Russia 1861-1906 redemption by peasants from landowners of land allotments provided by the peasant reform of 1861. The government paid the landowners the amount of ransom for the land, and the peasants, who were in debt to the state, had to pay off this debt in 49 years at 6% annually (redemption payments). The amount was calculated from the amount of the quitrent, which the peasants paid to the landowners before the reform. The collection of payments ceased during the revolution of 1905-1907. By this time, the government had managed to collect more than 1.6 billion rubles from the peasants, having received about 700 million rubles. income.

Gazavat is the same as jihad. In Islam, a holy war for the faith, against the infidels (non-believers in the One God and the messenger mission of at least one of the prophets of Islam).

The State Council is the highest legislative body. Reformed in January 1810 from the Permanent Council in accordance with the "Plan of State Reforms" M. M. Speransky. He did not have the legislative initiative, but considered those cases that were submitted to him by the emperor (preliminary discussion of laws, the budget, reports of ministries, some higher administrative issues and special court cases).

The Decembrists are members of the Russian noble opposition movement, members of various secret societies of the second half of the 1810s - the first half of the 1820s, who organized an anti-government uprising in December 1825 and were named after the month of the uprising.

Clergy - ministers of worship in monotheistic religions; persons who are professionally involved in the administration of religious practices and services and constitute special corporations. In the Orthodox Church, the clergy is divided into black (monasticism) and white (priests, deacons). In the 19th century - the privileged class of Russian society, exempt from corporal punishment, compulsory service and poll tax.

Westerners - the direction of the Russian public thought mid-19th century They advocated the development of Russia along the Western European path, opposed the Slavophiles. Westerners fought against the "theory of official nationality", criticized serfdom and autocracy, and put forward a project to free the peasants from the land. The main representatives are V.P.Botkin, T.N. Granovsky, K.D. Kavelin, B.N. Chicherin and others.

Zemstvo movement is a liberal oppositional social and political activity of zemstvo vowels and zemstvo intelligentsia in Russia in the 2nd half of the 19th - early 20th centuries, aimed at expanding the rights of zemstvos and attracting them to governing the state. It manifested itself in the filing of addresses addressed to the emperor and petitions to the government, holding illegal meetings and congresses, publishing brochures and articles abroad. At the beginning of the 20th century, illegal political organizations arose: "Beseda", "Union of Zemstvo-Constitutionalists", "Union of Liberation". Prominent figures: I.I. Petrunkevich, V.A. Bobrinsky, Pavel D. and Peter D. Dolgorukovs, P.A. Geiden, V.I. Vernadsky, Yu.A. Novosiltsev and others. During the Revolution of 1905-1907, with the formation of political parties of the Cadets and Octobrists, the Zemstvo movement ceased.

Zemstvos are elected bodies of local self-government (zemstvo assemblies and zemstvo councils). Introduced by the zemstvo reform of 1864, they were in charge of education, health care, road construction, etc. They were controlled by the Ministry of Internal Affairs and governors, who had the right to cancel the decisions of the zemstvo.

Sharecropping is a type of land lease in which the rent is transferred to the owner of the crop shares. It was a form of transition from feudal land lease to capitalist.

Imamat is the general name for a Muslim theocratic state. Also, the state of murids in Dagestan and Chechnya, which arose in the late. 20s XIX century. during the struggle of the peoples of the North. Caucasus against the colonialist policy of tsarism.

Islam is a monotheistic religion, one of the world religions (along with Christianity and Buddhism), its followers are Muslims.

Counter-reforms of the 1880s - the name of the measures taken by the government of Alexander III in the 1880s, the revision of the reforms of the 1860s: the restoration of preliminary censorship (1882), the introduction of class principles in primary and secondary schools, the abolition of the autonomy of universities (1884), the introduction of the institute zemstvo chiefs (1889), the establishment of bureaucratic tutelage over zemstvo (1890) and city (1892) self-government.

The gendarme corps is a police force that has a military organization and performs functions within the country and in the army. In Russia in 1827-1917. the gendarme corps served as the political police.

The bourgeoisie - in the Russian Empire in 1775-1917 the tax-paying estate of the former townspeople - artisans, small traders and homeowners. They united at the place of residence in communities with some rights of self-government. Until 1863, the law could be subject to corporal punishment.

Ministries - created on September 8, 1802, replacing the collegia. The aim of the reform was to reorganize the central government on the basis of the principle of one-man management. Initially, eight ministries were created: the Army (from 1815 - the Military), the Naval Forces (from 1815 - the Naval), Foreign Affairs, Internal Affairs, Commerce, Finance, Public Education and Justice). Also under Alexander I, there was the Ministry of Spiritual Affairs and Public Education (1817-1824) and the Ministry of Police (1810-1819). Each ministry was headed by a minister appointed by the emperor, who had one or several comrades (deputies).

Muridism is the name of the ideology of the national liberation movement of the highlanders of the North Caucasus during the Caucasian War of 1817-1864. The main feature of Muridism was its combination of religious doctrine and political actions, expressed in active participation in the “holy war” - ghazavat or jihad against “infidels” (ie non-Muslims) for the triumph of the Islamic faith. Muridism assumed the complete and unquestioning submission of its followers to their mentors - the Murshids. Muridism was headed by the imams of Chechnya and Dagestan Gazi-Magomed, Gamzat-bek and Shamil, under whom it became most widespread. The ideology of Muridism gave great organization to the struggle of the Caucasian mountaineers.

The Narodniks are representatives of the ideological trend among the radical intelligentsia in the second half of the 19th century, who spoke from the standpoint of "peasant socialism" against serfdom and the capitalist development of Russia, for the overthrow of the autocracy through a peasant revolution (revolutionary populists) or for the implementation of social transformations through reforms (liberal populists ). The founders: A. I. Herzen (creator of the theory of "peasant socialism"), N. G. Chernyshevsky; ideologists: M. A. Bakunin (rebellious tendency), P. L. Lavrov (propaganda tendency), P. N. Tkachev (conspiratorial tendency). Revival of revolutionary populism at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. (the so-called neo-populism) led to the creation of the party of socialist-revolutionaries (SRs).

Neo-Russian style is a trend in Russian architecture of the late 19th century. - 1910s., Using the motives of Old Russian architecture for the purpose of revival national identity Russian culture. It is characterized not by exact copying of individual details, decorative forms, etc., but by the generalization of motives, creative stylization of the prototype style. The plasticity and bright decorativeness of the buildings of the neo-Russian style make it possible to consider it as a national-romantic trend within the framework of the Art Nouveau style. V.M. Vasnetsov (facade of the Tretyakov Gallery, 1900-1905), F.O.Shekhtel (Yaroslavsky Station, 1902-1904), A.V. Shchusev (Cathedral of the Martha-Mariinsky Convent, 1908-1912) worked in this style.

Nihilism - in the 1860s current in Russian social thought, which denied the traditions and foundations of the noble society and called for their destruction in the name of a radical reorganization of society.

The Patriotic War of 1812 - Russia's liberation war against the army of Napoleon I. It was caused by the aggravation of Russian-French economic and political contradictions, and Russia's refusal to participate in the Continental blockade of Great Britain.

Working off - in post-reform Russia the system of peasants cultivating landlord land with their own implements for leased land (mainly for land plots), loans with bread, money, etc. A relic of the corvée economy.

Sections - a part of the peasant allotments that went to the landowners as a result of the reform of 1861 (the allotments were reduced if their size exceeded the norm established for a given area).

Peredvizhniki - artists who were part of the Russian art association - the Association of Traveling Art Exhibitions, formed in 1870. They turned to the depiction of everyday life and history of the peoples of Russia, its nature, social conflicts, exposure of social order. I. N. Kramskoy and V. V. Stasov became the ideological leaders of the Itinerants. The main representatives: I. E. Repin, V. I. Surikov, V. G. Perov, V. M. Vasnetsov, I. I. Levitan, I. I. Shishkin; among the Itinerants were also artists from Ukraine, Lithuania, Armenia. In 1923-1924, part of the Itinerants entered the AHRR.

Petrashevsky - participants in the evenings held on Fridays in the house of the writer M.V. Petrashevsky. At the meetings, they discussed the problems of reorganizing autocratic politics and serfdom. The Petrashevites shared the ideas of the French utopian socialists. Among the members of the circle were the writers F.M. Dostoevsky, M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, N. Ya. Danilevsky, V.N. Maikov, composers M.I. Glinka, A.G. Rubinstein, geographer P.I. Semyonov-Tyan-Shansky and others. At the end of 1848, the revolutionary-minded part of the Petrashevites decided to seek the implementation of their plans by force, for which to create secret society and arrange for the issuance of proclamations. However, it was not possible to accomplish what was planned. Members of the society were arrested, 21 of them were sentenced to death. On the day of the execution, she was replaced by hard labor. The convicted Petrashevites were sent to Siberia.

The poll tax is in Russia in the 18th-19th centuries. the main direct tax, which was introduced in 1724 and replaced the household taxation. The poll tax was imposed on all men of taxable estates, regardless of age.

Industrial revolution (industrial revolution) - the transition from manual to machine labor and, accordingly, from manufacture to factory. Requires a developed market for free labor, therefore, in a feudal country, it cannot be fully accomplished.

Raznochintsy - people from different classes: clergy, peasantry, merchants, philistines - engaged in mental activity. As a rule, bearers of revolutionary democratic views.

Realism is a stylistic trend in literature and art, a truthful, objective reflection of reality by specific means inherent in a particular species artistic creation... In the course of the historical development of art, realism takes on specific forms of certain creative methods (educational realism, critical, socialist).

Romanticism is an ideological and artistic trend in the culture of the late 18th - 1st half. XIX century. Reflecting disappointment in the results of the Great French Revolution, in the ideology of the Enlightenment and social progress, romanticism opposed the excessive practicality of the new bourgeois society with the striving for unlimited freedom, the thirst for perfection and renewal, the idea of ​​personal and civil independence. An agonizing rift between a fictional ideal and brutal reality is the foundation of romanticism. Interest in the national past (often - its idealization), the traditions of folklore and culture of their own and other peoples found expression in the ideology and practice of romanticism. The influence of romanticism manifested itself in almost all spheres of culture (music, literature, visual arts).

The Russian Empire is the name of the Russian state from 1721 to 09/01/1917.

The Russian-Byzantine style is a pseudo-Russian (otherwise - neo-Russian, false-Russian) style that arose in the second quarter of the 19th century. and is a synthesis of the traditions of Old Russian and Russian folk architecture and elements of Byzantine culture. Russian-Byzantine architecture is characterized by the borrowing of a number of compositional techniques and motifs of Byzantine architecture, most vividly embodied in the “exemplary projects” of the churches of Constantine Ton in the 1840s. Within the framework of this direction, Ton built the Cathedral of Christ the Savior, the Grand Kremlin Palace and the Armory in Moscow, as well as cathedrals in Sveaborg, Yelets (Ascension Cathedral), Tomsk, Rostov-on-Don and Krasnoyarsk.

Holy Alliance - an agreement concluded in 1815 in Paris by the emperors of Russia, Austria and the king of Prussia. The initiative to create the Holy Alliance belonged to the Russian Emperor Alexander I. Subsequently, all other European states, with the exception of the Vatican and Great Britain, joined this treaty. The Holy Alliance considered its main tasks to be the prevention of new wars and revolutions in Europe. The Aachen, Troppau, Laibach and Verona congresses of the Holy Union developed the principle of interference in the internal affairs of other states with the aim of violently suppressing any national and revolutionary movements.

Slavophiles are representatives of the direction of Russian social thought in the middle of the 19th century, proceeding from the position of the fundamental difference between Russian and European civilizations, the inadmissibility of Russia's mechanical copying of European orders, etc. They polemicized both with the Westerners and with the "theory of official nationality." Unlike the latter, they considered it necessary to abolish serfdom, criticized the Nicholas autocracy and others. The main representatives: the Aksakov brothers, the Kireevsky brothers, AI Koshelev, Yu. F. Samarin, AS Khomyakov.

Estates are social groups that have rights and obligations enshrined in custom or law and inherited. The class organization of society, which usually includes several classes, is characterized by a hierarchy, which is expressed in the inequality of their position and privileges. In Russia, from the second half of the 18th century. the class division into the nobility, the clergy, the peasantry, the merchant class, and the bourgeoisie was established. The estates in Russia were officially abolished in 1917.

Social Democrats are a trend in the socialist and workers' movement, advocating the transition to a socially just society by reforming the bourgeois one. In the Russian social democracy of the 1880-1890s. the most widespread was Marxism. In 1883, the Emancipation of Labor group was created in Geneva (V.I. Zasulich, P.B. Axelrod, L.G. Deich, V.N. Ignatov, G.V. Plekhanov), whose main task is its members considered the spread of Marxism in Russia. In 1895, the Union of Struggle for the Liberation of the Working Class was created in St. Petersburg (V.I. organization of the strike movement. In 1898, the first congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party (RSDLP) was held in Minsk. After the October Revolution in 1917, the RSDLP (Bolsheviks) was renamed the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) (RCP (b)), which later became the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) (VKP (b)) and, finally, the CPSU - the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.

The theory of the official nationality is a state ideology that arose during the reign of Nicholas I. It was based on the conservative views on education, science, literature, expressed by the Minister of Public Education S. S. Uvarov. The main formula of this ideology is “Orthodoxy, autocracy, nationality”.

Specific peasants - a category of the feudal-dependent rural population of Russia in the late 18th - mid-19th centuries, which included peasants who lived on specific lands and belonged to the imperial family. Obligations were carried out mainly in the form of a quitrent. In 1863, the main provisions of the peasant reform of 1861 were extended to the specific peasants, and they received a part of the specific lands in their ownership for the obligatory redemption.

The factory is a large enterprise based on the use of machines and the division of labor.

“Going to the People” is a mass movement of radical populist youth to the countryside, aimed at promoting socialist ideas among the peasants. The idea of ​​"going to the people" belongs to A. I. Herzen, who in 1861, through the "Kolokol", addressed this appeal to the students. It began in the spring of 1873, and reached its greatest scope in the spring and summer of 1874 (it covered 37 provinces of Russia). The "Lavristi" aimed at promoting the ideas of socialism, the "Bakuninists" tried to organize massive anti-government protests. By November 1874, over 4 thousand people were arrested, the most active participants were convicted.

Censorship is a system of state supervision over the press and the media with the aim of suppressing undesirable, from the point of view of the authorities, influences on society. Introduced in Russia early XVIII century, since 1804 - regulated by censorship charters and temporary rules.

Menshevism - arose at the Second Congress of the RSDLP (1903), after the opponents of Lenin's principles of building the party were in the minority during the elections of the central bodies of the party. Main ideologists: Yu.O. Martov, A.S. Martynov, I.O. Axelrod, G.V. Plekhanov, A.N. Potresov, F.I. Dan. Until 1912, formally they were together with the Bolsheviks in a single RSDLP. In 1912, at the 6th Paris Conference, the Mensheviks were expelled from the ranks of the RSDLP. During the First World War, the bulk of the Mensheviks took the position of social-chauvinism. After the October Revolution, the Mensheviks became participants in the struggle against Soviet power.

The World of Art is a Russian art association. It took shape in the late 1890s. (officially - in 1900) in St. Petersburg on the basis of a circle of young artists and art lovers headed by A. N. Benois and S. P. Diaghilev. As an exhibition union under the auspices of the World of Art magazine, it existed in its original form until 1904; in an expanded composition, having lost ideological and creative unity, in 1910-1924. In 1904-1910 most of the masters “M. and." was a member of the Union of Russian Artists. In addition to the main core (L. S. Bakst, M. V. Dobuzhinsky, E. E. Lancers, A. P. Ostroumova-Lebedeva, K. A. Somov), “M. and." included many Petersburg and Moscow painters and graphic artists (I. Ya.Bilibin, A. Ya.Golovin, I.E. Grabar, K.A.Korovin, B.M. Kustodiev, N.K. Roerich, V.A. and etc.). MA Vrubel, II Levitan, MV Nesterov, as well as some foreign artists took part in the exhibitions of the World of Art.

Modernism (from the French “newest, modern”) is the general name for trends in literature and art of the late 19th-20th centuries. (cubism, avant-garde, surrealism, dada, futurism, expressionism), characterized by a break with the traditions of realism, advocating a new approach to reflecting being.

Monopoly is a large economic association (cartel, syndicate, trust, concern, etc.), privately owned (individual, group or joint-stock) and exercising control over industries, markets and the economy based on a high degree of concentration of production and capital for the purpose of establishing monopoly prices and extracting monopoly profits. In Russia at the beginning of the 20th century, the largest monopolies were: the Prodamet syndicate (1902) in ferrous metallurgy, the Prodparovoz cartel (1901) and the Prodvagon syndicate (1904) in mechanical engineering, the Produgol association (1906 g.) in the mining industry. In total, during this period, there were about 200 monopolies in Russia.

The Octobrists are members of the right-wing liberal party “Union of October 17”. It was formed by 1906. The name is from the Manifesto of October 17, 1905. She spoke out with a demand for popular representation, democratic freedoms, civil equality, etc. The number, together with the adjoining groups, is about 80 thousand members. Leaders: A.I. Guchkov, P.L. Korf, M.V. Rodzianko, N.A. Khomyakov, D.N. Shipov and others. Printed organs: the newspaper "Slovo", "Voice of Moscow" and others, more than 50 in total. The largest faction in the 3rd State Duma, alternately blocked with the moderate right and the Cadets. By 1915 it ceased to exist.

Cut - according to Stolypinskaya agrarian reform- a peasant economy, separated from the community by land. At the same time, the house remained on the territory of the community.

The Progressive Bloc - was created in August 1915 from the members of the IV State Duma (it included 236 out of 422 deputies from the Cadets, Octobrists, Progressives) in order to put pressure on the government. The association was headed by the left Octobrist S. I. Shidlovsky, but the actual leader was the leader of the Cadets P. N. Milyukov. On August 26, 1915, a declaration of the Progressive Bloc was published demanding a renewal of the composition of local government bodies, an end to persecution for the faith, the release of certain categories of political prisoners, the restoration of trade unions, etc. The main goal of the bloc was to create a government of "public trust" from among representatives of the administration and Duma leaders in order to lead the country out of the difficult political and economic situation in which it found itself in the conditions of the First World War, to prevent a possible revolutionary explosion.

A revolutionary situation is a situation that serves as an indicator of the maturity of socio-political conditions for a revolution. A revolutionary situation is characterized by: a “crisis of the top,” that is, the impossibility of representatives of the authorities to maintain their dominance in an unchanged form, while it is necessary that the “top” themselves cannot live in the old way; the exacerbation, above the usual, of the needs and calamities of the oppressed classes and strata; a significant increase in the political activity of the broad masses. In Russia, the first revolutionary situation in the late 50s and early 60s. XIX century. was an expression of the crisis of the feudal-serf system after the defeat of Russia in the Crimean War of 1853-1856. The growth of the peasant movement and the general democratic upsurge pushed the autocracy to prepare reforms. The revolutionary situation was resolved by the Peasant Reform of 1861. The second revolutionary situation arose as a result of the exacerbation of socio-political contradictions after the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878. It culminated in the years 1880-1881. In the conditions of the ensuing reaction after the murder of Alexander II by the Narodnaya Volya, the government carried out counter-reforms. The revolutionary situation at the beginning of the XX century. ended with the revolution of 1905-1907. Revolutionary situation 1913-1914 did not develop into a revolution because of the outbreak of World War I. The revolutionary situation in 1916-1917 poured into the February Revolution of 1917 and ended with the Great October Socialist Revolution of 1917.

Russian seasons abroad - performances of Russian opera and ballet companies organized by S.P.Dyagilev in 1907-1914. in Paris and London. They contributed to the popularity of Russian art abroad. The term stuck, became a household name to denote the success of Russian cultural and art workers abroad.

