Conservatism as a political ideology. Political ideology of conservatism

Topic 4. Conservatism and neoconservatism

1. The concept and essence of conservatism as an ideological and political movement

The term “conservatism,” which gave its name to one of the most influential ideological and political movements, comes from the English wordconserve (I save, I protect). Initially, this term was used to designate the ideology of the feudal-aristocratic reaction to the French bourgeois revolution of the end XVIII century In England it received official recognition in the 20-30s. XIX in relation to supporters of the Tory party, adherents of existing foundations. Around the same time, it began to be used in the United States.

In scientific research, conservatism is interpreted as a political ideology focused on preserving and maintaining historically established forms of state and public life, first of all, its moral and legal foundations, embodied in the nation, religion, marriage, family, property.

Following the concept proposed K. Mannheim, many scientists understand conservatism as a conscious, theoretically reasoned traditionalism . According to V. Gusev, a researcher of Russian conservatism, “conservatism is a type of political thought, a political ideology, the main systemizing principle of which is principle of following social tradition " Proponents of this approach, not without reason, believe that the ideology of conservatism is based on the psychological type of personality, which is characterized by subordination to authority, rigidity of thinking, and anti-rationalism .

In interpretation American scientist R. Tucker conservatism is “ political ideology focused on preserving and maintaining established forms of state and public life ».

The core values ​​of conservatism usually include:

Ø the need for social hierarchy (ranking of society);

Ø recognition of the imperfection of human nature and, as a result, the obligatory civilizing role of the church, family and school;

Ø cult strong state;

Ø the desire for gradualism and prudence in carrying out political reforms;

Ø priority of the whole (state, people, nation) over the part (class, individual);

Ø hostility to rationalism and individualism.

Since the time of the founding fathers of conservatism, his anti-values are individualism, social and property equality, atheism, moral relativism, cult of reason, revolutionaryism .

One of the leading scholars of conservative thought R. Kirk formulated the following six principles (“canons”) of conservatism:

1) belief in the divinity of the laws that govern society;

2) awareness of the inevitability of social diversity as the antithesis of uniformity and egalitarianism;

3) conviction in the need to ensure order in a civilized society and preserve the class structure;

4) understanding of the inextricable connection between private property and freedom;

5) belief in the priority of traditions over prejudices and manifestations of anarchy;

6) recognition of the non-identity of changes and reforms, the effectiveness of only meaningful reforms.

With different understandings of the specifics of conservatism Most Western (primarily American) researchers view it as the opposite of liberalism .

Difficulties in determining the main content of conservative ideology are also generated by reasons related to the evolution of this ideological movement.

Firstly, over time, there was an inversion of the meanings of liberalism and conservatism. Thus, the fundamental provisions of classical liberalism - the demands of freedom, the market and the limitation of government intervention in the economy - are today considered conservative. At the same time, the idea of ​​a centralized regulatory power of the state, previously put forward by conservatives, became an important component liberal consciousness.

Secondly, there is an internal heterogeneity of the ideology of conservatism. It includes different directions, united common function- justification and stabilization of established social structures. The bearers of the ideology of conservatism are social groups, layers and classes interested in preserving traditional social orders or restoring them.

In conservatism it is usual there are three currents - traditionalist, libertarian and neoconservative (or liberal-conservative). They interact with each other, forming a complex structural whole, denoted by the concept of “modern conservatism.”

2. Traditionalist movement

The traditionalist movement was historically the first to give rise to conservatism. The founders of this ideological movement - Englishman Edmund Burke (1729-1797 ), French people Joseph de Maistre (1753-1821 ) And Louis de Bonald (1754-1840 ) by their social class affiliation expressed mainly interests of feudal-aristocratic circles who were defeated during the Great french revolution . Their works and, first of all, published in 1790 book by E. Burke “Reflections on the Revolution in France” were the reaction of classes and strata being forced out of the historical arena to the ideas of the Enlightenment and the French bourgeois revolution . These ideas were opposed to tradition, continuity, evolution and order.

In the works of E. Burke there are two main ideas, influenced the development of conservatism:

1) traditionalism , according to which the political system is understood as a product of history and transmission from generation to generation;

2) organicism , according to which political wisdom consists of a constant study of tradition and mores.