Symbolism is a trend in European and Russian art in 1870-1910. Focuses primarily on artistic expression through symbolism. In an effort to break through visible reality to “hidden realities”, the supertemporal ideal essence of the world, its imperishable beauty, the Symbolists expressed rejection of bourgeois and positivism, longing for spiritual freedom, a tragic foreboding of world social shifts, trust in age-old cultural values ​​as a unifying principle. Main representatives. P. Verlaine, P. Valerie, A. Rimbaud, M. Metterliik, A. Blok, A. Bely, Viach. Ivanov, F. Sologub, P. Gauguin, M.K. Churlionis, M. Vrubel and others.

A syndicate is one of the forms of monopolistic associations, characterized by the fact that the distribution of orders, the purchase of raw materials and the sale of manufactured products is carried out through a single sales office. The members of the syndicate retain production, but lose their commercial independence.

Soviets - arose during the revolution of 1905-1907. (the first Council was in Ivanovo-Voznesensk on May 15 (28), 1905) as independent bodies of leadership and coordination of the workers' struggle for their rights in the localities. On an incomparably wider scale, the Soviets revived during the February (1917) revolution and until June 1917 acted as a “second” power opposing the bourgeois Provisional Government (later they began to support it). During this period, the Soviets of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies and the Soviets of Peasants' Deputies operated. After the October Revolution of 1917, the Soviets were the representative bodies of state power in the center and at the local level in the RSFSR, the USSR, and until the end of 1993 - in Russian Federation(from 1936 to 1977 - Soviets of Working People's Deputies, since 1977 - Soviets of People's Deputies). Since 1988, the Congress of People's Deputies (until 1991) has become the supreme body of state power. A distinctive feature of the Soviets was the inseparability of the legislative and executive powers.

The Stolypin reform is an economic reform aimed at accelerating the development of capitalism in Russia, the reform of peasant land ownership, which marked the turn of the agrarian-political course of the autocracy, named after the Minister of Internal Affairs and Chairman of the Council of Ministers since 1906 P.A.Stolypin (1862-1911) ... Permission to leave the peasant community for farms and cuts (law of 11/9/1906), strengthening of the Peasant Bank, compulsory land management (laws of 6/14/1910 and 05/29/1911) and resettlement policy were aimed at eliminating land shortages while preserving landlord ownership, accelerating the stratification of the village, the creation of an additional support of power among the well-to-do peasant stratum. The reform was thwarted after the assassination of P.A.Stolypin by the Socialist-Revolutionary D. Bogrov.

A trust is a form of monopoly in which the members of an association lose their production and commercial independence and are subject to a single management.

Third June coup - dissolution of the State Duma on June 3, 1907 and amendments to the electoral law. Considered the end of the First Russian Revolution.

The Triple Alliance is a military-political bloc of states during the First World War, which included: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy. In 1915, Italy and Turkey joined.

Trudoviks are a faction of peasant deputies and the populist intelligentsia in the 1st-4th State Dumas (1906-1917). The program was close to the program of the People's Socialist Party, and included demands for the introduction of democratic freedoms and the nationalization of the landlords' lands. The print organ is the Trudovy Narod newspaper. In June 1917 merged with the People's Socialists

A farm - according to the Stolypin agrarian reform - is an economy that was separated from the community along with land and a house. It was privately owned.

The Black Hundreds (from the Old Russian “Black Hundred” - a heavy settlement population) are members of the extreme right-wing organizations in Russia in 1905-1917, who spoke under the slogans of monarchism, great-power chauvinism and anti-Semitism (“The Union of the Russian People”, “The Union of Archangel Michael”, “Unions of Russians people ”, etc.). Leaders and ideologists: A.I. Dubrovin, V.M. Purishkevich, N.E. Markov. During the years of the revolution of 1905-1907, they supported the repressive policy of the government, staged pogroms, organized the murders of a number of political figures. After February revolution 1917 the activities of the Black Hundred organizations were banned.

The Social Revolutionaries (Social Revolutionaries) are a revolutionary party formed in Russia in 1901-1902. The leader is V.M. Chernov. The tactics are political terror. The Left SRs were a political party in Russia in 1917-1923 (until December 1917 the left wing of the SRs). Leaders: M.A. Spiridonova, B.D. Kamkov, M.A. Nathanson. Newspapers "Land and Freedom" and "Znamya Truda". They took part in the October Revolution, were members of the Military Revolutionary Committee, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee, the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR (December 1917-March 1918). Since the beginning of 1918, opponents of the Brest Peace, the agrarian policy of the Bolsheviks. In July 1918, an armed uprising was organized, which was suppressed. Separate groups of Left SRs operated in the Ukraine, the Far East, and Turkestan. In 1923 they ceased operations.

1917-1920

Annexation (from Latin “annexation”) is the forcible seizure of a part of the territory of a defeated state by the winner.

White movement is a collective name for political movements, organizations and military formations that opposed Soviet power during the Civil War. The origin of the term is associated with the traditional symbolism of white as the color of the supporters of the rule of law. The basis of the white movement is the officers of the former Russian army; leadership - military leaders (M. V. Alekseev, P. N. Wrangel, A. I. Denikin, A. V. Kolchak, L. G. Kornilov, E. K. Miller, N. N. Yudenich).

White is the name of the opponents of Soviet power, which spread during the Civil War.

The Military Revolutionary Committee is the organ of the Petrograd Soviet for the preparation and leadership of an armed uprising. The regulation on the PVRC was approved by the Executive Committee of the Petrosovet on 10/12/1917. Most of the members were Bolsheviks; there were also Left Socialist-Revolutionaries and anarchists. In November-December - the highest emergency body of state power. Disbanded in December 1917.

The Provisional Government is the central organ of state power, formed after the February bourgeois-democratic revolution. It existed from March 2 (15), 1917 to November 25 (November 7), 1917. It was created by agreement between the Provisional Committee of the State Duma in 1917 and the Socialist-Revolutionary Menshevik leadership of the Petrograd Soviet. He was the supreme executive and administrative body, and also performed legislative functions. The provincial and district commissars were the local authorities of the provisional government.

Second coalition. Provisional government of A.F. Kerensky (8 seats for the capitalists and 7 for the socialists) July 24 (August 6) - August 26 (September 8) 1917

Homogeneous bourgeois Provisional Government of the book. G.E. Lvov March 2 (15) - May 2 (15) 1917

The first coalition Provisional Government of the book. G.E. Lvov (10 seats for the capitalists and 6 for the socialists) 5 (18) May - 2 (15) July 1917

Third coalition. Provisional government A.F. Kerensky (10 seats for the socialists and 6 seats for the capitalists) September 25 (October 8) - October 25 (November 7).

After the armed uprising in Petrograd, the deputy capitalist ministers who remained at large, together with a group of socialist ministers (Gvozdev, Nikitin, Prokopovich), decided to continue the activities of the Provisional Government. On the basis of a forged protocol of August 17 (30), the self-proclaimed Provisional Government issued orders against the Soviet government, received from the State Bank up to 40 million rubles, of which it paid salaries to officials-saboteurs. The underground Provisional Government “acted” until November 16 (29), 1917

The All-Russian Central Executive Committee of Soviets of Workers', Soldiers' and Peasants' Deputies (after January 1918 - workers', peasants' and Cossack's deputies) - the body that carried out the general leadership of the Soviets in the interval between the congresses of Soviets. The All-Russian Central Executive Committee of the first convocation was elected at the I Congress of Soviets (held from June 3 to June 24, 1917). The apparatus of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee was formed at its first plenum on June 21 (plenums were convened weekly). The apparatus of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee included the Presidium, the Bureau and about 20 departments. After the October Revolution, a new All-Russian Central Executive Committee was elected at the Second Congress of Soviets. It included 62 Bolsheviks, 40 representatives of other parties (of which 29 are Left Social Revolutionaries). At the III All-Russian Congress of Soviets (1918), 162 Bolsheviks were elected, 143 representatives of other parties (122 Left Social Revolutionaries). Since the V All-Russian Congress of Soviets (July 1918), representatives of other parties in the All-Russian Central Executive Committee have not been elected. In January 1918, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee formed the Council of People's Commissars, the people's commissariats to manage individual branches of government. The chairmen of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee were: from October 27, 1917 - L.B. Kamenev, from November 8, 1917 - Ya.M. Sverdlov, from March 30, 1919 - M.I. Kalinin. After the adoption of the new Constitution in 1937, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee ceased to exist.

VChK - All-Russian Extraordinary Commission for Combating Counter-revolution, speculation and ex officio crimes; until August 1918 - to combat counter-revolution and sabotage) - formed under the Council of People's Commissars (decree of December 7, 1917). In December 1921, "in connection with the transition to peaceful construction" V.I. Lenin proposed to reorganize the Cheka, limiting its competence to political tasks. By a decree of February 6, 1922, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee transformed the Cheka into the State Political Administration (GPU) under the NKVD of the RSFSR.

Civil war is the most acute form of social struggle of the population within the state. In the course of the war, the problem of power is being solved, which, in turn, should provide a solution to the main life issues facing the warring parties.

Dual power - the simultaneous existence of two powers in Russia from March 1-2 to July 5, 1917.After the February Revolution, a peculiar situation developed in Russia: two bodies of power were simultaneously created - the power of the bourgeoisie in the person of the Provisional Government and the revolutionary democratic dictatorship of the proletariat and peasantry - Advice. Officially, power belonged to the Provisional Government, but in fact to the Soviets, since they were supported by the army and the people. The petty-bourgeois parties, which had a majority in the Soviets, supported the Provisional Government and completely ceded power to it in July 1917, which meant the end of the dual power. The period of the struggle between two dictatorships for autocracy.

Decree (from Lat. “Resolution”) is a normative legal act issued by the government. After the October Revolution, legislative acts were issued in the form of decrees, which were adopted by the congresses of the Soviets, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee, and the Council of People's Commissars. According to V.I. Lenin, "Decrees are instructions calling for a mass practical cause."

The dictatorship of the proletariat - in Marxist literature, this concept is defined as the state power of the proletariat, established as a result of the elimination of the capitalist system and the destruction of the bourgeois state machine. The establishment of the dictatorship of the proletariat is the main content of the socialist revolution, a necessary condition and the main result of its victory. The proletariat uses its power to suppress the resistance of the exploiters and destroy them completely; then power is used for revolutionary transformations in all spheres of social life: economy, culture, everyday life, for the communist education of the working people and the construction of a new, classless society - communism. The basis of the dictatorship of the proletariat is the alliance of the working class and the peasantry under the leading role of the working class .. In 1917, after the October Socialist Revolution in Russia, the dictatorship of the proletariat was established in the form of Soviets.

Intervention (from Lat. "Invasion") - the intervention of one state in the internal affairs of another. Modern international law views intervention as an offense. The intervention can be both military and economic, ideological, carried out in other forms.

“Greens” is the name in Russia during the Civil War of persons hiding in the forests who evaded military service. Liquidated by the Red Army after the end of the Civil War.

Contribution (from Lat. “To collect”) - money or other material values ​​collected from a defeated state by the victorious state after the war, as well as compulsory monetary levies levied by the authorities from the population in the occupied territory.

Confiscation (from Lat. "Take away to the treasury") - seizure by compulsory means, without compensation by the state of the property of a private person. In Russia, as a result of the October Revolution of 1917, landowners' lands, private enterprises, and other property were confiscated.

The Kornilov mutiny is an unsuccessful attempt to establish a military dictatorship on August 27-31 (September 9-13), 1917, undertaken by the Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Russian Army of the General Staff, General of Infantry L.G. Kornilov. Suppressed by the forces of the Bolsheviks and the Provisional Government.

The Red Guard attack on capital is a term that characterizes the methods of implementing the socio-economic measures of the Soviet state in the first 4 months of its existence (November 1917 - February 1918), when the task of direct expropriation of the expropriators was in the foreground. During this period, the Soviet government legalized and extended workers' control over production and distribution, carried out the nationalization of banks, transport, merchant marine, foreign trade, a significant part of large-scale industry, and a number of other measures.

Red is a generalized name for the supporters of the Bolsheviks, defenders of Soviet power during the Civil War and military intervention. In a broad sense, it is applied in relation to members of communist parties and adherents of communist ideology.

Educational program - the elimination of illiteracy, the same as the elimination of illiteracy. Mass campaign to educate adults in the basics of literacy in the 1920s – 1930s. As a result of the campaign by the end of the 30s. the literacy rate in the USSR has reached 90%.

Nationalization is the transfer of private enterprises and sectors of the economy to the ownership of the state.

Food detachment - food detachments, armed detachments of workers and poor peasants in 1918-1921. They were created by the organs of the People's Commissariat of Food (part of the Food Army), trade unions, factory committees, local Soviets (procurement, harvesting, harvesting and requisitioning detachments; the governing body is the Military Food Bureau of the All-Union Central Council of Trade Unions). We carried out surplus appropriation in the countryside; acted in conjunction with the commissaires, food committees and local Soviets. Half of the seized bread was received by the organization that sent the detachment.

Prodrazvorstka - a system of procurement of agricultural products during the period of "war communism", established after the introduction of the food dictatorship. Obligatory delivery by peasants to the state at fixed prices of all surplus grain and other products. It caused discontent among the peasants, led to a reduction in agricultural production, was replaced in 1921 by a tax in kind.

Rabfak is a working faculty. In 1919-1940. a general educational institution in the USSR for the preparation of young people who did not have a secondary education in higher educational institutions; were created at universities (training 3 years in daytime, 4 years in evening).

Reparations - compensation by a defeated state of damage to the victorious state.

Sabotage is the deliberate failure to perform duties or their negligent fulfillment.

Council of People's Commissars - Council of People's Commissars (SNK), the highest executive and administrative body of state power, the government of the Soviet state. He was first elected during the October Revolution at the II All-Russian Congress of Soviets on October 26 (November 8) 1917. Until his death, he was headed by V.I. Lenin, from 1924 to 1930 A.I. Rykov, from 1930 to 1941 V.M. Molotov, and then I.V. Stalin (transformed into the Council of Ministers in 1946).

The communist clean-up day is voluntary free work of workers for society. The first subbotnik took place on Saturday 12.4.1919 at the Moscow-Sortirovochnaya depot. The first massive subbotnik on 05/10/1919 on the Moscow-Kazan railway. They spread during the Civil War. Since 1970, All-Union Leninist communist subbotniks have been held.

Terror (from Lat. “Fear, horror”) is a policy of intimidation, suppression of political opponents by violent measures, up to physical destruction.

The Constituent Assembly is a representative institution in Russia, created on the basis of universal suffrage, designed to establish the form of government and develop a constitution. It was elected in November-December 1917 and met on January 5, 1918 in Petrograd, and after 13 hours of work it was closed at the request of the guard.

Emigration (from Lat. “To move, move out”) - leaving the country associated with the loss of the status of a citizen of a given state and caused by economic, political or personal reasons, for the purpose of temporary or permanent settlement on the territory of a foreign state. States may permit the restoration of citizenship to expatriates.

1920-1930

Autonomization is an idea put forward by Stalin I.V. in 1922, according to which all Soviet republics should become part of the RSFSR with the rights of autonomies, which would violate their independence and equality.

Authoritarianism - political regime, in which political power is in the hands of one person or a group of persons. Authoritarianism is characterized by the complete or partial absence of political freedoms of citizens, the restriction of the activities of parties and organizations.

Antonovshchina - peasant movement of 1920-1921 in the Tambov province, directed against the Soviet regime and named after the leader and organizer (A.S. Antonov). The uprising was liquidated by the forces of the Red Army, sometimes even with the use of gas attacks. In June 1922 Antonov was killed. The abolition of food appropriation in 1921 significantly reduced the number of disgruntled peasants.

“The Great Turning Point” is an expression of Stalin, with which he characterized the policy of forced industrialization and collectivization of agriculture, begun in the late 1920s in the USSR.

GOELRO (abbreviated from the State Commission for the Electrification of Russia) is the first unified state long-term plan for the restoration and development of the national economy of the RSFSR. Developed in 1920 under the leadership of V.I. Lenin by the State Commission for the Electrification of Russia. It was designed for 10-15 years, provided for a radical reconstruction of the economy on the basis of electrification. Mainly completed by 1931. The firstborn of GOELRO is the Volkhovskaya HPP in the Leningrad Region.

GULAG - Main Directorate of Forced Labor Camps, Labor Settlements and Places of Detention), in 1934-1956 a division of the NKVD (Ministry of Internal Affairs), which was in charge of the system of forced labor camps (ITL). Special directorates of the GULAG united many ITL in different regions of the country: Karaganda ITL (Karlag), Dalstroy of the NKVD / USSR Ministry of Internal Affairs, Solovetsky ITL (USLON), Belomorsko-Baltic ITL and the NKVD combine, Vorkuta ITL, Norilsk ITL, etc. conditions, severe punishments were applied for the slightest violations of the regime, mortality from hunger, disease and backbreaking work was extremely high. The prisoners worked for free on the construction of canals, roads, industrial and other facilities in the Far North, Far East and other regions.

Twenty-five thousand people - workers in the industrial centers of the USSR, who went to the countryside at the call of the Bolshevik Party for economic and organizational work in early 1930 during the period of mass collectivization of agriculture. By the resolution of the November (1929) plenum of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks, it was envisaged to send 25 thousand people, in fact, 27.6 thousand people went.

Industrialization is the process of creating large-scale machine production and, on this basis, the transition from an agrarian to an industrial society. In Russia, industrialization has been developing successfully since the late 19th - early 20th centuries. After the October Revolution (from the end of the 1920s), industrialization was forcibly carried out by a totalitarian regime by violent methods due to a sharp restriction of the standard of living of the majority of the population, the exploitation of the peasantry.

Collectivization - the transformation of small, individual peasant farms into large public farms - collective farms - through cooperation. During the years of the USSR, it was considered as a programmatic installation of the agrarian policy of the CPSU (VKP (b)) in the countryside. The material base was created during the years of industrialization. It was carried out during the years of the 1st five-year plan (1928/29 - 1932/33). By the end of 1932, it was largely completed. By 1936, the collective farm system was fully formed.

A collective farm is a cooperative association of peasants in the USSR, mainly created during the period of collectivization in the late 1920s and early 1930s. XX century They managed the economy on state land assigned to K. for the so-called perpetual use. The highest governing body is the general meeting of collective farmers, which elects the board, headed by the chairman, for the most part a protege of local party bodies, district and regional party committees. In 1986 there were 26.7 thousand collective farms. Most of the colonies had by that time been transformed into state state farms.

The Comintern is an international association of communist parties from different countries. It was formed on the initiative of V.I. Lenin, operated from 1919 to 1943 with the center in Moscow, in essence became an instrument for the implementation of the idea of ​​a world revolution. Higher bodies: Congress (the last 7th Congress was held in 1935), the Executive Committee (a permanent body). The Comintern was the historical successor to the First International (1864-1876) and the Second International (1889-1914). Since the end of the 20s. the Bolsheviks began to abandon the idea of ​​a world revolution. On May 15, 1943, JV Stalin dissolved this organization, which, as he explained, "fulfilled its mission." In 1951, the Socialist International (Sotsintern) was formed, uniting 76 parties and organizations of the social democratic direction.

Concession (from Lat. "Permission, assignment") - an agreement on the transfer into operation for a certain period natural resources, enterprises and other economic facilities owned by the state; an agreement for the leasing of enterprises or land plots with the right to production activities to foreign firms, the enterprise itself, organized on the basis of such an agreement.

The cult of personality is a policy that exalts one person, characteristic mainly of a totalitarian regime and propagandizing the exclusivity of the ruler, his omnipotence and unlimited power, attributing to him during his lifetime a decisive influence on the course of historical development, eliminating democracy.

The Cultural Revolution is a radical revolution in the spiritual development of society, carried out in the USSR in the 1920s and 1930s. XX century, an integral part of socialist transformations. The cultural revolution provided for the elimination of illiteracy, the creation of a socialist system of public education and enlightenment, the formation of a new, socialist intelligentsia, the restructuring of everyday life, the development of science, literature, and art under party control.

The League of Nations is an international organization, established in 1919. The official goal is to develop international cooperation, guarantee peace and security. The USSR was included in its composition in 1934. It was expelled in 1939 for aggression against Finland.

Peaceful coexistence is a type of relations between states with different social systems, which presupposes the rejection of war as a means of resolving controversial issues, their settlement through negotiations; equality, mutual understanding and trust between states, consideration of each other's interests, non-interference in internal affairs, recognition for each people of the right to freely choose their socio-economic and political system: strict respect for the sovereignty and territorial integrity of all countries: development of economic and cultural cooperation on the basis of full equality and mutual benefit.

NEP (New Economic Policy) is a policy aimed at overcoming the political and economic crisis that had developed by 1920 in the Soviet republic. The highest point of dissatisfaction with the current policy of "War Communism" was the Kronstadt mutiny. At the X Congress of the RCP (b) in March 1921, at the suggestion of V.I. Lenin's allotment of food was replaced by a smaller in-kind tax. The main elements of this policy are: progressive income tax on the peasantry (1921-1922 tax in kind), freedom of trade, concessions, permission to lease and open small private enterprises, hiring labor, abolition of the rationing system and rationed supply, payment for all services, transfer of industry to full cost accounting and self-sufficiency. At the end of the 20s. the new economic policy was curtailed.

Opposition - organized group, opposing, according to estimates, the program, the policy of the ruling elite. The main types of opposition are parliamentary and intraparty.

The tax in kind - introduced by decrees of the Council of People's Commissars in March 1921 to replace the food appropriation system, was the first act of the new economic policy. Charged from peasant farms. The size was set before spring sowing for each type of agricultural product (much lower than the surplus appropriation), taking into account local conditions and the prosperity of peasant farms. In 1923 it was replaced by the uniform agricultural tax.

The five-year plan is the period for which the centralized planning of the economy in the Soviet Union was carried out. Five-year plans for the development of the national economy of the USSR, or five-year plans, were intended for the rapid economic development of the Soviet Union. There were 13 five-year plans in total. The first was adopted in 1928, for a five-year period from 1929 to 1933, and was completed a year earlier. In 1959, at the XXI Congress of the CPSU, a seven-year plan for the development of the national economy for 1959-1965 was adopted. In the future, the five-year plans were again adopted. The last, thirteenth Five-year plan was calculated for the period from 1991 to 1995 and was not implemented due to the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 and the subsequent transition to a decentralized market economy.

Repressions are coercive measures of state influence, including various types of punishments and legal restrictions, applied in the USSR to individuals and categories of persons. Political repressions in Soviet Russia began immediately after the October Revolution of 1917 (red terror, decossackization). With the onset of forced collectivization of agriculture and accelerated industrialization in the late 1920s and early 1930s, as well as the strengthening of Stalin's personal power, the repressions acquired a massive character. They reached particular scope in 1937-1938, when hundreds of thousands of Soviet citizens were shot and sent to the Gulag camps on charges of political crimes. Political repression continued with varying degrees of intensity until Stalin's death in March 1953.

Socialist realism is a creative method of literature and art, officially approved by the Soviet leadership in the USSR and other countries with a socialist orientation, the essence of which is the expression of the socialistically conscious concept of the world and man, the depiction of life in the light of socialist (communist) ideals. It was formed initially at the beginning of the XX century. in the works of M. Gorky, the term itself appeared in 1932. Ideological principles: nationality, partisanship and humanism. The sculpture "Worker and Collective Farm Woman" by V. Mukhina became the symbol of socialist realism.

The Stakhanov movement is a movement of workers in the USSR for an increase in labor productivity and better use of technology. It arose in 1935 in the coal industry of Donbass, and then spread to other industries, transport, and agriculture; named after its founder - A.G. Stakhanov.

Totalitarianism (from Lat. “All, whole, complete”) is a model of the socio-political structure of society, characterized by the complete subordination of a person to political power, the all-encompassing control of the state over all spheres of society.

Trotskyism is one of the ideological and political trends in the labor movement. The Trotskyists, like K. Marx, associated the possibility of building socialism in one country only with the victory of the world revolution. In 1920-1921. During the discussion about trade unions, they called for the expansion of the methods of "war communism", for the nationalization and militarization of trade unions. Much of what they promoted was soon applied in the Stalinist USSR. In the discussion 1923-1924. the Trotskyists demanded a change in the norms of internal party relations, the expansion of party democracy, freedom of factions and groupings, and at the same time a more centralized economic policy, proclaimed the slogans of "dictatorship of industry", "overindustrialization". The 13th Party Conference in 1924 characterized Trotskyism as a petty-bourgeois deviation in the RCP (b). The 15th Party Congress in 1927 declared membership in Trotskyism incompatible with membership in the Party. Since 1929, Trotskyism as a political trend in the RCP (b) ceased to exist in connection with the expulsion of Leon Trotsky abroad, but much later the accusation of Trotskyism was considered one of the most serious in the years of Stalinist repressions.

Shock worker - a Soviet concept that originated in the first five-year plans, denoting an employee demonstrating increased labor productivity The shock worker movement was an important means of ideological influence. The names of the shock workers who achieved the most impressive results were widely used by Soviet propaganda as an example to follow (miner Alexei Stakhanov, steam locomotive driver Pyotr Krivonos, tractor operator Pasha Angelina, steelmaker Makar Mazai and many others), they received the highest government awards, they were nominated to elected bodies power, etc. The attitude to shock labor and shock workers among Soviet workers was twofold. On the one hand, a sincere desire to achieve high results in professional activity aroused respect. On the other hand, an increase in the productivity of some workers soon negatively affected the earnings of others, since the established production rates naturally increased, and the rates of wages fell.

Federation (from Latin “union, association”) is a form of government in which federal units (lands, states, republics, etc.) that are part of the state have their own constitutions, legislative, executive, and judicial bodies. Along with this, uniform federal (union) bodies of state power are formed, a single citizenship, monetary unit, etc. is established.

Cost accounting (cost accounting) is a method of planned management of a socialist economy, based on comparing the costs of an enterprise for the production of products with the results of production and economic activities, reimbursement of costs and income, ensuring the profitability of production, material interest and responsibility of the enterprise, as well as workshops, sections, teams, each worker in the fulfillment of planned targets, economical use of resources. In fact, it means admitting the principles of a market economy into a socialist planned regulated production.

1941-1945

The anti-Hitler coalition is a military alliance of states that fought in World War II against an aggressive bloc of Germany, Italy, Japan and the states that supported them. The beginning of the creation of the coalition dates back to June 1941, when the governments of England and the United States made statements about their readiness to support the Soviet Union, which was attacked by Nazi Germany. By the end of the war, the coalition included about 50 states. The USSR, the USA, England, France, China, Poland, Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, Albania, Australia, Belgium, Brazil, India, Canada, New Zealand, and others took part in the common struggle against Nazi Germany and its allies with their armed forces. Romania, Bulgaria and Hungary went over to the side of the coalition. The anti-Hitler coalition ceased to exist in the second half of 1947.

Blitzkrieg is a theory of a fleeting war with the achievement of victory in the shortest possible time. Created in Germany at the beginning of the 20th century, this tactic of the German military command failed in the First and Second World Wars.

Blockade - encirclement by armed forces of an enemy territory, city, fortress, port, military base from land, sea or air in order to isolate the enemy from the outside world, as well as a system of measures aimed at isolating any state politically or economically, to put pressure on him.

The Great Patriotic War was a war of the Soviet people against Hitlerite Germany and its allies (June 22, 1941 - May 9, 1945), an integral part of World War II. The name "Great Patriotic War" began to be used in the Russian-speaking tradition after the radio address of I. Stalin on July 3, 1941. Started by Germany, the Great Patriotic War ended with the complete defeat of the countries of the fascist bloc. The Soviet Union lost 27 million people in the course of the battles, as well as the brutal fascist terror in the occupied territory and in concentration camps.

The second front is the front that arose against Nazi Germany in Western Europe in World War II. It was opened by the United States and Great Britain in June 1944 with a landing in Normandy (France).

Genocide is the destruction of certain groups of the population for racial, national or religious reasons.

Deportation (from the Latin "exile") - during the period of mass repressions, the expulsion of a number of peoples of the USSR. In 1941-1945. Balkars, Ingush, Kalmyks, Karachais, Crimean Tatars, Soviet Germans, Meskhetian Turks, Chechens, etc. were evicted. In 1989, a Declaration was adopted on the recognition of illegal and criminal acts of repression against peoples subjected to forced resettlement.

The rationing system is a system for supplying the population with consumer goods in conditions of shortage. In particular, it existed in the USSR. To buy a product, it was necessary not only to pay money for it, but also to present a one-time voucher giving the right to purchase it. The cards (coupons) established certain norms for the consumption of goods per person per month, therefore such a system was also called rationed distribution. In the Russian Empire, cards were first introduced in 1916. Since 1917, they have been widely used in Soviet Russia. The abolition of the rationing system took place in 1921 in connection with the transition to the NEP policy. The rationing system was again introduced in the USSR in 1929. It was canceled in 1935. In connection with the events of the Great Patriotic War in the USSR, card distribution was introduced in July 1941, finally canceled in December 1947. The new and last wave of normalized distribution in the USSR (coupon system) begins in 1983 with the introduction of coupons, primarily for sausage ... Has come to naught since the beginning of 1992, due to the "vacation" of prices, which reduced effective demand, and the spread of free trade. For a number of goods in some regions, coupons were retained until 1993.

A radical turning point in the course of the war - strategic and political changes in the course of hostilities, such as: the transfer of strategic initiative from one belligerent side to another; ensuring reliable superiority of the defense industry and the logistics economy as a whole; achieving military-technical superiority in supplying the active army with the latest types of weapons; qualitative changes in the balance of power in the international arena.

Lend-Lease is a system of loaning or renting weapons, ammunition, food, medicine, etc., undertaken by the United States during the Second World War. US spending on Lend-Lease operations from March 11, 1941 to August 1, 1945 was $ 46 billion. The volume of supplies from the British Empire amounted to over $ 30 billion (% of the loan was 472 million) to the Soviet Union $ 10 billion (% of the loan was $ 1.3 billion).

The occupation zones were formed on the territory of defeated Germany as a result of the Yalta Conference. The American, British, French and Soviet zones of occupation were determined. To manage the Soviet zone, a Soviet military administration was established in Germany. After the Federal Republic of Germany was formed on the territory of Trizonia, the German Democratic Republic (GDR) was proclaimed in the Soviet zone on October 7, 1949.

Occupation (from Lat. "Seizure") - the temporary seizure of someone else's territory by military force without legal rights to it.

A guerrilla movement is a type of people's struggle for the freedom and independence of the Motherland or for social transformations, which is waged on the territory occupied by the enemy, while the armed core relies on the support of the local population. Regular units operating behind enemy lines can take part in the partisan movement. It manifests itself in the form of warfare, as well as sabotage and sabotage. During the Great Patriotic War of 1941-1945. unfolded on the territory of the USSR occupied by the Nazis. Strategic leadership was carried out by the Headquarters through the Central Headquarters of the partisan movement, republican and regional headquarters. The partisan detachments and formations numbered over 1 million people. The partisans liberated entire areas, carried out raids, and carried out major operations to disrupt enemy communications.

Underground - illegal organizations fighting against the invaders in the occupied territories. "Young Guard" - an underground Komsomol organization during the Great Patriotic War in the city of Krasnodon, Voroshilovgrad region (Ukrainian SSR) (1942, about 100 people). Led by: O. Koshevoy, U. M. Gromova, I. A. Zemnukhov, S. G. Tyulenin, L. G. Shevtsova (all awarded the title of Hero of the Soviet Union, posthumously), I. V. Turkenich. Most of the participants were executed by the Nazis. Lyudinovo underground in 1941-1942 in the Kaluga region.

"Rail War" is the name of a major operation of Soviet partisans during the Great Patriotic War in August-September 1943 to disable the enemy's railway communications in the occupied territories of Leningrad, Kalinin, Smolensk and Oryol regions, Belarus and part of Ukraine.

Evacuation (from Lat. "Empty, remove") - the withdrawal of troops, military property or the population during a war, natural disasters from dangerous areas, as well as from places planned for any major economic transformations (for example, flooding the terrain during hydraulic construction ).

1945-1991

Corporatization is a way to privatize state and municipal enterprises by converting them into open joint stock companies... It has been widely developed in the Russian Federation since 1992.

Lease contract - forms of organization and remuneration of employees of leased collectives within enterprises. A work contract is concluded with the administration of the enterprise, according to which the leasing team undertakes to produce and transfer to the enterprise a certain amount of products at intra-farm prices and tariffs. He has the right to dispose of the products produced in excess of this volume on his own. Lease contract form. became widespread in the initial period of economic reform in the Russian Federation (1990-1992).

The bipolar system of international relations is the division of the world into spheres of influence between the two poles of power. An example of a bipolar world order is the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States (1946-1991). The second half of the 20th century was the only period in the history of mankind when the world was divided into two camps. Exceptions from the spheres of influence were only a few, often small and insignificant from a strategic point of view, states that declared their neutrality.

Military-strategic parity - equality of countries or groups of countries in the field of armed forces and weapons.

Voluntarism is a policy that does not take into account objective laws, real conditions and opportunities. Accusations of subjectivity and voluntarism were brought against N. S. Khrushchev in October 1964 at the Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU, which led to his resignation.

The military-industrial complex is a military-industrial complex, the designation (owned by D. Eisenhower) of the alliance of the military industry, the army and related parts of the state apparatus and science.

Glasnost is a concept developed by domestic political thought, close to the concept of freedom of speech, but not adequate to it. Availability of information on all the most important issues of the work of state bodies.

GKChP - State Committee for the State of Emergency in the USSR, was created on the night of August 18-19, 1991 by representatives of the authorities who disagreed with the reform policy of M.S. Gorbachev and the draft of a new Union Treaty. The GKChP includes: O.D. Baklanov, First Deputy Chairman of the USSR Defense Council; V.A. Kryuchkov, Chairman of the KGB of the USSR; V.S. Pavlov, Prime Minister of the USSR; B.K. Pugo, Minister of Internal Affairs of the USSR; V.A. Starodubtsev, Chairman of the Peasant Union of the USSR; A.I. Tizyakov, President of the Association of State Enterprises and Industrial Facilities, Construction, Transport and Communications of the USSR; G.I. Yanaev, vice-president of the USSR, member of the USSR Security Council. Troops were brought into large cities, almost all television programs were stopped broadcasting, the activities of parties, movements and associations, opposition CPSU were suspended, and the publication of opposition newspapers was banned. Further, the members of the State Emergency Committee showed indecision. In this situation, the President of the Russian Federation B.N. Yeltsin was most active. He called on all citizens for disobedience and a general strike. The center of resistance to the Emergency Committee was the White House, the building of the Russian government. Within three days, it became clear that the public did not support the speech of the State Emergency Committee (putsch). The GKChP members went to Crimea to M.S. Gorbachev, where they were arrested. They were charged under Article 64 of the Criminal Code of the RSFSR (treason to the Motherland) in the GKChP case. They were later released from custody. The coup attempt, undertaken by the State Emergency Committee, hastened the process of the collapse of the USSR.

Demilitarization - disarmament, the prohibition of any state to build fortifications, have a military industry and maintain armed forces, the withdrawal of troops and military equipment, the conversion of military industries.

Monetary reform - changes carried out by the state in the field of monetary circulation, as a rule, aimed at strengthening the monetary system. On January 1, 1961, a monetary reform was carried out in the form of a denomination. For all deposits in Sberbank, citizens received one new ruble for 10 old rubles. Cash was exchanged without restrictions at the same rate. Monetary reform of 1991 in the USSR (also known as the Pavlovian reform - after the name of the Prime Minister of the USSR Valentin Pavlov) - the exchange of large banknotes in January-April 1991.

De-Stalinization is the debunking of the Stalin personality cult and the rejection of repressive and mobilization methods of governing society. It began at the July (1953) Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU with a speech by G.M. Malenkov, who condemned the personality cult of I.V. Stalin. After Malenkov's displacement, the process of de-Stalinization continues by N. S. Khrushchev, who made a report “On Overcoming the Cult of the Personality and Its Consequences” at a closed meeting of the XX Congress of the CPSU (February 1956). After the congress, the process of rehabilitation of victims of repression began. During the years of stagnation, the rehabilitation process fades. New wave de-Stalinization begins during the restructuring period.

Dissidents are “dissidents”. The name of the participants in the movement against the totalitarian regime in the USSR since the late 1950s. Dissidents in various forms advocated the observance of human and civil rights and freedoms (human rights defenders), against the persecution of dissent, protested against the introduction of Soviet troops into Czechoslovakia (1968) and Afghanistan (1979). They were repressed by the authorities.

“Iron Curtain” - after the speech of W. Churchill in Fulton on March 5, 1946, the expression “ iron curtain”Came to be used to refer to the“ wall ”dividing capitalism and socialism.

Stagnation is a designation used in journalism for a period in the history of the USSR, spanning approximately two decades (1964-1982). In official Soviet sources of that time, this period was called developed socialism.

The Cuban Missile Crisis is an extremely tense confrontation between the Soviet Union and the United States. It arose after the deployment of Soviet ballistic missiles in Cuba, which was considered by the Soviet leadership as a response to the deployment of American missiles in Turkey and Italy, as well as to the threat of an invasion of Cuba by American troops. The most acute crisis, which put the world on the brink of nuclear war, was eliminated due to the sober position taken by the top leaders of the USSR (headed by NS Khrushchev) and the United States (headed by President J. Kennedy), who realized the mortal danger of the possible use of nuclear missiles. On October 28, the dismantling and removal of Soviet nuclear missile ammunition from Cuba began. In turn, the US government announced the abolition of quarantine and the refusal to invade Cuba; the withdrawal of American missiles from Turkey and Italy was also announced in confidence.

Cooperation is a form of work organization in which a significant number of people jointly participate in one or different, but interconnected in labor processes, as well as a set of organizationally formalized voluntary associations of mutual assistance of individuals or organizations to achieve common goals in various areas of the economy. Based on a share participation.

"Cosmopolitanism" (from the Greek. "Citizen of the world") - the ideology of world citizenship, denial national patriotism... Rejection of national, cultural traditions, state and national sovereignty in favor of the so-called. “Common human values”. The campaign against cosmopolitans unfolded in the USSR in post-war years... They were accused of being apolitical and lack of ideas, “servility to the West”. It turned into a rampant nationalism, persecution and repression against national minorities.

“Lysenkovschina” is the name of a political campaign that resulted in the persecution and defamation of geneticists, denial of genetics and a temporary ban on genetic research in the USSR. Refers to events that took place in scientific biological circles from about the mid-1930s to the first half of the 1960s. The events took place with the direct participation of politicians, biologists, philosophers, including the head of state himself, I. V. Stalin, T. D. Lysenko (who eventually became a symbol of the campaign) and many others.

A multi-party system is a political system in which there can be many political parties that theoretically have equal chances to obtain a majority of seats in the country's parliament. Begins to take shape in the USSR in 1990 after the third Congress of People's Deputies abolished the 6th article of the Constitution, which consolidated the leading role of the CPSU.

New political thinking is a new philosophical and political concept put forward by M.S. Gorbachev, the main provisions of which provided for: rejection of the conclusion about the split of the world into 2 opposite socio-political systems; recognition of the world as integral and indivisible; proclamation of the impossibility of solving international problems by force; declaring not the balance of forces of the two systems, but the balance of their interests as a universal way of solving international issues; rejection of the principle of proletarian internationalism and recognition of the priority of universal human values ​​over class, national, ideological, etc. It led to the end of the Cold War.

Nomenclature - officials appointed by the authorities, the ruling stratum that dominates the bureaucratic system of government. Soviet nomenclature: a list of the most important positions in the state apparatus and public organizations.

Scientific and technological revolution (scientific and technological revolution) is a radical qualitative transformation of the productive forces on the basis of the transformation of science into a leading factor in the development of society, production, and a direct productive force. It began in the middle of the XX century. It sharply accelerates scientific and technological progress, has an impact on all aspects of society.