The system of views of the founders of conservatism was based

Firstly, on the priority of continuity over innovation;

Secondly, on the recognition of the inviolability of historically established forms of state and social life, embodied in the nation, religion, morality, family, property;

Thirdly, on cultivating the idea of ​​ranking society as opposed to the idea of ​​equality.

These principles denied the liberal spirit of individual freedom , which, according to conservatives, destroyed the integrity of the human community.

The concept of “traditionalism” occupied an important place in the works of these thinkers. In contrast to ideas Enlightenment tradition receives priority over reason, since submitting to it means acting in accordance with the natural course of things and age-old wisdom.

Traditionalism should determine the content of reforms, the implementation of which would not disrupt the natural course of things. Wherein There are two main types of reforms:

Ø reforms aimed at restoring traditional rights and principles and

Ø preventive reforms aimed at preventing revolutions.

On the question of the relationship between tradition and change E. Berku the following judgment belongs: “ A state that is unable to change anything is unable to preserve itself. b". In other words, the natural limit of reliance on tradition, according to E. Burke, there is a need for partial changes to maintain the viability of the system.

E. Burke tried to take into account the factor of change as something constant. The best way to resist unexpected challenges seemed to him to be ahead of them through timely adaptation to changing circumstances , i.e. excluding the unexpected itself.

In Joseph de Maistre the tendency towards security is more pronounced than in E. Burke. If the latter sought to get ahead of unexpected developments by taking preventive measures aimed at adapting to changing circumstances, then for J. de Maistre the changes were associated with discomfort, loss and suffering, reflecting his personal impressions and experiences.

Joseph de Maistre and Louis de Bonald , classics of aristocratic conservatism, rejected the republic and opposed it to tradition and authority . Core political views J. de Maistre appeared the idea of ​​balance, understood as the creation of static balance in political and spiritual life on the basis of theocracy . L. de Bonald did not give preference to either secular or religious authorities, putting forward the idea of ​​a union of religious and political society .

From the second half XIX V. conservatism began to focus on protecting the interests of the bourgeoisie . In 1871, O. Bismarck provided significant assistance to the Thiers government in suppressing the Paris Commune. The adoption of a repressive “exceptional law” against socialists (1878-1890) and a program of social legislation ( compulsory insurance for some groups of workers) he tried to prevent the growth of the revolutionary labor movement. The Conservative Party of Great Britain initially expressed the interests of aristocratic landlords , A from 1870-1880. - More and more wide circles of the colonial banking and big industrial bourgeoisie . Back to top XX centuries, the objective prerequisites for the existence of traditional conservatism have been largely exhausted .

With development modernization processes, the reduction of traditional social groups and the formation of the main classes of industrial society, conservative ideology lost its protective pathos. On the basis of the conservative ideological tradition, movements were formed that were oriented towards different models of political behavior and were the result of a synthesis with liberalism.

Most well-known representative traditional conservatism in XX V. was American scientist R. Kirk (1918-1994 ), published in 1953 g. book " Conservative thinking" Developing traditionalist principles, he argued that in revolutionary eras, people are often carried away by novelty, but then get tired of it and reach for old principles . History is interpreted as a cyclical process of changing eras. The period after World War II is assessed as the most favorable for conservatives . They, in his opinion, bear the burden of responsibility for the fate of Christian civilization, and they are able to cope with this task.

R. Kirk's publications state that, since human nature is irreparably damaged, the world cannot be improved through political action. Traditional Conservatives should strive to secure a broad national consensus by appealing to traditional ideas and prejudice, authority and religion. Social and economic issues should be translated into a religious and ethical plane .

In the 1980s, R. Kirk singled out the following principles of traditional conservatism: belief in “law and order” and the belief that economics turns into politics, politics into ethics, ethics into religious concepts . E. Burke's views are characterized by him as “the main channel of conservatism.”

Traditionalist ideas had a significant influence on the programs and platforms of many fundamentalist groups and organizations, which in the 1980s. acted as a driving force for the shift to the right in the ideological and political life of the United States.

At the beginning of the 21st century.common among hereditary whites Americans' fear of the prospect of becoming a “minority in their own country” has become one of the powerful sources of political-psychological, ideological-cultural and spiritual-moral demand for conservatism . The formation of this request was also facilitated by the shocking consequences of the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001 for the US population, and their awareness of their insecurity. Religious-fundamentalist manifestations of conservatism are a stable characteristic of the political background of the modern United States of America.

3. Libertarian movement

Late XIX - early XX V. in the United States and later in Europe, a libertarian variety of conservatism emerged and became increasingly influential. She finally took shape in the first half XX century

Libertarianism is an economic-centric movement in modern conservatism, which inherited the classical liberal tradition XVIII - XIX centuriesOn this basis, some scientists even attribute it to neoliberalism.

Libertarianism,according to its ideologists, called up , On the one side, develop the idea of ​​individual freedom, formed in past eras, and with another- prevent further spread of socialist ideas.

The conceptual foundations of libertarian conservatism were laid Friedrich von Hayek (1899-1992 ) And Ludwig von Mises (1881-1973 ). Work of the Austro-British economist and philosopher F. Hayek "The Road to Serfdom" (1944 ), essentially was a manifesto of libertarianism.

Founders of the libertarian movement considered any form of intervention in the economy unacceptable and had a negative attitude towards the idea of ​​macroeconomic regulation. In their view, night freedom, as well as political, legal and spiritual freedom, cannot be even partially limited. They considered “spontaneous order” as a natural form of organization of society, i.e., arising in the process of natural development.

At the beginning of its scientific activity F. Hayek actively engaged economic theory And was the main opponent of economics J. Keynes, advocated state regulation of the economy as a way for Western countries to overcome the Great Depression at the turn of the 20-30s XX V. The main problems of F. Hayek since the mid-1940s - polemic against totalitarianism , to which he attributed socialism and socialist ideology.

In “The Road to Serfdom” by F. Hayek proved the fundamental impracticability of the goals of socialism due to the failure of the centralized management system, which does not correspond to the structure of production and social needs . The implementation of planning principles inevitably leads to totalitarianism, since it is impossible without coercive measures, the curtailment of the rule of law, and the penetration of the state into all spheres of public life. The main advantage of a market economy F. Hayek saw in the ability of the market, through the price mechanism, to use such a volume of information that cannot be processed in the interests of economic agents under a centralized planning system .

Market economy , according to F. Hayek, this is complex, a spontaneously operating system that arises in the process of evolutionary development , and not due to movement towards some programmed goal. She functions due to the observance by individuals with different interests of universal rules of behavior .

According to F. Hayek, A society with a market economy is pluralistic and open. It is based on the ability of individuals to live together and be useful to each other even when their private interests and goals differ. Democracy is the most important means of ensuring freedom.

Leading representatives of modern libertarianism - recently deceased head of the Chicago School of monetarism M. Friedman and R. Nozick, author of a well-known book « Anarchy, State and Utopia" (1975). They prove that the erosion of free enterprise, individual and family responsibility leads to stagnation and poverty, that a revival of the classical tradition of individualism and a free market economy is necessary . In their opinion, the source of many current problems is the violation of the natural, God-given principles of free enterprise and the market, primarily by the state.

Libertarists rejected the neoliberal thesis about the need to plan and regulate the economy within the framework of the welfare state . They believe that strengthening the role of the public sector, programming certain industries, etc. undermine the natural way of regulating human life.

Based on this principled position, libertarians advocated limited social policy state, which would only allow to defuse social tensions , called on governments to rely exclusively on the market in implementing their programs. At the same time they consider it expedient to shift a significant part of the responsibility for providing assistance to the poor to local authorities and public institutions such as family, church, school, and voluntary charity on the part of the rich.

On the issue of rights libertarians advocate, first of all, natural human rights - to life, liberty, private property, i.e. the so-called “negative rights” . In their opinion, Marxists and Social Democrats distorted the true concept of human rights by establishing in people’s minds the so-called “positive rights” - the right to work, rest, housing, fair wages, etc. Social equality is believed by libertarians to be devoid of humanistic meaning, since it proclaims equality of conditions, encroaching on the right of private property, and not equality of opportunity.