“Thaw” is a common designation for the changes in the social and cultural life of the USSR that took shape after the death of I. V. Stalin (1953). The term "thaw" goes back to the title of the story by IG Ehrenburg (1954-1956). The period of the “thaw” was characterized by a softening of the political regime, the beginning of the process of rehabilitation of victims of mass repressions of the 1930s - early 50s, the expansion of the rights and freedoms of citizens, and some weakening of ideological control in the field of culture and science. An important role in these processes was played by the 20th Congress of the CPSU, which condemned the personality cult of Stalin. The Thaw contributed to the growth of social activity in society. However, the positive shifts in the mid-50s. did not receive further development.

Passport regime is one of the means for monitoring suspicious persons in the types of state security protection. By observing their own nationals and foreigners arriving, the authorities may require them to provide identification, as well as proof that they are not dangerous to the peace of the state. Official documents proving the identity of a citizen and containing information about his gender, age, marital status, place of residence were introduced on December 27, 1932. By the decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR of April 8, 1968, new rules for registration and discharge of citizens in rural areas were introduced.

Perestroika is the policy of the leadership of the CPSU and the USSR, which was carried out from 1985 to August 1991. The initiators of perestroika (M.S. Gorbachev, A.N. Yakovlev, etc.) wanted to bring the Soviet economy, politics, ideology and culture in line with universal ideals and values. Perestroika was carried out extremely inconsistently and, due to conflicting efforts, created the preconditions for the collapse of the CPSU and the collapse of the USSR in 1991.

Human rights defenders - persons who criticized the vices of the socialist system in the USSR, spoke out against the violation of human rights, proposed ways to reform and democratize the economic and political system THE USSR. The human rights movement operated in the 60s - 70s. Its active participants: Sakharov, Orlov, Solzhenitsyn, Voinovich, Grigorenko, Yakunin and others. Human rights activists published an illegal bulletin in which they published information about human rights violations in the USSR. The members of the movement were subjected to brutal repression by the KGB. They contributed to the preparation of the restructuring

A coup is a coup d'état by a group of conspirators, an attempt at a similar coup. The events of August 19-20, 1991 in Moscow are applicable to the term, the attempt of the State Emergency Committee to remove the President of the USSR M. Gorbachev from power, contributed to the rapid collapse of the USSR.

Easing international tension - improving relations between countries with different socio-political systems during the Cold War. The term appeared and was actively used in the mid-70s. XX century, when a series of agreements and treaties were concluded between the USSR and the United States recognizing the inviolable post-war borders in Europe, the Final Act of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe was signed

Rehabilitation - restoration (by court or administrative procedure) in rights, restoration of a good name, former reputation. The reform pursued the goal of getting rid of the excess money supply in cash circulation and at least partially solving the problem of the deficit in the USSR commodity market

Market economy is a socio-economic system that develops on the basis of private property and commodity-money relations. The market economy is based on the principles of free enterprise and choice. Resource allocation, production, exchange and consumption of goods and services are mediated by supply and demand. The system of markets and prices, competition are the coordinating and organizational mechanism of the market economy, to a large extent ensure its self-regulating nature. At the same time, a certain degree of government intervention is carried out in the economic systems of developed countries (provision of general conditions for the functioning of a market economy, implementation of social protection measures, etc.).

Samizdat is a method of illegal distribution of literary works, as well as religious and journalistic texts in the USSR, when copies were made by the author or readers without the knowledge and permission of official bodies, as a rule, by typewritten, photographic or handwritten methods. Samizdat also distributed tape recordings of A. Galich, V. Vysotsky, B. Okudzhava, Y. Kim, emigrant singers and others.

The CIS, the Commonwealth of Independent States is an interstate association formed by Belarus, Russia and Ukraine. In the Agreement on the Establishment of the CIS (signed on December 8, 1991 in Minsk), these states stated that the USSR in the conditions of a deep crisis and disintegration ceases to exist, declared their desire to develop cooperation in the political, economic, humanitarian, cultural and other fields. On December 21, 1991, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan joined the Agreement and signed, together with Belarus, Russia and Ukraine in Alma-Ata, the Declaration on the Purposes and Principles of the CIS. Later, Georgia joined the CIS. In 1993, the CIS Charter was adopted, which determined the main areas and directions of cooperation. CIS bodies: Council of Heads of State, Council of Heads of Government, Council of Foreign Ministers, Interstate Economic Council, Interparliamentary Assembly centered in St. Petersburg, etc. The permanent body of the CIS is the Coordination and Consultative Committee in Minsk.

The economic councils are territorial councils of the national economy in the USSR in 1957-1965, created instead of branch ministries.

The shadow economy is a term for all types of economic activity that are not included in official statistics and are not included in GNP.

Commodity shortage - shortage, shortage; goods that are not in sufficient quantity.

The Helsinki Process is a process of restructuring the European system of international relations on principles designed to ensure peace, security and cooperation. The beginning of the Helsinki process was laid by the final act of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (1975)

The Cold War is a period in the history of international relations from the second half of the 40s to 1991. The Cold War is characterized by a confrontation between two superpowers - the USSR and the United States, two world socio-political systems in the economic, ideological and political spheres with the use of psychological means of influencing the enemy. Confrontation on the brink of war.

The sixties are representatives of the Soviet intelligentsia, mainly of the generation born approximately between 1925 and 1935. The historical context that shaped the views of the “sixties” were the years of Stalinism, the Great Patriotic War and the era of the “thaw”.

1992–…

A share is an equity security that gives the owner the right to receive income, dividends, depending on the amount of profit of the joint-stock company.

Exchange - an institution in which the sale and purchase of securities (stock exchange), currency (currency exchange) or bulk goods sold by samples (commodity exchange) is carried out; the building where exchange transactions are carried out. In Russia, the first exchange was established in 1703 in St. Petersburg.

The Near Abroad is a collective name that emerged in Russia in 1992 after the collapse of the USSR for the CIS countries (and sometimes the Baltic states). The term is more of a historical and cultural nature than geographic. Among the countries belonging to the near abroad, there are those that do not have a common border with the Russian Federation (Moldova, Armenia, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan), while some states directly bordering with it do not belong to the near abroad (Finland , Norway, Poland, Mongolia, PRC, DPRK).

Voucher, privatization check - in the Russian Federation in 1992-1994 a state security (bearer) of a target purpose with a specified par value. The privatization check was used in the process of privatization of enterprises and other property objects (federal, republics within the Russian Federation, autonomous regions and autonomous districts, Moscow and St. Petersburg). All citizens of the Russian Federation were entitled to receive a privatization check.

Devaluation - an official decrease in the gold content of a monetary unit or a depreciation of the national currency in relation to gold, silver or any national currency, usually the US dollar, Japanese yen, German mark.

Default - the economic crisis of 1998 in Russia was one of the worst economic crises in the history of Russia. The main reasons for the default were: the huge national debt of Russia generated by the collapse of Asian economies, the liquidity crisis, low world prices for raw materials that formed the basis of Russian exports, and populist economic policy of the state and construction of the GKO pyramid (state short-term obligations). The actual date of default is August 17, 1998. Its consequences have seriously affected the development of the economy and the country as a whole, both negatively and positively. The ruble's exchange rate against the dollar fell more than 3 times in six months - from 6 rubles per dollar before the default to 21 rubles per dollar on January 1, 1999. The confidence of the population and foreign investors in Russian banks and the state, as well as in the national currency, was undermined. Busted a large number of small businesses, many banks have burst. The banking system was in collapse for at least six months. The population has lost a significant part of their savings, the standard of living has dropped. However, the devaluation of the ruble allowed the Russian economy to become more competitive.

Impeachment (from the English. "Censure, accusation") - a special procedure for bringing to justice (through the lower house of parliament) senior officials.

Conversion - the transfer of military-industrial enterprises to the production of peaceful products.

Corruption is a criminal activity in the sphere of politics, which consists in the use by officials of the rights and powers entrusted to them for the purpose of personal enrichment and the growth of resources of influence. The result of corruption is the degradation of power, the increase in crime.

Liberalization of prices is an element of the economic policy of the Russian government, which consisted in the abandonment of state regulation of prices for most of the goods (since 1992)

Nanotechnology is the technology of objects with dimensions of the order of 10-9 m (atoms, molecules). Nanotechnology processes obey the laws of quantum mechanics. Nanotechnology includes atomic assembly of molecules, new methods of recording and reading information, local stimulation of chemical reactions at the molecular level, etc.

National projects are a program for the growth of “human capital” in Russia, announced by President V. Putin and implemented since 2006. The head of state singled out the following as priority areas of “investment in people”: health care; education; housing; Agriculture.

A presidential republic is a republican form of government in which, according to the Constitution, the president holds supreme power. The president can be elected by popular vote, parliament or any institution (Constituent Assembly, Congress of People's Deputies, etc.). After being elected, the president in a presidential republic receives the following advantages: he cannot be recalled or re-elected without extraordinary circumstances stipulated by the Constitution; enjoys the constitutional right to convene and dissolve parliament (subject to certain procedures); the right of legislative initiative; dominant participation in the formation of the government and in the selection of its head - the prime minister. According to the Constitution of the Russian Federation, the President has the right to continue to exercise his functions even after, as a result of general elections or the prevailing political environment, the balance of power in parliament has changed in favor of opposition to the President, his election program and political course. Moreover, due to the impossibility under these conditions to continue the policy proclaimed by him, the president, on the basis of the results of the referendum and the implementation of other procedures stipulated by the Constitution, can exercise the constitutional right to dissolve parliament and hold early elections. This form of government took shape in the Russian Federation after the October 1993 crisis.

Privatization is the transfer or sale of a part of state property to private ownership.

The separation of powers is a characteristic feature of the rule of law, based on the principle of delimitation of legislative, executive and judicial powers.

A referendum (lat. Referendum - what must be communicated) is a popular vote held on any important issue of public life.

The Federation Council - according to the 1993 Constitution, the upper house of the parliament of the Russian Federation - the Federal Assembly.

Federal Assembly - according to the Constitution of the Russian Federation of 1993, parliament is a representative and legislative body. Consists of two chambers - the Federation Council and the State Duma.

"Shock therapy" is a course towards improving the economy through its accelerated transfer to the rails of a market economy. It was carried out by the team of E.T. Gaidar (A.N.Shokhin, A.B. Chubais) in 1992-1994. (Gaidar reforms).

Social Science Dictionary from A to Z.

Absolute truth - this is a complete correspondence of the form of the psyche (for example, judgment, image, etc.) and the object of cognition.

Absolute delusion - this is a complete discrepancy between the form of the psyche and the object of knowledge.

Agency - this is a type of contract, according to the terms of which the agent for a fee is obliged to perform, on behalf of the other party (the principal), legal and other actions on his own behalf, but at the expense of the principal.

Socialization agents - these are individuals, groups or organizations that provide training and help a person to master roles, this is a family, school, media, a group of adolescents.

Agitation period - the period during which it is allowed to conduct pre-election campaigning.

Agnosticism - this is a theory about the fundamental impossibility of knowing the world around us, since the outside world does not exist, but only our consciousness and our sensations exist.

Addictive behavior - This is a behavior that consists in running away from reality through the use of various psychotropic drugs - alcohol, drugs, toxins, tobacco smoking.

Administrative offense (misconduct) - This is an action or inaction that infringes on public order, the rights and freedoms of citizens.

Axiology is the science of values.

Stock - this is a security sold to an investor for money going on the development of the company, and giving him the right to co-owner of the property of the company and to receive future profits of the company (dividends).

Ordinary share - this is such a promotion that gives the right to participate in the management of the enterprise and receive a part net profit.

Preferred share is a share that gives the right to receive dividends of a fixed amount, regardless of the amount of profit, but does not give the right to participate in the management of the company.

Altruism is the willingness to sacrifice for the sake of other people.

Amnesty - This is the release from further serving the sentence of certain categories of persons (but not personally), which is announced by the State Duma in connection with a significant date or event.

Application form is a reproduced document containing several dozen questions.

Anomie - this is a state of lawlessness, lawlessness that exists in modern big cities, occurs in the country during a revolution or rebellion.

Antisocial behavior - this is such behavior, which is the commission of actions that are contrary to ethics and morality.

Philosophical anthropology - this is the doctrine of man.

Apartheid - This is a system of separate residence of whites and "colored" in South Africa in the recent past.

Apeiron (according to the theory of Anaximander) is infinitely divisible.

Aporia (translated from Greek) is a stalemate, logical contradiction or puzzle.

Apostles - these are the disciples of Jesus Christ.

Rent - this is a type of agreement, under the terms of which the lessor undertakes to provide the lessee with the property for a fee for temporary possession and use.

Aristocracy - it is a form of government in which there is the power of a good minority of citizens.

Artifacts are the creations of human hands

Asceticism (from the Greek for "exercise") - this is the ultimate limitation of their needs.

Atheist - this is a person who does not believe in the existence of God, he is an atheist.

Atman (in Buddhism) is emptiness, God.

Bank is a financial intermediary for accepting deposits, granting loans, organizing settlements, buying and selling securities.

Bankruptcy (insolvency) of an enterprise is the inability to repay debts to creditors.

Barter is a direct natural exchange of one product for another product.

Non-cash funds - these are the amounts on the accounts of citizens and organizations in the bank, while settlements are carried out by changing the entries on the accounts.

Unemployed - these are people who are willing and able, but do not have the opportunity to work due to the fact that they cannot find a job.

Biosphere - this is the shell of the Earth, it is an open system created by living organisms.

Behaviorism - behavior) is the science of behavior.

Economic benefits - these are the means to meet human needs

Bohemia is the culture of artists and artists.

Marriage is a voluntary union between a man and a woman with the aim of creating a family.

Bourgeoisie is a class of entrepreneurs.

State budget is an estimate of government revenues and expenditures.

Budgetary (fiscal) policy (from the ancient Roman "fiscus" - "money basket") - the use of the state budget (and it consists of taxes and expenses) to regulate business activity, stimulate economic growth, overcome the recession, fight inflation, and the like.

Budget deficit is the excess of government spending over revenues, covered either by loans or by issuing money

Bureaucracy is a hierarchical organization built on administrative control and behind-the-scenes struggle of cliques for power.

Gross National Product (GNP) is the total market value of all goods and services produced in the country per year

Promissory note is the obligation of one person to another to pay a fixed amount of money at a certain point in time.

Amount of supply is the volume of a certain type of goods in physical terms that sellers want and can offer within a certain period of time at a certain level of the market price.

Verification procedure - This is a test of philosophical concepts for scientific character, for compliance with the facts.

Veto is the right of one authority to accept or reject proposed regulations, decrees or laws passed by another authority.

Guilt - This is a negative judgment about yourself.

Political power is the ability to exercise social control over the activities of people in the political sphere.

Perception is an image consisting of several sensations.

Elections is a democratic procedure by which the executors for the positions of president, deputy or governor are determined

Superior or exploitative (in Marxist terminology) class is a group of people who are controllers in society.

Heliocentric theory is a theory about the rotation of the Earth and the planets of the solar system around the sun.

Geographic direction in sociology - This is a theory whose representatives believed that geographical factors affect society.

Geopolitics (from Greek land + state affairs) is a social science about space control.

Geocentric theory is a false theory about the rotation of the Sun, planets and stars around the Earth.

Geoeconomics is the world economy.

Gerontocracy - this is the rule of old people.

Gerousia - this is a council of elders (in Greek - gerontov).

Hypnosis - This is the instilling of norms of behavior through the immersion of a person in a trance.

Global society - this is a modern society all over the globe, when instead of a multitude of isolated local civilizations a single earthly civilization arose.

Epistemology - This is a theory about human cognition of the world.

Homeostasis is the process of maintaining balance.

State is a political organization that controls the activities of citizens in society.

Civil plaintiff is a person or organization that suffered material damage from a crime and is demanding compensation.

Civil defendant is a person or organization that, by virtue of the law, is financially liable for damage to a civilian.

Civil society is a collection of people, groups and non-governmental organizations that should be able to control the activities of the bureaucracy.

Group marriage is a marriage between several men and several women.

Traffic - this is movement in space for a certain period of time. Social movements are active groups of people, the purpose of which is to establish a new order of life.

Devaluation is the depreciation of the national currency.

Deviant behavior is abnormal behavior.

Deduction is a condescension from the abstract to the concrete, from axioms to consequences and predictions that should be verified.

Legal capacity is the ability to conclude deals and contracts

Acting crowd is an aggressive crowd.

Demagogue - this is a person who knows how to influence the crowd for personal unseemly interests.

Demography is the science of the size, composition and change of population.

Democracy - This is a political regime in which the ruler can control only the political sphere, but within the framework of the constitution.

Democracy extreme - It is a form of government in which power belongs to the majority of citizens, which rules poorly.

Polis or polis democracy - It is a form of government in which power is in the hands of the majority of citizens, which rules well.

Dumping - sale of goods at low prices in order to ruin competitors, and becoming a monopolist, the company begins to inflate prices and more than compensate for the loss of profit from dumping.

Money supply is the sum of the denominations of all cash and non-cash money in the country.

Monetary policy (monetary policy) - measures of the central bank aimed at increasing or decreasing the money supply in the country in order to regulate the economic situation, curb inflation, stimulate economic growth, and the like.

Money is a special commodity that is accepted by all people in exchange for any other commodity.

Deposits - these are deposits in the bank.

Deficit - this is a situation on the market when buyers at the current price level are ready to buy a larger volume of goods than sellers are willing to offer.

Government budget deficit is the excess of government spending over revenues.

Default - this is a gross deception, the government's refusal to pay the debts to its creditors.

Price discrimination is the sale of the same product in the same market to different buyers at different prices.

Dialectics is the art of arguing.

Dictatorship is a strong power that often means tyranny.

Dynamics - This is a description of the sequence of stages in the development of the structure of a social organism, that is, the emergence of more and more new organizations and groups.

Trust property management - this is a type of agreement, according to the terms of which the founder of the management transfers the property to the trustee for a certain period of time in trust and the trustee undertakes to carry out management in the interests of the founder.

Contract - This is an agreement of two or more persons on the establishment of civil rights.

Strike (strike) - This is a way of conducting an administrative conflict on the part of employees, which means stopping work until the employer agrees to a wage increase.

Loan and credit - this is a type of agreement, under the terms of which the borrower takes money from the bank and undertakes to return the amount received and pay interest on it.

Law - this is the norm and rule of behavior.

Pledge - this is a value (for example, gold and jewelry) that the creditor can acquire in ownership in the event that the debtor has violated the terms of the contract.

General costs - this is the cost of acquiring resources necessary for the production of a certain volume of products

Mortgage is a pledge of land plots, enterprises, buildings, structures, apartments and other real estate.

Id - this is the instinctive core of the personality.

Subjective idealism - this is a theory according to which things are complexes of our sensations, there are not things, but only our consciousness.

Ideology is a theoretical system that justifies certain values ​​and norms.

Excess goods (overstocking) - a situation on the market when sellers offer a volume of goods more than buyers can buy.

Isomorphism - this is the similarity of various systems.

Social hierarchy is a pyramid.

Empire is a country built by conquest.

Impeachment (English impeachment - accusation, conviction) - the procedure for the removal from office of the president of the country by the parliament.

Import is the purchase of goods abroad.

Investments is the capital invested in production.

Investment - this is the direction of money for the acquisition of additional capital.

Induction - this is an ascent from the concrete to the abstract, from experimental data to theory.

Industrialization is the creation of an industry.

Instinctiveism is a theory according to which social processes are explained by human instincts.

Symbolic interactionism - This is a theory, the representatives of which believe that people exchange information, conflict and control the activities of other people with the help of symbols - gestures, acting out scenes and creating an image.

Introvert - this is a person whose interest is directed towards himself, he is guided in his behavior only by internal principles.

Intuition - this is the perception of the surrounding world by a person or an animal with the help of the unconscious, when, on the basis of past experience and without any thought, from somewhere in the depths of the subconscious, a ready-made recipe for solving a problem or a ready-made plan of action in the form of a premonition emerges.

Inflation (from the Latin "bloat") - This is the process of increasing the general level of prices in the country, leading to the depreciation of the monetary unit.