Ascertaining the identity of ideas classical liberalism and modern libertarianism, should be kept in mind fundamental difference between their social content . The ideas of classical liberalism were formed in the anti-feudal struggle of the “third estate” for their rights and freedoms. Libertarianism arose in a different situation, On the one side , monopolization of the economy, and with another - acquisition of social functions by the state. That is why defending the classical liberal ideals of a free market and competition, the interests and privileges of groups leaving the historical arena, has a conservative meaning .

4. Neoconservatism

Played a significant role in the formation of post-industrial society neoconservatism, dominant in the most developed countries from the late 70s to the early 90s. XX century This ideological and political movement combines a liberal-technocratic commitment to progress, freedom and economic growth with a focus on preserving and strengthening traditional social values.

Neoconservatism achieved its most significant results in the USA and UK . In practice European countries neo-conservative views and ideas were not widely used due to the ingrained social reformist tradition , embodied in the functioning of the social state.

Development of neoconservative ideas V USA were engaged I. Kristol and N. Podhoretz, who are often called the “godfathers” of neoconservatism, D. Bell, S. Lipset, S. Huntington and others, in Germany - G. Kaltenbrunner, in France - A. Benoit and P. Vial. IN THE USA The most famous neoconservative ideologues came from liberal circles, close to the Democratic Party. European conservatism also has liberal roots.

American neoconservatives of the first wave, for example, I Kristol, N Podhoretz, D Moynihan, distancing himself from traditional conservatives who denied the need for ideological constructs, advocated the re-ideologization of the policy of the United States . This attitude manifested itself in the ad Soviet Union"evil empire" that must be destroyed , A at first XXI century. became an ideological component of the policy of “exporting democracy” pursued by the United States in order to ensure its dominance in the world .

In their youth, many of the founding fathers of neoconservatism were fascinated by left-wing ideas, especially Trotskyism with its messianic ideas and radical revolutionism. Over time, criticism of Stalinism grew into militant anti-communism and rejection of any form of state intervention in social, especially economic, life, and the Trotskyist idea of ​​world revolution was transformed into the concept of the “beneficent hegemony” of the United States in international relations, manifested in the widespread spread of democracy .

IN 1980s. Famous political figures were guided by neoconservative ideas R. Reagan, G. Bush Sr., M. Thatcher, G. Kohl. These ideas largely determine the military-political strategy of the administration George W. Bush Vice President has repeatedly demonstrated his commitment to neoconservatism R. Cheney and former Minister of Defense D. Rumsfeld. For a number of years, neoconservatives were represented in power by the latter’s deputy P. Wolfowitz, Chairman of the Pentagon Defense Policy Committee R. Perlom and US Special Representative to the UN J. Bolton.

The leading centers of neoconservative orientation have a significant influence on American politics (Heritage Foundation, Hoover Institution on War, Revolution and Peace at Stanford University, Center for Strategic and International Studies at Georgetown University, Institute of Foreign Policy Studies, etc.). Their recommendations determined the strategy of Reaganism, and currently - a course towards consolidating American dominance in the world, a sharp strengthening of the military component of foreign policy .

In the field of international relations, neoconservatism is based on the ideas of the school of “political realism”, influential in the West, giving preference to forceful methods of resolving conflict situations , especially at the local level. In the same time a number of researchers , who generally share neoconservative ideas, oppose the concept of “local wars”, since in practice it is difficult to determine the line between “limited” and “unlimited” use of force , capable of creating a threat to the very existence of humanity.

The social basis of neoconservatism made up

Ø "new middle class" interested in introducing achievements into economics scientific and technological revolution, And

Ø groups of so-called “young capital”, formed in modern sectors of the economy - electronics, aerospace, aviation, etc.

IN 1970-1980s. neoconservatism reflected such deep social processes, How

Ø the need of the economy to weaken government regulation and encourage entrepreneurial initiative,

Ø in expanding the scope of competitive market principles.

The emergence of neoconservatism was facilitated by the deepening “crisis of faith”, which manifested itself in the loss of citizens’ willingness to obey laws and restrain selfish temptations . The "shift" in favor of neoconservatism was caused by also the non-acceptance of radical social protest movements of the 1960s-1970s by part of the Western elite. - anti-war, youth, feminist and others, which were considered as a threat to social stability. The reaction of a number of public figures and ideologists to these speeches was demands for the establishment of “strong power”, restrictions on democracy, and the use of decisive measures against protesters.

The foreign policy approaches of the neoconservatives were motivated by the need to “protect industrialized democracies,” primarily the United States, from “Finlandization,” the desire of the West to ensure for itself the creation of the most profitable economic and political world order . This purpose was to be served a global strategy that would combine liberal-universalist ideas, an emphasis on military force and militant anti-communism.

At its core, the neoconservative movement is close to the views of F. Hayek and L. Mises. It is distinguished from libertarianism by pragmatism and the desire to develop specific recommendations for correction public policy. He synthesized principles liberalism(market, competition, free enterprise, etc.) with traditional values ​​of conservatism(family culture, religion, morality, order, etc.).

Accusing liberals of overestimating the capabilities of the state's social policy, of encouraging a “revolution of rising expectations,” neoconservatives reformulated the model of relations between the individual and the state, citizens and the state. Within the framework of this model, the individual must first of all rely on his own strength and the solidarity of citizens, and the state must provide him with living conditions based on law and order, stability and continuity.

The neoconservatives' anti-statist strategy led to a significant narrowing of the functions of the state, significant adjustments to the logic of the functioning of state institutions . Having “unloaded” the state from many, primarily socio-economic, functions that it assumed during the functioning of the Keynesian model, reducing the state apparatus and increasing the quality of its activities, the neoconservatives strengthened the authority of the state and its political role. Issues of local self-government and regional political activity occupied a prominent place in the practice of neoconservatives.

In economicswas Emphasis was placed on the deployment of entrepreneurial initiative and broad competition, a sharp reduction in taxes in order to release the forces of the free market.

The basis of the social sphere were laid On the one side, clearly limited and regulated state charity for a relatively limited circle of people in need, on the other side- “self-help” of the main part of the population through their savings or through various shapes social insurance.

Along with limiting its participation in regulating the economy the state actively contributed to the renewal of fixed assets of production, improvement of the structure of capital investments, strengthening of financing of promising industries , research and development (R&D).

Neoconservatism has proven its ability to carry out very radical changes, skillfully using the traditions of the past . Under his influence a dynamic model of social development has been formed, focused on a self-confident individual. It is based on self-regulation and is very resistant to social disasters. This model meets the needs of the transition of Western countries from an industrial society to a post-industrial one.

The reforms carried out by American neoconservatives in the 1980s largely predetermined the high rates of economic, scientific and technological development U.S.A in the 1990s. Unprecedented economic growth the past decade allowed this country to increase its GDP in parameters equal to the total GDP of such developed countries as Germany and Japan .

In the field of international relations neoconservatism evolved to broader and more realistic positions . Intensified in it by the mid-1980s. pragmatic tendencies manifested themselves in taking into account the realities of an interconnected and interdependent world, refusal to perceive the USSR and Russia as enemies, in readiness to establish partnerships with them.

Due to the increase in modern society the roles of knowledge and information neoconservatives focus mainly on problems of education, culture and quality of life . Culture and spirituality are considered as basic values ​​for the development of new technologies and conservation of nature.

With obvious achievements in the economic sphere neoconservatism has failed to develop adequate approaches to solving a number of key problems transition from industrialism to post-industrialism:

Ø social differentiation in Western countries is deepening, potentially fraught with conflicts;

Ø The gap in living standards between the North and the South is widening, which is holding back the development of the international division of labor and the expansion of markets for high-tech products.

In the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001 G. ideologists of the neoconservative part of the American elite saw On the one side, global challenge to America as a bearer of liberal values ​​and leader of the emerging American-centric world order, and with another - implementation of S. Huntington's forecast about the “clash of civilizations” and above all Judeo-Christian and Muslim.