Economic infrastructure - this is the construction of a transport network, ports, communication facilities, gasification and electrification.

Irrationalism - this is a trend in philosophy that insists on limiting the role of reason in history and knowledge, where the main role is played not by reason, but by instincts, intuition and feelings.

Art - This is a specific form of reflection of the surrounding world with the help of artistic images.

Correctional labor - this is a deduction from the convicted person's earnings within a period determined by the court to the state income in the amount established by the court's verdict.

True is confirmability, consistency and efficiency.

Cadastre is the book of taxpayers.

Physical capital - these are equipment, machines, buildings, structures that are created by the labor of people.

Intangible capital (invisible) is knowledge, skills and information (patents, licenses, copyrights, people's skills, trade marks).

Cartel is an agreement between oligarchs on dividing the sales market, agreeing on sales volumes and price levels for each of them.

Castes - these are groups of people in the social hierarchy, where social elevators are completely turned off, so people have no opportunity to make a career.

Qualification of a crime - this is the correspondence between the crime and the article of the criminal code.

Import quota - This is the maximum value of imports per year from a particular country.

Social class is a large group of people that occupies a certain place in the system of social control.

Clique (from French "gang", "gang") - this is small group comrades-in-arms, closely rallied among themselves for the sake of achieving unseemly goals at any cost.

Clergy is a hierarchical pyramid of priests with severe discipline within this pyramid.

Coacervates are protocells, organic structures surrounded by fatty membranes.

Code of Laws - this is a set of laws describing the norms of behavior in some area of ​​activity - in the economy, family sphere, and the like.

Collective agreement is a legal act that regulates the relationship between the employer and employees at the enterprise.

Command economic system - it is a way of organizing the economy in which land and capital are in state ownership and the distribution of resources is in the hands of central state bodies in accordance with state plans.

Commission - this is a type of agreement, according to the terms of which the commission agent undertakes, for a fee, on behalf of the other party (principal), to complete one or several transactions on his own behalf, but at the expense of the principal.

Inferiority complex is a deep, all-pervading sense of one's own inferiority in comparison with other people.

Communist movement - this is one of the directions of the socialist movement, the communists in fact, following the example of Lenin, strive to seize power without elections or to abolish free elections after their coming to power in elections, to establish tyranny or oligarchy instead of representative democracy, to abolish private property and the market.

Competitiveness increasing - this is an increase in the quality and a decrease in the price of goods.

Market competition is an economic conflict over the right to obtain economic resources.

Conservative movement is a movement whose representatives aim to establish public order, sometimes even a return to the past, preserve the power of the old elite, bureaucracy or aristocracy, preserve traditional moral, family and religious values.

Contracting - this is a type of contract, under the terms of which the producer of agricultural products undertakes to transfer the crop to the procurer for processing or sale.

Counterculture - this is a kind of culture, the norms of which are contrary to the norms of the dominant culture.

Social control - This is a type of social interaction in which the controller coerces the object of control to comply with the norms through the threat of positive or negative sanctions, through the introduction of stereotypes.

Confederation - this is a form of territorial structure, where almost all powers and tax revenues remain at the periphery.

Social conflict is a type of social interaction in which participants try to defeat their opponents using various means in order to physically destroy the enemy, turn him into an object of control or conquer someone else's sphere of influence and resources.

Conflict school is a school in sociology, whose representatives believe that social conflicts are inevitable, but they need to be resolved.

Conformism is the readiness of a person to obey pressure or threats.

Commercial concession - this is a type of agreement, under the terms of which the rightholder grants the user, for a fee, the right to a company name and trademark.

Market conditions - this is the ratio of supply and demand.

Corner - this is a secret agreement between merchants or manufacturers on the temporary withdrawal of some of their goods from the market in order to artificially create a temporary shortage and increase in prices for this product, after which the scarce product is thrown onto the market, and the participants in the conspiracy receive increased profits.

Indirect intent in the course of the crime - this is such an intent when the person did not want to, but admitted the dangerous consequences of his actions.

Lending (from the Latin "creditum", that is, "loan", "debt") - this is the provision of funds for temporary use to commercial organizations for a certain price.

Borrowers' creditworthiness - this is the ability and ability to repay the debt to the bank.

Blood revenge - it is the custom of members of a primitive tribe to help each other in the process of revenge for the damage caused by strangers.

Xenophobia - this is fear and dislike for other cultures and foreign customs

Cult is a system of rituals, symbolic objects, musical instruments, which have the function of amplifying the impact in the hands of the priest.

Culture (from the Latin "colere" - to cultivate or cultivate the soil) is a system of values, ideas about the world and rules of behavior, common to a certain group of people.

Material culture are material values ​​created by members of society, from weapons to cars.

Intangible culture is a world of ideas created by members of society from altruism to Buddhism.

Purchase and sale is the exchange of goods for money.

Laconic style of speech (from the name of the region in Sparta - Laconia) is a concise and clear style of expression.

Legitimate - it's legal.

Liberal movement (from the English word liberty - freedom) is a movement whose representatives aim to carry out gradual peaceful reforms and the introduction of political freedoms.

Leasing (financial lease) is a type of contract under which the lessor undertakes to acquire the property specified by the lessee from a specified seller and provide this property to the lessee for a fee for temporary possession and use for business purposes.

Foreign trade license - This is a permit issued by the state for the import or export of certain types of goods from the country.

Stock or money liquidity - this is the confidence of buyers that they will be able to sell them at any time.

Lobby are pressure groups.

Formal logic is the science of the laws of correct thinking.

Lie - it is unconfirmed, inconsistent and ineffective.

Lockout (from the English "slam the door in front of someone") - This is the closure of the enterprise for several weeks without pay for employees.

Love - This is the attraction between a man and a woman.

Lumpen proletariat - This is a social group, which includes the lower classes of society - criminals, vagabonds and beggars.

Majority system is an electoral system in which voters do not vote for parties, but for specific candidates

Macroeconomic policy - This is the regulation of economic activity by influencing the level of consumption and investment, as well as the money supply through budgetary and monetary policy.

Maximalist - this is a person who wants to get everything or nothing from life, he does not accept half measures.

Small group - this is a small number of people - from 2 to 15 people, between whom a relationship of moral leadership is established.

Margin (from the Latin "margin", that is, "border") - this is the bank's income received for providing a loan to commercial organizations, which goes to the banker's expenses for doing business and the banker's profit.

Marketing is the study of supply and demand in the market.

Weight - this is the uncreative majority of people, this is a collection of people who are worried about the same problem, but they are not in close proximity to each other.

Matter - this is everything that surrounds us, except for ideas and feelings, this is matter and physical fields.

Melancholic (from the Greek "molasses chole" - black bile) is a weak type of temperament.

Meritocracy (from the English merit - "merit") - this is "the power of honored people."

Mechanism in Sociology - This is a theory whose representatives believed that society is like an aggregate of elements, each of which can be studied independently of each other.

Mysticism (from Greek - "secret") - these are supernatural phenomena and spiritual practice aimed at connecting with the other world and supernatural forces.

Social mobility is the movement of people up the social “ladder”.

Vertical mobility - This is the movement of people up or down the social "ladder" during life with an increase or decrease in social status.

Horizontal mobility - this is moving up one rung of the social ladder without changing social status.

Fashion - this is the desire of the lower classes to imitate the elite.

trendy things - these are identification marks that indicate belonging to the elite.

Monetarism - This is the direction of economic thought, which denies - in contrast to Keynesianism - the need for state regulation of economic activity. Gives preference to anti-inflationary policies aimed at maintaining the stability of the monetary system.

Monogamy is the marriage of one man and one woman.

Foreign trade monopoly - this is a situation when only the state, and not private firms, has the right to conclude foreign trade transactions on the export and import of goods.

Monotheism is monotheism.

Multiplier (in Keynesian theory) - This is a coefficient characterizing the increase in national income as a result of the initially spent amount of money - government spending or investment.

Cash is paper money and a bargaining chip.

Tax - These are compulsory payments levied by tax authorities from organizations and individuals in order to finance the state and municipalities.

Nationality is an ethnos that managed to create their own state.

Naturalism in Sociology is the point of view that social phenomena obey the laws inherent in nature - the laws of physics, mechanics, biology, geography.

Nationalization of enterprises - This is the buyout or takeover by the state of enterprises from private owners.

The science is the activity of a person to obtain, systematize and test knowledge

Nation - this is an ethnos that managed to build a capitalist society - a common national market, democracy, private property, the rule of law, national culture.

Incapacitated is a citizen who, due to mental disorder cannot understand the meaning of his actions; only a court can recognize a citizen as legally incompetent.

Arrears - the amount of unpaid tax.

Unfinished crime is preparation for a crime or attempted crime.

Minors - these are persons who have not reached the age of 18 by the time the crime was committed.

Forfeit, fine, penalty - this is a certain amount of money, determined by the contract, which the debtor is obliged to pay to the creditor in case of violation of the terms of the contract, for example, in case of delay in the payment of the debt.

Inferior or exploited (in Marxist terminology) class is a group of people who are the object of control in society.

Nirvana (in Buddhism) - this is the achievement of a state of complete equanimity and indifference, highest bliss, happiness and tranquility.

Nomenclature - this term originally meant "a list of posts", and later came to mean the ruling stratum under socialism

Noosphere - This is the shell of the Earth, which is the result of human activity.

Normal goods - These are goods, the demand for which increases along with the growth of incomes of the population.

Norms are the rules of conduct.

Morals - this is a system of taboo, they distinguish between right and wrong,

Accused is a face on stage judicial trial.

Bond is a security that certifies that its owner has lent a certain amount of money to a company or state and has the right to receive it back along with a certain premium.

Exchange theory in sociology is a theory that believed that in the process of social interaction, people exchange goods, services, information and gratitude, before engaging in social interaction, people weigh future rewards and costs.

Society is a progressively developing system of groups and organizations, which is built on the relationship of conflict and control between people.

Folk customs - these are moral norms that distinguish between the right and the offensive.

Mandatory work - this is the performance by convicts in their free time from the main work of free community service.

Restriction of freedom - this is the maintenance of a convict who has turned 18 years old in a special institution without isolation from society in the conditions of supervision over him.

Oligarchy is a form of government where power is in the hands of a few and unworthy citizens - oligarchs.

Homonyms - these are words that have not one, but two or more meanings.

Opposition parties - these are the parties that lost in the last elections.

Exit poll, or exit poll - an informal proposal to those who voted to write down their choice to control the actions of the election commission.

Organization is a system of interrelated and specialized statuses. Organism in sociology is a theory whose representatives believe that society and the organism are similar to each other.

Orthodoxy - this is the desire of some scientific workers for backwardness.

Convicted - this person after the conviction of the court.

Ostracism - This is the extreme sanction of the group, expressed in the refusal to talk, bullying, persecution.

Open system is a system that has an input and output, exchanges matter and energy with the environment and maintains internal balance.

Relative truth - this is a partial correspondence of the form of the psyche and the object of knowledge.

Ochlocracy (from Greek ochlos - crowd) - this is the power of the crowd, rabble, bandits.

Sensation is the most basic form sensory cognition.

Memory is the ability of a person to save and reproduce the information received from a wound.

Pan-Slavism is a cultural and political trend among the Slavic peoples, which is based on ideas about the ethnic and linguistic community of the Slavs, the need for their political unification.

Punks (from the English punk - scum, scum) - counterculture, a characteristic feature of which is a love of fast and energetic rock music (punk rock) and freedom, protest against the establishment, conservatism, authoritarianism, nationalism and radical capitalism, as well as adherence to the ideals of anti-racism and anti-fascism

Paradigm (from Greek - "pattern", "pattern") is a scientific principle, model or pattern for conducting research, or a scientific formula.

Parliament is the legislature.

Parliamentary republic is a state where the government bears full responsibility for its activities before parliament.

The consignment is an organization created to win elections and seize government leadership

Passionarity - this is passion, will to live, strength of character.

Patriarchal marriage - this is a form of marriage where the husband has great power over other family members,

Pacifism - this is the desire to preserve peace and prohibit wars.

The first principle in ancient Greek physics - this is what everything consists of.

Peripatetics (from Greek "strolling") - a school in Greek philosophy to which the students of Aristotle belonged.

Permanent revolution is a global, continuous revolution in a chain in different countries.

Plagiarism is the "stealing" of ideas in science.

Tribe - this is an ethnos that managed to streamline the reproduction of people, exclude cases of the appearance of children with hereditary diseases caused by incest and create their own dialect, customs, and conquer their territory.

Pluralism is ideological diversity.

Absorption - buying up competing firms that bring down the price of the monopolist.

Suspect - this is a person at the stage of investigation.

Contract - this is a type of contract, under the terms of which the contractor undertakes to perform work on the instructions of the other party (customer) for a fee.

Polyandry is a marriage of one woman and several men.

Polygyny is a marriage of one man and several women.

Polytheism is polytheism.

Political science is the science of the political structure of society.

Pardon - This is an exemption from further serving the sentence, which the president announces for individuals.

Concept is the designation and name of things.

Attested - these are citizens who are not interested in a court case, who are summoned by an investigator in the amount of at least 2 people during a search and examination.

Victim is a person who has been harmed by a crime.

Customs duties - These are taxes in favor of the state, levied on the owner of a product when he crosses the border in order to sell this product within the country.

Right is a system of norms and rules of conduct established by the state, the implementation of which is ensured by the force of state coercion.

Constitutional state - this is a state where the law rules, and not an official, where even an official, even the president of the country is obliged to abide by the law.

Ownership is the right to own, use and dispose of your property.

Legal capacity - this is the ability to have rights, it arises at the moment of a person's birth and disappears at the moment of death.

Ruling parties - these are the parties that won the last elections.

Pragmatism - This is a philosophical theory, from the point of view of which, thought is true insofar as belief in it is beneficial for our life.

Business activities is an independent activity aimed at systematic profit from the sale of goods or the provision of services.

Performance is an image of an object previously perceived or created by the imagination.

Presidential republic - a state where the president who won the general election is the head of the executive branch, and the legislative power is concentrated in the hands of parliament.

The crime - this is a socially dangerous act stipulated by the criminal law.

Profit - this is the excess of the amount of income from the sale of goods over the amount of costs for the production of these goods.

Privatization - this is the transition of state ownership to private property through the sale at an auction of state-owned enterprises in the hands of private owners

Progress - this is the complication, the emergence of new connections and elements in the system.

Progressive income tax is a tax that is collected according to the principle: the greater the amount of the taxpayer's income, the greater the percentage of income tax that the tax authorities collect from him.

Living wage is a "basket" of food and clothing items that provide a person with the minimum necessary for simple survival.

Labor productivity is the amount of goods produced per unit of time.

Arbitrariness are illegal actions of the authorities.

Rental - this is an agreement under the terms of which the lessor undertakes to provide the tenant with movable property for a fee for temporary possession and use.

Proletariat (in Marxist terminology) is a class of wage laborers.

Proportional system is an election system that determines the rating of political forces, in proportion to which seats in parliament are distributed.

Protectionism is a policy of protecting domestic producers from competition from foreign producers.

Surplus is the excess of revenues over expenditures in the state budget

Interest rate - the fee charged for money provided on credit.

Direct tax - This is a levy in favor of the state, levied on each citizen or organization. Direct intent in the process of a crime is that the person desires to achieve the dangerous consequences of his actions.

Psychologism in sociology - This is the direction, whose representatives believe that the laws of society can be reduced to the laws of psychology.

Development is the complication or simplification of the system.

Revolution (from the Latin revolution - turn, change) social - this is a method of changing the social structure, in which innovations are often carried out from below through mass riots or armed seizure of power, this is a process when one social group takes political power from another social group by force of arms

Regression - this is a simplification of the system, the disappearance of some connections and elements from it.

Reincarnation - the myth of the transmigration of souls.

Raiding is a violent takeover of a competing enterprise with the help of criminals.

Rent - this is a type of contract when one party (the recipient of the rent) transfers the property to the other party, and the payer of the rent undertakes to periodically pay the recipient the rent in the form of a certain amount of money.

Respondent - this is the person to whom the questions of the sociological questionnaire are addressed.

Referendum - This is a popular vote on any issue.

Reform (from the Latin reformo - transform) social - this is a way of developing a social structure in which innovations are carried out from above, by the government, in a peaceful way.

Recession (from the Latin recessus - retreat) in the economy - this is a moderate decline in production, characterized by zero growth of the gross national product or its fall for more than six months, the recession is one of the phases of the economic cycle following the boom and giving way to depression

Rigidity - this is the inability of a person to adapt to new people or to a new environment,

Rhetorician is a teacher of public speaking.

Rhetoric is the science of eloquence.

Social role - This is the behavior expected from someone who has a certain social status.

Stock market is the stock market.

Ruble is a legal tender throughout the Russian Federation.

Self-realization - the highest desire of a person to realize his talents and abilities.

Sanguine (from Latin "sanguie" - blood) - This is a strong, balanced mobile type of temperament.

Sanction is a reward or punishment, so the sanctions can be positive or negative.

Samsara (in Buddhism) is a circle of rebirths in the process of reincarnation.

Saving - part of income not spent on consumption that can be used for investment.

Collection is a mandatory fee levied from organizations and individuals in exchange for the issuance of rights or permits.

Political freedom - this is the absence of arbitrariness of the authorities.

Transactions - these are actions of citizens and legal entities to establish, change or terminate civil rights and obligations

Segregation is a system of separating African Americans from whites in the southern states of the United States in the recent past.

A family is a group of people based on consanguinity, marriage or adoption, linked by a common life and responsibility for raising children.

Senate - the legislative assembly of aristocrats in ancient Rome.

Symbols - this is everything that carries a special meaning, recognized by people of one culture.

System is the sum of elements and connections between them.

Political system is an open developing system that consists of elements such as government, parliament or other legislative branch, political parties, army, court, police and bureaucracy.

Skinheads - the culture of "skinheads" (from the English skinheads).

Layers - these are groups of people in the social hierarchy, where social "filters" do not create any artificial obstacles for those wishing to make a career, the only condition for this is the applicant's talent and financial resources.

Estates - these are groups of people in the social hierarchy, where strict "filters" strongly limit social mobility and slow down the movement of "elevators".

Sophists (from the Greek sofos - wisdom) - these are paid teachers to think, prove and speak beautifully.

Social Darwinism - This is a theory, whose representatives believe that the mechanism of social evolution is no different from the mechanism of biological evolution, therefore, the strongest survives in society.

Socialization is learning how to perform social roles.

Socialist movement - this is a movement whose representatives promise to improve the situation of wage workers, they have achieved the introduction of benefits for poverty, old age, disability and unemployment.

Sociometry is a method for identifying the composition of small groups and persons of leaders.

Speechwriters are people writing speeches for too busy politicians.

Rush demand - this is the demand that arises in the event of fears of a rapid rise in prices, when people take any goods for future use.

Middle class is a group of people who are outside the control system or occupy an intermediate position in the social control system.

Stagflation period - this is a period when prices rise unusually quickly and at the same time there is a decline in production

Statics is the social structure or anatomy of a social organism at a given historical moment, as a system of organizations that resemble organs in the body.

Social status - this is the position of a person in society, this status has a corresponding list of rights and obligations.

Stereotype is a role model that is embedded in the minds of people through the media and culture.

Price is the amount of money that is paid or received when buying or selling a product.

Strata - these are social strata.

Social stratification - this is the stratification of society.

Streaming (from English stream - stream, flow) - this system of sorting students in Britain into four streams, depending on academic success (from test results).

Social structure is a system of social groups and organizations, roles and statuses.

Shame - this painful feeling that other people do not approve of our actions.

State sovereignty - This is the independence of one country from other countries.

Suicide is suicide

Sublimation is a way to get rid of anxiety through the safe release of energy through other channels (through sports, art, politics, and so on)

Judgment - This is a statement or denial of the connection between two concepts.

Subculture - this is a kind of culture, the norms of which do not contradict, but differ from the norms of the dominant culture

Superego - this is the moral side of the personality, which is acquired in the process of socialization, that is, learning.