War on International Terrorism was interpreted by neoconservative experts as a kind of revival of the struggle between two different systems of political values ​​and principles, participation in which is the historical mission of the United States. This war was also seen as an additional chance for a more active policy to create a new world order.

The essence of the current neoconservative foreign policy program is that The United States is called upon to exercise “humane global hegemony” throughout the world due to the inherent superiority of its moral, cultural and political values . This hegemony must be established both with the help of international institutions (eg International Monetary Fund and World Bank), and by building up military potential, carrying out military actions .

Neoconservatives position themselves as adherents of democratic globalism, according to which the spread of democracy is a universal means of ensuring the security of the United States and the whole world. Their position is based on the controversial thesis that democratic states do not fight each other because of their adherence to common values ​​and political principles. Democratic globalism in the American version has not only a moral, but also a geopolitical dimension - the creation of an American-centric world order, the establishment of control over sources of raw materials and routes of their transportation.

The war in Iraq, according to neoconservatives, should demonstrate to the world the determination of the United States to ensure its dominance in the world for the long term. In this sense, the judgment is very typical neoconservatives of the “second wave” of W. Kristol(son of I. Kristol) and L. Kaplan:“The mission begins in Baghdad, but it does not end there. We stand on the verge of a new historical era... This moment is of decisive importance It's about not even about the future of the Middle East and the war on terror. This is about the role that the United States intends to play in the twenty-first century."

Representatives of the neoconservative school of American military-political thought actively support the idea of ​​American dominance in space , which is viewed through the prism of the fundamental principles of geopolitics. Offering to develop " Monroe space doctrine ", they believe that V XXI V. space will replace the sea in the development of trade, technology and national security . In their opinion, the use of space for military purposes creates unprecedented opportunities for the projection of power and influence.

Among the supporters of the creation of a global American missile defense system (ABM) there are many who stood at the origins of R. Reagan’s “Strategic Defense Initiative”, in particular G. Cooper, who headed the SDI Agency in the US Department of Defense, W. Graham, who held the post Science Advisor to President R. Reagan, R. Pfaltzgraf, who headed the Institute for Foreign Policy Research, whose consultations R. Reagan used.

IN last years, especially under the influence of the fiasco in Iraq, US foreign policy, largely based on neoconservative values, became the object of criticism from a number of influential representatives of the political and intellectual community both at home and abroad. Opponents of neoconservative force unilateralism are at the same time supporters of moderate conservatism in foreign policy and liberal experts.

The desire of neoconservatives to perpetuate US global military dominance and forcefully unite the world around a loosely interpreted “democratic idea” one of the leading US political thinkers 3b. Brzezinski reasonable assessed as “an updated version of imperialism”, far from the realities of a globalizing world and capable of depleting resources in the name of a obviously unattainable foreign policy goal .

Well-known American experts call the George W. Bush administration revolutionaries and the policies they pursue revolutionary. According to Foundation President R. Nixon D. Symes, US actions in Iraq and Afghanistan are based on a “neo-Trotskyist belief in permanent revolution (even if democratic and not pro-letarian).”

People speak out for a complete revision of the foreign policy course, formed under the influence of neo-conservative theoretical and political ideas liberals. They regard forceful hegemony as a strategy that causes overstrain of the United States and is unacceptable for the world community . However difference in position liberals from a neoconservative Republican administration consists in abandoning not the orientation towards the “global spread of democracy”, but the use of force methods that lead to numerous regional wars and human losses unacceptable from the American point of view.

Due to failures in the spread of democracy, there has been a tendency towards a separation between radical and moderate approaches in American neoconservatism. One of the most influential neoconservatives of the “second wave” C. Krauthammer opposed the ideology of “democratic globalism”, which he himself adhered to, a new concept of “democratic realism”. In accordance with it support for democracy and the use of force are needed only in cases of “strategic necessity” and when they meet the “tasks of fighting the enemy.” This position presupposes the possibility of certain restrictions in the use of military force methods.

Famous journalist and political scientist U.R. is far from unconditionally supporting the foreign policy course of the current administration. Mead, who actively promotes the views of neoconservatives. He justifies the United States invasion of Iraq, the “war on international terrorism,” but at the same time draws attention to failures in the activities of intelligence and the expert community of government agencies, failures in the field of “public diplomacy” (primarily in preparing public opinion in the world and in the United States itself to the Iraq campaign), etc.