Scholasticism (from the Greek "school philosophy") - this is medieval philosophy, as a synthesis of Christian theology and logic of Aristotle, it is a philosophy that sought to find general ideas - universals, and from them to derive and explain all the wealth of the world

Taboo - a strict ban among primitive people.

Tautology is a circle in the definition.

Theocracy - This is a form of government in which the church controls the government, this is the power of the priests.

Theology (theology) - This is a theoretical justification for the existence of God and the human soul.

Rational expectations theory - anti-Keynesian direction of economic thought, it substantiates the senselessness of state intervention in the work of the market mechanism in order to regulate economic activity.

Technocrats - these are people who believe that the development of technology will solve all environmental, economic and other problems,

Technological determinism - This is a direction in sociology, whose representatives believe that technology develops independently of a person's will according to the law of infinite improvement of technical parameters.

Technophobes - these are people who believe that humanity will die from technology, for example, from bad ecology or as a result of a war of people against robots, so you need to break technology or escape from it to a desert island.

Timocracy - the power of the military.

Tyranny - This is a form of government in which one person has power, who abuses his position for selfish interests.

Product is an item to be exchanged for other goods.

Goods of prestigious demand are products that people use to demonstrate their success in life

Goods of inelastic demand - these are such goods, the demand for which increases less than the price of this product decreases

Elastic demand goods - these are such goods, the demand for which increases more than the price of this product decreases.

Crowd - this is a large number of people who are face to face.

Trade is a voluntary exchange of goods and services for money in the form of a sale and purchase.

Totalitarianism is a political regime in which the ruler controls all spheres of society

Trusts - associations various enterprises in order to agree on the volume of raw materials procurement, the conditions for obtaining financial resources, the volume of sales of goods.

Work is the activity of people to produce economic benefits.

Labor contract is an agreement between the employee and the employer, according to which the employee undertakes to perform work in a certain specialty, and the employer undertakes to pay wages and provide good working conditions.

Inference - this is the conclusion of new knowledge, a new judgment from two or more initial judgments.

Unitary state - This is a form of territorial structure, where the entire amount of taxes collected in the country and all powers are concentrated in the center.

Urbanization - This is the creation of cities and the resettlement there from the countryside of a significant part of the population.

Services is a labor activity based on hiring or in exchange for goods.

Social utopia (translated from Greek, it is “a place that does not exist”). is a pipe dream, a fairy tale for adults about social order, a false theory that calls for the regression of social structure and the violent abolition of great social inventions.

Utopians - these are thinkers who substantiated the possibility of building a utopia in the future.

Production factors are the resources used by people to create the benefits of life

Fanatic is a person who blindly believes in a seemingly attractive idea and ignores all facts and arguments that contradict this idea.

Federation - This is a form of territorial structure, where authority and tax revenues are divided as a result of a budget agreement into three parts between the center, state and city.

Ancient Greek physics - this is the study of nature and the search for the fundamental principle of all things, that is, that of which everything consists.

Physiocrats - these are economists who believed that the only source of wealth is nature, therefore, the more a nation produces agricultural products, the richer it is.

Individuals are individual citizens. Philosophy translates to love of wisdom.

Firm or enterprise is an organization that produces goods for sale.

Phlegmatic person (from the Greek "phlegm" - mucus) is a strong, balanced, inert ("inhibitory") type of temperament.

Phobias is fear and anxiety.

Folklore is a folk culture.

Form of government - this is a type of structure of the supreme power in the country.

Formal logic is the science of right thinking.

Formations - these are the stages of development of society.

Phratries - these are the original births, which later broke up into secondary births.

Functionalism is a theory that believes that every organization, every custom, idea or belief has its own function in society.

Charisma - this is the leader's ability to instill belief that he can work miracles, that he is a god or a "wizard", this is grace, a gift of God, the gift of miracles and prophecy.

Natural economy is an economy without the exchange of goods and trade.

Choleric (from the Greek "chole" - yellow bile) - This is a strong, unbalanced, with a predominance of excitement type of temperament.

Branch holdings - this is the purchase of a controlling stake in competing firms, which allows them to negotiate sales volumes and prices.

Kingdom is a form of government in which one outstanding person has power.

Property qualification - This is the minimum maximum size of a person's state in monetary terms, which allows him to take a position.

Censorship is a government agency that monitors the media, art and science to prohibit criticism of the dominant ideology.

Equilibrium price - this is the price that allows you to sell the entire volume of goods that manufacturers are ready to offer at that price.

Valuable paper is a document certifying property rights

Values - these are fundamental norms and requirements (imperatives) in society about dignity, beauty, piety, these are cultural standards of good and bad.

Civilization is a society built on a certain set (list) of great social inventions. One civilization differs from another civilization by the set (list) of these inventions.

Cycle in the development of society is the alternation of progress and regression.

Receipt - This is a monetary document containing a written order to the bank to pay a certain amount of money to the check recipient at the expense of the money in the check issuer's account.

Human - This is an intelligent animal that has the ability to tool activity, oral speech and abstract thinking.

Strikebreakers (from German "strike-breaking") - these are temporary workers, willing to work for the same pay instead of strikers, for which the strikers considered them traitors.

Egalitarian family is a family where power and rights are distributed almost equally between husband and wife.

Ego - this is a rational part of the personality, the task of which is to draw up a real plan of action in accordance with the limitations of the external world in order to satisfy the requirements of instincts, on the one hand, and to ensure their safety on the other hand.

Selfishness - this is the desire to love only yourself, and not other people.

Existentialism (from the English existence - "existence") - This is a trend in Western philosophy of the 20th century, from the point of view of which, a person is internally free from technology and economics, he is looking for the meaning of life in this meaningless world, this meaning of life is revealed to a person during a period of deep upheavals.

Transport expedition - this is a type of contract, under the terms of which the forwarder undertakes to perform the following services for a fee: receipt of documents, dispatch and receipt of goods, fulfillment of customs formalities, loading and unloading.

Economy - this is 1), (economy) a way of organizing people's activities to create the goods they need for consumption, 2) a science that studies the behavior of participants in the process of economic activity.

The economic growth is the growth of the gross national product.

Economic cycle - regular change in the phases of the rise and fall of the level of business activity in a market economy.

Export is the sale of goods abroad.

Expressive crowd - this is a dancing crowd that forms when religious sects arise.

Extrovert - this is a person whose interest is directed outside, he is guided by external circumstances and public opinion.

Political extremism are movements and organizations that aim to seize power without elections.

Elite - this is the layer of the best people who occupy the status of controllers in society.

Embargo is a ban on trade in their own country for entrepreneurs from another country in order to force this country to make certain concessions.

Emission of money - This is the release into circulation of an additional amount of banknotes.

Ethics - these are arguments about morals, about what is good and what is bad.

Ethnos is a group of people related by blood relationship.

Ethnocentrism is the desire to judge other cultures from the standpoint of the superiority of one's own culture.

Economic efficiency is a method of organizing production, in which production costs are minimal.

Effective demand is the effective demand for goods and services for consumer and industrial purposes.

Entity is an organization that owns property and is responsible for its obligations with this property, it can conclude contracts and transactions, bear obligations, be a plaintiff and a defendant.

Language is a means of conveying culture through symbols.

Abortion(lat. abortus- miscarriage) is, in fact, any premature termination of a woman's pregnancy before 22 weeks. It can be natural, spontaneous and artificial, i.e. deliberately called by a specialist.

Abstraction(lat. abstrahere- to distract) - mental highlighting of some signs of an object, phenomenon. Abstraction is the first step towards the formation of concepts. In the process of abstraction, the selection and processing of information is carried out in order to replace the direct empirical image with another, not directly given, but mental as an abstract object and usually called the same term "abstraction".

Autonomy(Greek. autonomia: autos- himself and nomos- law) is one of the principles of bioethics, based on the unity of the rights of the doctor and the patient, presupposing a mutual dialogue, in which the right of choice and responsibility is not entirely concentrated with the doctor, but is distributed between him and the doctor.

Personal autonomy- the moral right and the ability of each individual person to act on the basis of independent choice.

Agony(Greek. agonia- struggle) - the final stage of the dying process. This is the state of the organism prior to death.

Adaptation(lat. adaptation- adaptation) - the process of adaptation of self-organizing systems to changing conditions of the living environment. In bioethics, it is applied in relation to all biological systems, reflecting the expedient response of a complex hierarchical self-organizing system to changing living conditions.

Ethical axiology(Greek. axios- value, logos- word or doctrine) - a philosophical doctrine about the nature and nature of values, which considers issues of moral and ethical ideas. Its purpose is to investigate the higher meaning-forming principles, such as the separation of the necessary and the universally significant, true and false, good and evil, just and unjust. This doctrine began and developed in the late 19th - early 20th centuries.

Axiom(Greek. aksioma- starting) - the starting position in the process of knowing the world or self-evident truth.

Obstetrics(French. accoucher- a medical worker who has knowledge, skill and has the right to independently provide assistance to pregnant women and women in childbirth) is the oldest branch of medicine that studies the issues of pregnancy, childbirth, and the postpartum period. This is the provision of proper medical care to a pregnant woman, a woman in labor, a parent.

Alcoholism- a disease caused by the systematic use of alcoholic beverages, which ultimately leads to serious mental and physical disorders.

Altruism(French. altruisme, lat. alter- another) - moral principle selfless, voluntary service to other people, a conscious desire to selflessly help them. This is a characteristic of feelings, thoughts and actions devoid of selfishness, which instructs a person to suppress his own selfishness, sincerely serve his “neighbor”, be always ready to sacrifice his interest in favor of the interests of other people or society as a whole.

Amoralism(Greek. a- negation and lat. mores- mores) is a socio-historical phenomenon, expressed in the clear disregard of certain people for generally accepted moral norms in behavior and activity. It is at the same time a practical principle that substantiates a nihilistic or even negative attitude towards creative and constructive public affairs.

Anamnesis(lat. anamnesis- memory) - information for physicians about the patient's living conditions, as well as the onset and development of the disease.

Anomaly- deviation from the norm.

Anticipation- a person's ability to foresee the future and master it. This is the goal of a highly organized brain, the expression of which is the highest form of manifestation of anticipation as scientific creativity. This concept was proposed by I. Kant to explicate the structural features of the internal sensation of things and objects in time. In bioethics, this concept indicates creativity in clinical practice. It is the ability to anticipate that provides the ability to make a correct diagnosis.

Anthropology(Greek. anthropos- human, logos- doctrine) - a section of philosophy about the knowledge of man. This is a philosophical tradition that explains all reality from the human essence.

Anthropomorphism(from the Greek. anthropos- human, mоrрhe- form, type) - a worldview in which all phenomena of living nature are endowed with human properties. This is the assimilation of a person to all living things.

mu on Earth, endowing it with the properties of objects and phenomena of living nature. But deanthropomorphization is the liberation of natural things from the properties inherent in man.

Anthropocentrism(Greek. anthropos- man, lat. centrum- center) is a philosophical worldview that puts a person at the center of the Universe, at the same time it is a principle according to which a person acts as a central link and the ultimate goal of the universe.

Apathy (apatheia- insensitivity) - is considered in bioethics when understanding the problems of protecting human rights to life and preserving health.

Archetypes- the initial mental structures, patterns, fantasies contained in the collective unconscious. Revealed in myths, dreams, works of art. The concept was introduced by the Swiss psychologist C.G. Jung (1875-1961).

Asceticism(Greek. asketes- a hermit or ascetic) - a moral principle that prescribes self-denial of a person, rejection of worldly goods and pleasures, suppression of sensual aspirations for the sake of achieving any social goals.

Asclepius- in ancient Greek mythology, the god of healing, the same as in ancient Roman mythology Aesculapius.

Asthenia- physical, neuropsychic weakness, manifested in increased excitability, mood instability, intolerance, etc.

Ataraxia(Greek. ataraxie- equanimity) is a category of ancient ethics, which reflects the state of complete serenity of people or their peace of mind. In modern philosophical and ethical interpretations, ataraxia is understood as a preliminary stage of a person's isolation or detachment from life.

Affect(lat. affectus- emotional excitement, passion) - a relatively short-term, but strong and violent emotional experience of a person, for example, fear, horror, despair, rage, etc.

Bentham I.(1748-1832) - English philosopher, scientist and lawyer. He is rightfully considered the founder of the ethical doctrine "Deontology". In it, he considered the tasks of morality as a whole as a means of achieving benefit, benefit, pleasure, goodness and happiness. Subsequently, it began to be viewed as an ethics of duty, especially in medicine.

Thrift- a moral quality that characterizes a caring attitude towards material and spiritual benefits, towards property.

Immortality- a term meaning belief in the endlessness of human existence and, above all, of the human soul. This is a hypothetical quality of living beings, which for a person has the value of the highest value of being.

Unconscious- a set of congenital mental formations, states, processes, operations and actions of a person, unconscious by him, or a person's state, characterized by a lack of consciousness.

Biology(Greek. bios- life, logos- doctrine) - the science of the laws of life, a set of sciences about living nature and its development.

Bionics- applied science, which studies the features of the structure and vital activity of organisms in order to create and use new technical mechanisms, devices, systems.

Biopolitics- the doctrine of an integral system of scientific and theoretical developments and practical measures to ensure the preservation of life and its diversity on Earth. Study and development of the use of biological approaches, methods and data in policy and political science activities.

Biopsy(Greek. bios- life, opsis- examination) - the act of taking a small volume of tissue in vivo for microscopic examination for the purpose of diagnosis.

Biosphere(Greek. bios- life, sphaira- ball) is a concept that means the sphere of life on Earth.

Biota or bios (Greek. bios- life) - an integral totality of all life on Earth.

Biomedical ethics- the applied part of bioethics, connected with the problems of biomedicine and moral principles of behavior in scientific and clinical affairs of doctors and other medical workers in the renewing health care system. Biomedical ethics now covers such areas as the ethical problems of abortion, suicide, genetic engineering, organ transplants and many others that are directly related to the preservation of human health.

Biodiversity- a set of all types and forms of living things, interdependent, interconnected and necessary to each other, which leads to a strict requirement for a careful attitude towards it and a person's concern for its preservation.

Biophile(Greek. bios- life and phileo- I love) - a person who loves all living things. The concept was introduced into scientific circulation by E. Fromm.

Bioethics(Greek. bios- life and ethos- behavioral custom) - a concept related to a complex discipline, which is at the intersection of philosophy, science, biology, medicine. It has become a key area of ​​modern moral philosophy. Bioethics is the doctrine of preserving natural life on Earth. It is based on the moral right of a person to be recognized as a person. This term was proposed by the American scientist V.R. Potter in 1969

Good- a general concept used to designate what is useful to people. It indicates the positive values ​​of things, objects and phenomena of the surrounding world.

Reverence for Life- the principle of humanistic philosophy and ethics of saving life and active activity of people, proposed by the famous physician, philosopher-humanist, Nobel Peace Prize laureate A. Schweitzer. This is an absolutely necessary and basic principle of bioethics.

Gratitude- a high sense of respect and love for another person for the good deed rendered to him. This is a person's kind attitude to another person (a group of persons) who has rendered him a blessing as a kind of service, expressed in a special feeling of readiness to respond with mutual benefit and in appropriate practical actions.

Benefit and virtue identical to it- a conscious action that plays a positive role in the interpersonal communication of people with each other and is evaluated by moral consciousness as good.

Prudence- the principle of human behavior, which orients him towards achieving the morally maximum good. This principle attracts special attention when looking for answers to the moral dilemmas of modern biomedicine, determining its status in medical science and clinical practice of doctors.

Nobility- a moral quality that characterizes the actions and actions of people from the point of view of lofty moral motives by which they are dictated.

Disease- a violation in the natural process of the functioning of any organism, expressed by physiological and structural changes that arise under the influence of some extraordinary stimuli of the external and internal environment.

Pain- the psychophysiological state of a person, when a negative feeling arises under the influence of external or internal forces. Pain is a protective reaction of the body, it is a game

has a positive role in anticipating life-threatening changes in the body and psyche.

Marriage- a voluntary family union of a man and a woman, which determines their civil rights and obligations in relation to each other and their children.

Everyday life- the way of everyday life of people. In the sphere of everyday life, a person recovers his strength, develops needs and abilities. In everyday life, he is to a much greater extent left to himself and subjectively refers to him as his personal business.

Being- one of the key philosophical categories, with the help of which something is understood that is considered in the world of things, objects and natural phenomena as being- the only true one that exists by itself, i.e. outside and independently of the person and his consciousness. The ancient philosopher Parmenides (515-450 BC) introduced this concept into speech circulation.

Politeness- a moral quality that evaluates people's behavior. It includes attentiveness, delicacy, tact.

Veresaev V.V.(real name - Smidovich) (1867-1945) - Russian doctor, thinker and writer, author of the famous book "Notes of a Doctor". It is devoted to the philosophical understanding of the ideals and principles of medical ethics. This book contains many ethical judgments about the possibility and conduct of medical research in animals and humans.

Loyalty- the moral quality of a person, indicating the line of his social behavior, which is regarded as moral adherence to principles in joint affairs.

Probability(or opportunity) is a scientific category expressing a numerical measure of the degree of objective possibility of a random event occurring.

Mutual assistance- relations between people arising in the conditions of the necessary support of each other.

Vitalism(lat. vita- life) - the doctrine of the fundamental difference between living systems and non-living ones.

Vitamins(lat. vita- life) - organic substances, irreplaceable nutritional factors necessary for normal life.

Attraction- the unconscious desire of a person to change the created state or position in the process of a random search to satisfy an unconscious need.

Will- the ability of the individual to regulate activities and behavior in society. This is a free and conscious striving of a person towards a goal; the spiritual ability of a person to make additional efforts necessary to achieve a specific goal as a specific value. Voluntarism declares will to be the highest principle of human existence.

Medical ethics- a kind of professional ethics, which is based on the traditional idea of ​​a particularly humane appointment of a physician's work. One of the main requirements is to help all patients without distinction, regardless of social status and wealth, even a wounded enemy.

World health organization(WHO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations, the largest international medical and pharmaceutical organization, which proclaimed the goal and purpose of its public activities to achieve the highest possible level of human health by all peoples. Founded in 1946

Choice- the moral act of the free activity of the individual, which precedes the adoption of a decision and predetermines the content of future practical action. The choice is provided by reason, love and will. The choice of a doctor, which is associated with the choice and his patient, is determined primarily by the ideas and principles embodied in bioethics.

Hedonism(Greek. hedone - pleasure, pleasure) is a philosophical and ethical teaching, according to which the highest moral value and the meaning of people's life is the achievement of sensual pleasure and enjoyment, which gives them an idea of ​​the joy of life, happiness from communicating with other people. In traditional ethics, most often hedonism is transformed into eudemonism as a philosophical and ethical system about the ways to achieve true happiness. In antiquity, Aristippus of Cyrene and the French materialist philosophers Helvetius, La Mettrie were hedonists.

Gene is a material carrier of the heredity of living organisms, a unit of hereditary information.

Genetics(Greek. genesis- origin) - the science of heredity and the laws of variability of the organism.

Medical genetics- the leading branch of human genetics, which is devoted to the study of the role of hereditary factors in human life and pathology. It is closely related to philosophical anthropology and all branches of modern clinical medicine.

Genetic Engineering- applied direction in genetics, within the framework of which genetically modified organisms are created, the possibilities of gene therapy for certain human diseases are realized.

Gene therapy- a method of treating diseases associated with disruption of gene activity; consists in the introduction into the body of the correct functioning of the appropriate genes.

Hermeneutics(Greek. hermeneutikos- the art of interpreting texts) is the direction of modern Western philosophy, which considers its main task to be the interpretation and understanding of the content of texts.

Heroism- a special form of human behavior, which is morally a feat.

Hygiene- the section of preventive medicine, which studies the influence of the external environment on human health, his performance.

Hypothesis(Greek. hypothesis- basis, assumption) - a scientific assumption or assumption put forward to explain a phenomenon. Unlike an axiom, a hypothesis must receive empirical confirmation for its general acceptance.

Hippocrates(460-377 BC) - the famous ancient doctor and thinker. A reformer of ancient Greek medicine, revered as the "father of medicine." The founder of the individual approach to the patient. He is considered to be the founder of the professional medical school, in which he combined medical goals and objectives with the principles of humane philosophy and medical ethics. His name is associated with the idea of ​​the high moral character of the doctor and the morality of his professional behavior - the Hippocratic Oath. Its main principle is “do no harm”.

Pride- a high moral feeling, which expresses a person's respect for oneself, an expression of the originality of a person's self-awareness.

Epistemology(Greek. gnosis- knowledge, logos- doctrine) - a philosophical theory of knowledge. To denote theory scientific knowledge in philosophy instead of the term epistemology more commonly used epistemology.

Coarseness- a negative moral quality of a person who does not know the norms of etiquette and neglects the culture of behavior.

Humanism(lat. humanism- humane) - a worldview or a system of beliefs that gives a person the importance of a particularly high priority value in the form of a manifestation of love for a person as a person, respect human dignity and concern for the welfare of all people. It is human in man. This is a deep faith in his unlimited creative and constructive possibilities and his ability to self-improvement.

Humanology- a humanistic direction in the human sciences, which is based on a new humanistic paradigm that provides a solution to the contradiction between anthropocentrism and new ethical principles arising from the state of modern social development and technological progress. There is an extension of the principle of humanity beyond biological species Homo sapiens.

Deduction(lat. deduction- derivation) - an inference leading from the general to the particular, i.e. derivation of new ideas in a purely logical way.

Demagogy(Greek. demos- people and agogos- presenter, demagogos- politician) - a term used for a negative moral characterization of a person and her way of acting; kind of hypocrisy.

Deontology(Greek. deon- due and logos- doctrine) - a section of ethics about social duty, personal obligations and human behavior as a person and a specialist. In medicine, it is viewed as the professional ethics of physicians - the doctrine of their duty in a moral relation to patients, their manifestation of professional duties and personal responsibility of all medical workers.

Demiurge(Greek. demiurgos)- the architect of the world or the creator god of the universe. Unlike the demiurge, the medieval god is primary in all respects.

Determinism(lat. determinare- define) - a philosophical doctrine that proclaims the universal conditionality of all phenomena. This is a universal doctrine of causality and interdependence of all phenomena and processes occurring in the real world.

Dialectics(Greek. dialektike- to have a conversation) This term has different semantic shades: 1) the art of conducting a philosophical dispute, polemics; 2) the doctrine of the general method of reflective thinking; 3) the logical form and method of resolving objective contradictions.

Deviant(French. deviation- deviation) - deviating from the moral norms of behavior accepted in society.

Good- an ethical concept of the moral consciousness of a person, expressing a particularly positive moral significance all phenomena of social life in their correlation with the ideal of life.

Confidence- a concept that characterizes a kind attitude towards the actions of another person and towards himself. Deceiving trust is a serious moral offense.

Duty- the concept of ethics, which characterizes the moral requirements for a person. The concept of duty is associated with other ethical concepts that assess the moral activity of an individual and a specialist: responsibility, self-awareness, conscience, etc. The duty of a physician is to fulfill all the requirements related to his work and the achievement of the main goal - success in the diagnosis and recovery of the patient.

Donor(lat. donare- to give) - a person whose organs and tissues are transplanted for medicinal purposes to another person.

Dignity- the concept of moral consciousness, expressing the assessment of the morality of the individual.

friendship- the form of fraternal relationships of people with each other in the field of personal ties.

Eugenics(Greek. eugenes- thoroughbred) is the "ennobling" of human nature or the improvement of the genetic qualities of human individuals and populations through a special selection of married couples with optimal hereditary qualities. In recent years, eugenics has received new opportunities for development in connection with the rapid progress of molecular genetics, cloning, and other biomedical research. In this regard, it became necessary to take into account bioethical ideals and principles, to carry out competent regulation and control of the development of this science based on the humane philosophy of preserving the human population.

Single(lat. unum- integrity) - a philosophical concept in which the integrity of a thing, phenomenon, process is thought of as the beginning of the indivisibility of something. "One" in the medical field indicates the beginning as the only source of life for any organism in its multiple species manifestation.

Life- a special form of the existence of matter, characterized by integrity and the ability to self-organize. Human life

is a central bioethical and medical professional issue.

Envy- a hostile feeling in relation to the success of other people. This is an indicator of morbid selfishness and vanity.

Health in everyday life it is considered as a natural state of any living organism, which is characterized by its balance with the environment and the absence of any painful symptoms. Health, as a rule, is felt by most people as free and comfortable control of their body, painless course of all internal processes and getting pleasure from any physical movements. Therefore, human health can be represented as the freedom he has achieved for different levels own life. On the physical side - freedom from pain, well-being. On the emotional level - freedom from the influence of passions as a state of equanimity and serenity. On the mental side - freedom from your egoism, unity with truth. As for the official definition of health, it has long been given by WHO as "a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being, and not just the absence of disease and physical defects."

Evil- the concept of ethics, in its content opposite to the concept of "good".

Knowledge- the content of human thinking about the object under study, the result of cognition of the world, society and man. Assimilated or learned by a person verbal, figurative, symbolic or operational information, arbitrarily reproduced and actively used by the person in his speech or actions.

"The Golden Rule of Morality"- the most ancient principle of ethics of behavior, which calls not to do to another person what you do not wish for yourself. The biblical commandment says: "In everything you want others to do to you, so do you to them." As a rule of worldly wisdom, it is fraught with the danger of the emergence of selfishness, and as a principle of morality, it assumes that each person, independently of other people, determines what is moral for him.

Ideal(Greek. idea- idea) - the concept of moral consciousness, an example of the highest moral perfection or the highest goal of human aspirations in their life. According to Kant, the ideal is an unattainable prototype that can never become reality.

Idealism(Greek. idealisme- following the idea) - philosophical teachings that affirm the priority of consciousness. Subjective idealism(Kant, Berkeley, Fichte) is busy comprehending the role of human consciousness. Objective idealism (Plato, Hegel) considers consciousness as something objective, independent of people. Idealists of various systems have accumulated a significant body of positive knowledge.

Idealization- a mental procedure associated with the creation of abstract (theoretical) objects, concepts, categories, laws, etc. This is a form of philosophical construction of abstract schemes that do not exist in reality.

Ideal- a set of ideas, principles that characterize the subjective image of objective reality. Sometimes the ideal is understood as the entire spiritual inner world of a person: thoughts and feelings, moral and mental attitudes, interests and values.

Idea(Greek. idea- idea, concept) - form, essence, philosophical term that Plato systematically used. The word "idea" literally means "to see the meaning of things." From the standpoint of modern knowledge, the content of an idea does not have an unambiguous definition. In science, it was replaced by the term "concept".

Treason- violation of loyalty to a common cause or betrayal.

Immanent(lat. immanens- intrinsically inherent) is a philosophical concept that denotes qualities that reside and act inside a phenomenon or object and are inherent in their natural nature.

Individuality- the unique originality of a particular person and her creative activity.

Initiative(lat. initiare- to begin) - the independent participation of the individual in various spheres of social and cultural life and activities. This is a form of manifestation of a person's personal activity, coupled with his creativity and courage. Morally, an initiative is characterized by the fact that a specialist, especially a scientist and a physician, takes on a greater measure of responsibility than is required by simple adherence to generally accepted moral norms.

Intellectual- a person engaged in complex mental activities that require deep abstraction.

The intention(lat. intention- intention, striving) - the doctrine of the target orientation of consciousness to any object, phenomenon.

Interest- the purposeful attitude of a person to something that is the object of his natural need. Interest depends

sieve from the conditions of human life. In ethics, the concept of interest is considered in relation to the concept of "debt".

Interpretation(lat. interpretation- comprehension, interpretation) - the concept of establishing a correspondence between a logical act (inference), verbal expression and real material. Logical rationale, methodological explanation of the semantic content of a particular thought, statement, text.

Intuition(lat. intueri- inner feeling, flair, guess) - a philosophical trend in traditional ethics. It characterizes mystical, direct knowledge without experience and reason.

Informed consent- a rule of biomedical ethics, suggesting that medical interventions and follow-ups with the participation of a person as a subject are permissible only after this person gives free consent, having received sufficient information about the goals, procedures and consequences of these interventions or studies.

Irony(Greek. eironeia- pretense) - a technique of ethically subtle, hidden or even sly ridicule, ridicule, in which the search for truth is conducted with a benevolent attitude towards the interlocutor or the subject of the dispute, scientific discussion.

Artificial insemination- the use by medicine of new technologies for the conception of a human embryo. Among the methods of artificial insemination today, artificial insemination with the sperm of a donor or husband and the method of in vitro fertilization with subsequent transfer of the embryo into the uterine cavity are distinguished.

Sincerity- a moral quality that characterizes a person and his actions. She is the subjective side of the conviction of the correctness of their ideas and actions.

Redemption- absolving oneself of guilt for misdemeanors by means of full admission of one's guilt and correction of the harm caused.

True(Greek. aleteia- openness) - a value-theoretical concept denoting the ideal of knowledge and a way to achieve accurate knowledge about someone or something.

Careerism(ital. carriera- running) is a negative moral quality that characterizes a person as striving to achieve personal success, neglecting the interests of other people and society.

the maxim of your will could at the same time be the basis of universal legislation. " This is the unconditional moral behavior of a person to be human.

Cognitive(lat. cognition- knowledge, cognition) - a philosophical concept of cognition of the world and the correspondence of cognition to reality.

Cloning- a method of asexual reproduction of organisms, in which the offspring are genetically identical to the parent. The goal of therapeutic cloning is to obtain embryonic stem cells that are genetically identical to the patient, which are then supposed to be used to treat various serious diseases in him.

Moral code- a set of moral principles, norms and rules prescribed to people for universal adherence. This is a requirement of voluntary, but obligatory implementation of them in society. It usually covers those moral norms, principles and rules that are already practiced by the overwhelming majority of members of a particular society.

Confidentiality(lat. confidentia- trust) - a rule that prohibits doctors without the patient's permission from disclosing information concerning him, obtained by them as a result of their professional duties.

Conceptualism(lat. conceptus- thought, concept) - one of the directions of philosophical thought associated with the comprehension of general concepts, universals, and also believing that the general is found in thinking and manifests itself in speech. In contemporary art, conceptualism is a major avant-garde movement, where a transition is made from concrete-sensory perception to intellectual comprehension.

Space(Greek. kosmos- order, harmony in the Universe) - in ancient Greek philosophy, the world was understood as something structurally organized whole. With the development of astronautics, this concept began to be commensurate with the exploration of the Universe.

Coevolution- the concept of modern philosophy of science, which considers that there is a joint or simultaneous evolution of biological and cultural factors in human life.

the beauty- a philosophical concept that reveals the main aesthetic value - the unity of Truth and Good (Hegel).

Culture of behavior- a set of rules and forms of human behavior in accordance with generally accepted morality and norms of etiquette.

Cumulativeism(lat. kumulatio- accumulation, increase, summation) is the fundamental philosophical principle of epistemology, interpreting the process of scientific cognition as the sequential accumulation of more and more new knowledge, perfect theories.

Personality(lat. persona- mask) is a term denoting an integral person in the unity of his individual abilities and his performance of socio-cultural functions.

Logos(Greek. logos- word, concept, thought, mind) is a category of ancient Greek philosophy that does not have a clear content, but carries meaning to all spheres of knowledge in the form of a rational principle.

Cowardice- a negative moral quality, indicating the weakness of the will of a person.

Manners(French ... maniere- mode of action) - rules and techniques of etiquette, a way to properly behave in society.

Materialism(lat. materialis - material) - a philosophical direction of thought, in which the question of matter is considered the main issue. All realities are considered as derivatives of matter. At the same time, materialism encounters difficulties: it in no way manages to express the relative originality of consciousness, the creative abilities of man. There are different types of materialism (instead of the term materialism philosophers often use the term realism). Along with dialectical materialism, pragmatic, functional and other varieties are distinguished.

Mentality, mentality (eng. mental- mental, mental) - a stable mood of the inner world of people. This is a feature of consciousness associated with the mental makeup of the nation and the individual. Mentality reflects unconscious ideas, beliefs, values, traditions, as well as patterns of behavior and activities of various ethnic and social groups, strata, classes of society.

Metaphysics(Greek. meta ta physika- what is after physics) - a philosophical doctrine about universal being, about the ultimate foundations of the development of the world, the origins and principles of all that exists. Under this name, Aristotle's lectures and notes on the "first philosophy" were combined. In a general sense, this is a philosophical doctrine of super-experienced principles and laws of being, a synonym for the terms "philosophy", "ontology".

Method(Greek. methodos - path of research) - a set of different ways of knowing the world, including certain rules, techniques and principles for the study of nature, society and man.

Methodology- a philosophical teaching on the development and use of principles, tools and methods in various fields of knowledge.

Dream- one of the forms of moral consciousness, which is an emotional and sensory manifestation of the ideal in the individual consciousness, which acts as a desire and ability to see your beautiful future.

Worldview- an integral system of views on the phenomena and processes occurring in the world around a person. This is a complex of ideas and concepts of a person about the development of the world in general and himself in it.

Monism(Greek. monos- one, only) is a philosophical system of views that seeks to reduce all the diversity of the world, events, phenomena to a single fundamental principle - either matter or spirit.

Morality(from lat. mores- morals) - the concept of ethics, which serves to express the sphere of spiritual values. This is a special form of social consciousness and one of the ways of regulating the behavior of people in a concrete historical society with the help of the norms and rules of a common community. It arises from the need to establish interpersonal communication based on humane values ​​that guarantee the preservation of the human race and the dignity of each person belonging to it.

Thought- one of the spheres of consciousness. This is all that is realized by people through ideas, concepts, judgments, inferences.

Skills- methods of action that a specialist has learned in the process of education and upbringing. This is an automated execution of an operation that does not require constant control of consciousness.

Intention- the decision to take an action and achieve a positive result. This is a rational-volitional attitude of a person, like a desire to solve problems.

The science(Greek. epistema- the sphere of knowledge) is a complex phenomenon in the socio-cultural history of mankind: purposeful activity, the function of which is the development and theoretical systematization of knowledge about the world, society and man. This is one of the spheres of public consciousness.

Natural philosophy, or in the modern interpretation, the philosophy of nature, is an abstract-speculative concept of the development of nature in its unity and integrity, striving to replenish the data of the natural sciences.

Science community- the relationship and the union of professional scientists.

Neo-kantianism- the philosophical course of the second half of the 19th century. In it, certain provisions of Kant's philosophy were overcome, based on the rejection of ontology and the recognition of philosophy as a criticism of knowledge, limited by experience and including a priori principles and norms.

Nihilism- This is a moral principle that characterizes the negative attitude of a person to the moral values ​​of society.

Norm(lat. norma- a rule, a model) - a morally legalized establishment, a society recognized order of moral behavior.

Moral, like morality, it is the main ethical concept. As an integral part of the individual adherence to morality in the life and activities of a particular person, it serves as an indicator and criterion of his spiritual culture. The most significant manifestation of morality in a person is conscience. At the same time, the morality of an individual does not always correspond to the prescriptions of morality that prevail in society.

Morals- customs of moral importance in society.

Education- the systemic result of the learning subject's assimilation of a certain system of elements of objectified experience, which is necessary for successful activity in the chosen sphere of social practice, recognized by society as a certain level of personality development and its preparation for purposeful activity in this sphere.

Communication- interaction of two or more people, consisting in the exchange of information between them. Usually communication is included in the practical interaction of people (joint work, learning, teamwork).

Society- conjugation of objective relationships and relationships, the subjective interests of people in their creative activities.

Duty- a moral requirement acting as a manifestation of duty.

Giftedness- the totality of those inclinations that constitute a natural prerequisite for the development of abilities for a certain activity, combined with a propensity for this activity.

Orthodox(Greek. orthodoxos - direct, correct) - unswervingly adhering to his convictions or fixed by authorities in philosophy, science, religion, politics.

A responsibility- an ethical category that characterizes the attitude of an individual towards other people and society as a whole from the point of view

implementation of her moral requirements. It is a person's tendency to behave in accordance with the interests of others. This category expresses the ability of a person to manage his activities, to be responsible for all his actions and deeds and to perform at the same time right choice, achieve a certain result, consciously and voluntarily fulfill moral requirements and competently carry out the tasks facing her. Responsibility is associated with the burden of opportunities in the world that need to be realized.

Grade- This is a statement of a particular value (significance). This is moral approval or condemnation of various phenomena and processes in the life of people. In self-esteem, such moral feelings as conscience, pride, repentance, etc. play an especially important role.

Paracelsus(1493-1541) - scientist, physician and philosopher of the Middle Ages. His name in ethics is associated with the principle in medicine: "Do good."

Paternalism(lat. pater- father) - a concept indicating the primacy of the authority of the father in the family. In the past, it was the guiding principle in the relationship between doctor and patients.

Personalism(from lat. persona - being, personality) is a doctrine that recognizes personality as the primary creative reality, and all spiritual values ​​of a person are the highest meaning of civilization.

Behavior- a set of human actions committed by him in specific conditions. If the concept of activity characterizes purposeful and morally motivated actions, then behavior encompasses all human actions.

Utility- one of the forms of assessing human actions from the point of view of meeting any needs or interests of people.

Understanding Sociology- a direction in the philosophy of sociology, paying special attention to the analysis of significant, semantic elements of human life, based on the ideas of the philosophy of life, hermeneutics, phenomenology, linguistic philosophy.

Concept- a thought that fixes the general features of objects and phenomena displayed in it, which make it possible to distinguish these objects and phenomena from those adjacent to them. This is a product of thinking, reflecting general regular connections, essential aspects, signs of phenomena, which are fixed in abstract and general definitions.

Need- the internal essential force of the organism, which prompts it to carry out qualitatively defined forms of active activity. This is a form of communication of all living organisms with the outside world. The higher needs of a person reflect his connection with socio-cultural communities of different levels, as well as the conditions for the existence and development of the social systems themselves. Actual needs also organize the course of cognitive processes.

Initiative- the actions of individuals or groups that served as the beginning of a new movement, changes in the forms of social and cultural life.

Pragmatism(Greek. pragma- business, action, practice) - the current of American philosophical thought, in which action, practice are used as the main principle of knowledge and practical value.

Practice(Greek. praktikos - active, active) - a key concept in dialectical-materialistic (Marxist) philosophy - active sensory-objective, transformative material activity.

The crime- the concept of moral consciousness, assessing the misconduct of people in terms of the extent to which they violate the requirements of ethics and law. Crimes usually include those offenses that pose a particular danger to humanity, violate generally accepted ideas about humanism and justice, and are committed for selfish, immoral motives.

Principle(lat. principium - basis, beginning) - the main or starting position in the knowledge, behavior, activities of people. The concept of a principle is similar to the concept of a person's inner conviction. Following the principles makes a person principled, true to the idea of ​​behavior.

Misdemeanor- in its content, it represents a kind of violation of the requirements of morality and ethics.

Contradiction- a dialectical principle in thinking, based on the real contradictions of things in the world. This is the relationship between the two terms, when one contradicts the other. In logic, contradictions are distinguished, which are two statements, of which one denies the other, which causes confusion in thoughts.

Psyche(Greek. psyche- soul) - a special property of highly organized living matter. This is a form of reflection by the subject of the properties and laws of objective reality and understanding of his own life and activity, arising, developing

and functioning in various types of external and internal human activities.

Psychoanalysis- philosophical and psychological concept and medical methodology of psychotherapy and psychology, focusing on all unconscious mental processes and motivations. Developed by the Austrian psychiatrist, psychologist and philosopher Z. Freud (1856-1939).

Psychopathology- personality anomalies, characterized by persistent disharmony of her mental make-up of behavior in everyday life and society. Mostly congenital.

Equality in morality- the formal principle of morality, according to which all socio-cultural requirements should equally apply to all people, regardless of their social status and living conditions. In medicine - between doctors and patients.

Development- quantitative and qualitative changes in the psyche and organs of living beings, improvement of the mental and physical capabilities of the individual, the formation of new abilities and mental structures in her, allowing her to use new ways of manifesting her creative activity.

Mind and Reason- two levels mental activity... Reason is the ability of the mind to grasp, understand rational relations in cognition. Reason is the ability of the mind to think logically.

Repentance- recognition by the individual of his own guilt and condemnation of the mistakes made. It manifests itself either in a public confession to those around him of his guilt and willingness to bear punishment, or in a special feeling of regret about actions or thoughts about them.

Rationalism(lat. rationalis - reasonable) - a system of knowledge based on rational(reason) and expediency, validity as opposed to teachings based on revelation or feeling.

Realism(lat. realis - material, real) - as a rule, the same as materialism. However, medieval realism does not fit this principle, because it is a kind of idealism: all concepts, ideas exist by themselves, i.e. objectively.

Jealousy- a deeply selfish feeling in relation to successes, achievements, abilities, happiness of other people. This is not

a maliciously hostile attitude towards the popularity of someone. The subject of jealousy feels personal infringement and humiliation due to the allegedly unfair assessment of his qualities and merits in comparison with his "rival" and does not hide his envy towards him and his deeds.

Relativism(lat. relativus - relative) - a philosophical and methodological concept, according to which there is nothing absolutely true in the world - everything is relative. In the field of knowledge, it sometimes leads to skepticism and agnosticism.

Reputation(lat. reputation- meditation) - the created general opinion about the merits or demerits of someone.

Reflection(lat. reflexio- turning back) - self-observation, analysis and comprehension of the foundations of culture and its works, as well as the content of knowledge, feelings in human life and activities. This is the leading method in the philosophy of knowledge. One of the leading forms of reflection is aimed at understanding a person's own thoughts and actions.

Recipient- a person to whom organs or tissues of another person are transplanted for medicinal purposes.

Self-awareness- a person's cognition and assessment of himself as a specially thinking creature, i.e. conceptually and creatively. This is an integral part of consciousness, allowing a person to realize himself as a person and his role in the world of nature and society.

Sanction(lat. sanction- to decide) - confirmation of moral principles through approval or condemnation of the actions and actions of people, especially specialists.

Superconscious- mental activity, determined by the knowledge of the future; arises in the process of interaction of the individual with the world of cultural values, with the accumulated experience of mankind. It is with superconsciousness that creative intuition is associated.

freedom- activity not conditioned by reasons external to the subject of activity. This is the possibility of initiation, change or termination by the subject of activity at any point in its course, as well as refusal from it. This concept has a special relationship to the awareness of freedom of thought, free will, freedom of conscience and belief.

free will- a philosophical and ethical category that defines, in the most general sense, the ability of a specialist to independently make decisions and act at his own discretion.

Sensationalism(lat. sensus - feeling, sensation) is a philosophical teaching that recognizes sensations on which all new knowledge is based as the only source of cognition.

Synergetics(Greek. synergeia- cooperation, joint action) is an interdisciplinary direction in modern science and philosophy. Its main task is to investigate and comprehend the role and significance of the functioning of complex self-organizing systems. Synergetics is a modern general scientific theory of self-organization, focused on the search for objective relationships and relationships of the integrity of the natural world and society. It acts as a philosophical and methodological foundation of bioethics as a science.

System(Greek. systema- whole, made up of parts) is a philosophical concept that expresses the ratio and conjugation of all elements that are in natural connections with each other and with the environment, forming a certain integrity, unity.

Death- the natural end of the life of someone or something. This is the cessation of the vital activity of a living organism and, as a result, the death of a specific individual as an isolated system. The opportunities opened up by modern medicine to postpone the death of people contribute to a change in attitudes towards death.

Brain death- the state of the body, characterized by irreversible and incompatible with life brain damage.

Clinical death- a special type of existence of a living organism, a terminal state, the border of being and non-being of a living. This is the process of dying as a transition from one quality to another. From a biological point of view, during clinical death, there are still enough elements of life. It lasts for several minutes and is replaced by biological death, in which the restoration of vital functions is already impossible.

Humility- a moral quality that characterizes a person's negative attitude towards himself and is expressed in belittling his personal dignity, in disbelief in his potential forces and in belittling his capabilities, in obedience to external forces and circumstances.

Conscience- a socio-psychological category that is directly related to ethics. It is the ability of an individual to exercise critical moral control over himself and his behavior. This is the inalienable beginning of universal human morality.

Socrates(469-399 BC) - the famous ancient Greek philosopher, the father of moral philosophy (ethics).

Somatic(Greek. soma- body) - bodily.

Socialization- qualitative and quantitative changes in the system of values, socially significant moral beliefs and attitudes, value orientations, humane ideals, moral qualities of the individual, necessary to achieve success in society and achieved in the process of the individual's own activities.

Sophism(Greek. sophism- deliberately false speculations) - the ancient mastery of eloquence. The specificity of philosophy (V-IV centuries BC), which went back to the task of skillfully using the most general concepts to justify their interests.

Skepticism(Greek. skepsis - doubt, uncertainty) - a philosophical school created in the IV century. BC, in which they abstained from judgment. The skeptics set their goal to refute the dogmas of all schools, for them any knowledge is either completely correct or completely wrong.

Meaning of life- a way of perceiving human life, which gives the individual a sense of its significance in the natural world and in the history of society.

Consciousness- an extremely broad philosophical category that expresses the ability to direct a person's attention to objects and phenomena of the external world. Consciousness is a product of long-term, not only biological, but also socio-cultural development. As a social phenomenon arose and develops as a result of the emergence and development of the human community.

Consciousness- in the philosophical and ethical meaning of the word, it coincides with the concept of free will, which is the ability to make a decision with knowledge of the matter and bear personal responsibility for it.

Solidarity(lat. solidus- durable) is a unity of beliefs and actions, mutual assistance and support based on a community of interests.

Sympathy- one of the forms of manifestation of philanthropy. This is a humane attitude of a person to a person. This is especially true in medicine.

Compassion- sincere sympathy, pity of a person in relation to a suffering or sick person. It is aimed at providing all possible help to a suffering person both in word and deed.

Justice- a normative ethical concept that plays an important role in the public consciousness of people. It is also one of the key principles of moral and ethical consciousness. Justice has a concrete historical character and itself depends on these conditions. In bioethics, the concept of justice occupies a key place. It expresses universality moral standards in relations between people as a value consciousness formed as a result of upbringing.

Suffering- an ethical concept that reflects the emotional state of a person, generated by difficulties and life problems.

Fear- a short-term emotion or persistent feeling generated in a person by a real or perceived danger.

Stress(eng. stress- pressure, stress) - non-specific human reactions in response to extremely strong extreme stimuli.

Substance(lat. substantia- essence) is a philosophical category that expresses the initial properties of an object, a phenomenon as a whole. It became the basis for understanding all the processes taking place in the world.

Substrate(lat. substratum- base, underlying) - the base, foundation, carrier of all properties, connections, interactions and laws of reality.

Surrogacy- carrying the embryo of one woman in the uterus of another.

Happiness- the concept of moral consciousness, denoting a state of a person that corresponds to his greatest inner satisfaction with the conditions of his being, the completeness and meaningfulness of his life and activities, the realization of all his needs and aspirations.

Medical secret- humane value and the principle of medical ethics, preservation of information about the diagnosis and condition of the patient, its nondisclosure without the knowledge or without the consent of the patient. This principle is based on a trusting relationship between a doctor and a patient.

Thanatology(Greek. thanatos- death and logos- word, doctrine) - a philosophical category and a section of medicine that studies the signs, causes and mechanisms of death; the course of the dying process, as well as bioethical issues of medical intervention in

the processes of dying and the relief of the dying suffering of the doomed patient (euthanasia).

Creation- this is the highest form of human activity and creative activity, creating new spiritual and material values ​​that have never existed in the world of nature and society.

Theology(Greek. theos- the God, logos- doctrine, word about God) - a set of religious doctrines about the essence, existence and action of God. The system of Christian dogma.

Theory(Greek. theoria- contemplation, research) - a logical form of comprehension, generalization of the knowledge of experimental research. A systematic complex of ideas or knowledge.

Tolerance- the moral quality of a person, which characterizes her especially loyal attitude towards people, their needs, interests and beliefs.

Tolerance(lat. tolerantia- patience) is a philosophical and ethical category that expresses tolerance for other views, opinions, norms of behavior, communication and activity. The so-called philosophy of tolerance proclaims the principle of equality between people. In bioethics, it implies benevolence and generosity. It acts as the principle of maintaining people's health, regardless of their social, national, gender, age and other status in society.

Tradition (lat. tradition- transmission) - a way of life, passed down from generation to generation. Traditions are characterized by: a careful attitude to established customs, previously established ways of human behavior.

Transplantation(lat. transplantation- transplantation) - a method of treatment when organs and tissues are transplanted: liver, kidneys, heart, lungs, intestines, bones, joints, limbs, brain cells, etc.

Requirement- the simplest, but essential element of moral relations in which the individual and society are between themselves.

Transcendental(lat. transcendere- go beyond certain limits) - literally going beyond the limits of sensory and mental knowledge of the world and building knowledge of it with the help of a priori (pre-experienced) forms. In the philosophy of I. Kant, a priori forms of knowledge of the world make it possible to be aware of all the experimental data. This is a philosophical reflection on the cognitive act, independent of the object of cognition.

Transcendental- everything otherworldly and external beyond in relation to any particular sphere or to the world as a whole.

This is a theological concept. Everything transcendental is inaccessible to knowledge, one must believe in it. Transcendental knowledge is independent of the empirical bodily individual and of the community of other selves.

Beliefs- spiritual values, consciously adopted by the subject for making personal decisions. It is a product of assimilation of a chosen system or a set of elements of objectified experience. Beliefs also include value orientations that characterize moral self-awareness.

Respect- the most important requirement of morality, implying such an attitude towards people, which practically recognizes the dignity of the individual as a socio-cultural phenomenon.

Skills- the quality of a person's assimilation of a composite action or activity, allowing it to carry out consciously and with the necessary level of quality of transformation in the world and society.

Universals(lat. universalis- universal, referring to the whole) - categories in which the most general characteristics of an object or subject are recorded, for example, "man", "society", "consciousness", "truth", etc.

Utilitarianism(lat. utilitas- benefit, benefit) is a philosophical and ethical system of views, which is based on the desire to achieve a certain benefit.

Phenomenon(Greek. phainomenon- being) is a philosophical phenomenon, an object given in sensory contemplation as an unusual event.

Phenomenology- a philosophical doctrine, seeks to cleanse consciousness of certain attitudes, to reveal the original foundations of knowledge of human existence and culture. Method of analysis of "pure" consciousness. This philosophical trend was founded by the German philosopher E. Husserl (1859-1938).

Philosophy(Greek. philosophia- the doctrine of love and the pursuit of wisdom) is a special form of comprehension (critical) of all knowledge about the world, society and man as a purposeful search for wisdom in human life and activity. Philosophy - historical form theoretical systematic self-awareness of mankind.

Bigotry- a negative moral quality that evaluates a person and her actions from the point of view of her hypocritical fulfillment of moral requirements. Bigotry usually hides distrust of people, suspicion, jealousy towards people.

Charisma(Greek. charisma- divine gift) - the exclusive endowment of the individual with special qualities: holiness, omniscience, infallibility.

Character(Greek. charakter- a special feature) - a set of moral qualities of a person, indicating his mind and willpower. The moral character of a person is manifested in his behavior and social actions.

Holism(Greek. hylos- whole) - a philosophical doctrine about the essence of the phenomenon of integrity. The highest form of integrity is considered to be a person (personality), where the objective and subjective, material and spiritual are coupled.

Hospice- a social medical institution that provides palliative care and socio-psychological support to hopelessly ill patients and their families. But a hospice is not only a specialized institution where dying people get real opportunities to meet death in favorable conditions and with dignity, but also a philosophy of attitude towards life and death. This is a kind of "house of mercy".

Integrity- completeness, totality, wholeness and the thing's own regularity. From the middle of the twentieth century. this concept began to be used as a principle of bioethics put forward by philosophers and scientists to denote what provides both physical, mental and mental identity of a person to himself, his self-identification, and therefore the whole should not be subject to manipulation and even less destruction. And some medical interventions aimed at maintaining health, improving a person's condition, are often associated with a violation of integrity.

Target- a key concept in concepts describing the behavior of a person or any organic system. This is a presumed and desired result of a person's action. All the means necessary to achieve it will be matched with it. In society "nothing is done without a conscious intention, without a desired goal" (F. Engels).

Value- a philosophical and ethical concept in which the foundations for human life and activity are most clearly defined. This is the ultimate, unconditional foundation of creative and constructive human life. The philosophical and ethical doctrine that studies and comprehends the problems of values ​​is now axiology (axio- value and logos- word, teaching). This study

ny indicates the positive or negative significance of objects, things, processes and phenomena for the productive life and activities of a person. The value can be material or spiritual. In the XXI century, the recognition and development of universal human values ​​aimed at the survival and further progress of world civilization are of great importance.

Human- the central philosophical category, indicating a special kind of being, the highest stage of development of living organisms on Earth, and maybe in Space. Man is a unique being, best known to himself in his empirical facticity and most elusive in his essence by means of ordinary formal definition. Search for an answer to the question "what is a person?" permeates the entire history of human culture, including bioethics.

Humanity- a moral quality that expresses the principle of humanism in relation to the everyday relationships of people and, first of all, medical and all social workers.

Honesty- This is a moral quality of a person, reflecting one of the most important ethical requirements for a person and his life. The opposite of honesty is deception, lies, hypocrisy.

Honor- the concept of moral consciousness and the category of ethics, in many respects similar to the category of personal dignity and appealing to conscience. Like dignity, the concept of honor reveals a person's attitude towards himself as a moral person. The concept of honor presupposes, in relation to a person, the measure of respect that she has earned.

Sensitivity- the moral quality of a person, which characterizes his attitude towards other people and the entire living world. This is the main principle of bioethics.

Schweitzer Albert(1875-1965) - an outstanding modern thinker, doctor, public figure, theologian. He put forward the principle of "reverence (admiration) for life", which has become today the main principle of bioethics. According to Schweizer, morality is not only the law of truly human life, but also a condition for the existence and development of all life on Earth.

Eudemonism(Greek. eudemonia- happiness, bliss) is a philosophical and ethical system, which is based on the idea that only happiness is the highest value that determines all human actions, the goal of his life. Moreover, happiness is complete satisfaction.

the sense of the achieved realization of one's human destiny. The representatives of eudemonism were Socrates, Epicurus, Spinoza, Leibniz, Bentham, Marx, and others.

Euthanasia(Greek. eu- good and thanatos- death) - a concept used in the context of biomedical ethics in relation to the field of biomedical research. It is defined as an easy and painless death of a person or lack of action to prevent death. This term was introduced into scientific circulation by F. Bacon (1561-1626), an English scientist and philosopher.

Existentialism(lat. ekxistentia- existence) - the so-called philosophy of existence, the doctrine of the uniqueness of human existence as a direct undivided integrity.

Experiment(lat. experimentum- test, experience) - a method of scientific knowledge, offering active human influence on nature to clarify the objective properties, relationships and relationships.

Explication(lat. explikation- explanation, clarification of the meaning of the word, its deployment) - in detail, in detail to reveal the essence of the presentation, i.e. lead from everyday consciousness to exact scientific concepts.

In Vitro Fertilization- fertilization of a woman's egg, carried out outside her body, in a test tube.

Elimination(lat. eliminare- take out the threshold, delete) - deletion, exclusion of something from the teaching or text.

Empiricism(Greek. empeiria- experience) is a key philosophical and epistemological doctrine on the priority of sensory perception of the world. According to him, all knowledge comes only from experience.

Epistemology(Greek. episteme - knowledge and logos- doctrine) - a section of philosophy, the theory of scientific knowledge. It is distinguished from epistemology by the study of the methods of cognition used by science.

Ethics(Greek. ethos- the place of common residence and custom, as well as character, disposition) - the philosophical doctrine of morality and ethics as a system of norms and principles, values ​​and ideals, rules governing public behavior of people. This is a teaching that reflects the needs of people in search of an answer to the question: how to live in order to live and act in the world of nature and people according to their own mind and in harmony with their conscience, i.e. humanly. The philosophical meaning of ethical knowledge is manifested in the fact that they are based on the ideas and categorical apparatus of philosophy. Ethics is now rightfully called practical philosophy, i.e. teaching about building a correct life for people

based general views about the meaning of the world, society and the place of man in them.

Ethics humanistic- a philosophical teaching that is especially focused on a person, his life, freedom of action and personal interests. It considers a person as a person in her bodily-spiritual integrity, so that the foundations of a person's virtue are laid in her worldview, and vice - in indifference to her “I”.

TERM

TERM

1. In formal logic, a concept expressed by a word (philos.). Three terms of the syllogism.

2. A word that is the name of a strictly defined concept. A precise, imprecise term. A good, bad term. New term. Philosophical terms. Technical terms. Special terms (denoting special concepts of certain branches of science, art, technology, production, etc.). "... for the masses it is necessary to write without such new terms, which require special explanation ..." Lenin .

|| A special word and expression adopted to denote something in a particular environment, profession. Terms of card games. Chess terms.

Ushakov's Explanatory Dictionary... D.N. Ushakov. 1935-1940.

Synonyms:

See what "TERM" is in other dictionaries:

term- a, m. terme m., German Termin, gender. termin, lat. terminus. 1.mate. From the first decade of the 18th century the term progression, proportion. Exchanges. 168. In a single geometric progression, it happens to be the edge of 4 and 8748, in those the proportion is 3, and certainly there is, colic ... ... Historical Dictionary of Russian Gallicisms

- (from Lat. terminus border, limit, end), 1) a name with a special touch. (scientific) its meaning, clarified in the context of Ph.D. theory or branch of knowledge. 2) In antique. philosophy is a concept that fixes stable and enduring aspects ... Philosophical Encyclopedia

- (lat.terminus). 1) an accepted conventional expression, a name characteristic of any science, craft. 2) term. 3) among the Romans: the god of borders, to whom the festival of Terminalia was established. 4) border post, column. 5) in logic: the name of the concept, ... ... Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language

- (Terminus). Roman deity of boundaries, originally the god of the boundary and boundary stone. A temple to him was built by King Numa, and the Feast of Terminalia was celebrated in his honor. (A source: " Concise vocabulary mythology and antiquities ". M. Korsh. Saint Petersburg,… … Encyclopedia of mythology

Term- TERM is a word that has a special, strictly defined meaning. Used in science and technology. In connection with the general history of science and technology, the most magnificent development of which is associated with the 19th and 20th centuries, the terms, by their origin, ... ... Dictionary of literary terms

See word ... Dictionary of Russian synonyms and expressions similar in meaning. under. ed. N. Abramova, M .: Russian dictionaries, 1999. term name, word; differentiation, numerator, antilogarithm, continuum, quotient, determinant, extremum, factorial, ... ... Synonym dictionary

- (from Lat. terminus border limit), a word or combination of words denoting a special concept used in science, technology, art. In modern logic, the word term is often used as a common noun in the language of Logico ... ...

Term is a word or phrase of a special sphere of use, which is the name of a concept. The term names a special concept and, together with other terms of this system, is a component of the scientific theory of a certain area of ​​knowledge ... Official terminology

- (from the Latin terminus border, limit), a word or combination of words denoting a special concept used in science, technology, art ... Modern encyclopedia

- (lat. terminus limit border), in Roman mythology, the god of the keeper of boundary signs, was revered among the peasants. His holiday of Terminalia was celebrated on February 23rd ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

Books

• 101 terms of tax law. Brief legislative and doctrinal interpretation, Anna Vladimirovna Reut, Alexey Georgievich Paul, Natalya Alexandrovna Solovieva, Lyubov Nikolaevna Pastushkova. The scientific and practical publication is a summary of tax, legal and economic views on 101 terms of tax law, including both terms enshrined in ...