In the foreseeable future, neoconservatism will remain an influential ideological and political movement in Western countries, perhaps in combination with liberal socialist values (human rights and freedoms, democracy, social protection). One can hardly expect a radical revision of the rigid policy of creating international political conditions that guarantee the dominant position of the only superpower in the emerging world order from American neoconservatives.

The above allows you to do the following generalizations:

1. Conservatism , appearing at the end XVIII V. as a reaction to revolutions, focused not on restoring the order they overthrew, but on radical transformations based on the traditions of the past, on reforms , preventing social disasters.

2. Under the ideological and political dominance of neoconservatism the Keynesian model of economic and social development, which had lost its effectiveness, was replaced by a dynamic model that met the needs of the transition from an industrial society to a post-industrial one . This model is based on self-regulation and has a relatively high degree of resistance to social disasters.

3. An example of economic dynamism combined with foreign political and military-political rigidity, Neoconservatism accelerated the erosion of the foundations of socialism. In the second half of the 1980s. neoconservatives took a number of concrete steps to establishment of new political thinking in international relations .

4. With overcoming the split of the world into opposing social systems the neoconservative model with its well-functioning mechanism of combining private initiative and public regulation has universal significance . It provides guidelines for Russia that would help it take its rightful place in the post-industrial world.

5.At the beginning of XXI V. US foreign policy , formed under the influence of neoconservatism and Wilsonian liberal universalism, turned into a policy of global influence to create an American-centric world order . The priority objective of this course was the spread of democracy by force, causing negativism from the Muslim world and criticism from influential representatives of the political and academic community.

Thus, modern conservatism is a set of orientations and priorities in the political, economic, social and spiritual spheres. It seems difficult to define the boundaries of the main directions of conservatism. It is obvious that the differences between these directions are rooted not so much in the initial attitudes as in the emphasis on certain aspects of social life.

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Conservatism arose in late XVIII century as a reaction to the French Enlightenment and the Great French Revolution. Conservative ideology was a response to the challenge of liberalism and radicalism. Since conservatism arises precisely as a contrast to liberal views on human nature, freedom, equality and fraternity, it is not considered an independent, “pure” ideology. This birth of conservatism did not prevent it from turning into a fairly coherent system of views, which has undergone significant evolution, adapting to the modern world.

The intellectual conservative tradition was developed by the Englishman E. Burke (1729-1797) and the French J. de Maistre (1754-1821). L. de Bonald (1754-1840). They became the founders of the traditional conservative movement, which was distinguished by its rejection of the nihilistic nature of the French Revolution of the 18th century, bourgeois democracy and individual freedom. The “founding fathers” of the political ideology of conservatism expressed the interests of the aristocracy, those layers that capitalism deprived of a stable social status and class privileges.

To the optimistic view of liberals on the nature of man, whose mind and will are able to transform society on the basis of freedom, conservatives opposed the idea of ​​the inherent imperfection of human nature, due to which excellent projects for the radical reorganization of society are doomed to failure, since they violate the established order for centuries. Conservatives believed that the true “nature” of man is completely alien to the concept of “freedom.” Only concrete historical freedoms, obtained by ancestors, verified by traditions and accepted as historical heritage, have meaning.

The most important principle of conservative ideology is moral absolutism, recognition of the existence of unshakable moral ideals and values. These moral ideals and personal values ​​must be formed by all means of social and state influence and curb the “sinful” nature of man. Politics in this sense also cannot be free from morality.

Another important principle of conservatism is traditionalism. Traditional principles are, according to theorists of conservatism, the foundation of any healthy society. Social reforms must be based on the spiritual traditions and values ​​created by all previous generations. E. Burke believed that in any society there is solidarity between generations. Every political figure who makes decisions must do so responsibly not only to his contemporaries, but also to his ancestors and descendants.

The traditionalism of conservative ideology is closely connected with political realism. Reforms that are carried out in society should not be designed for an abstract person, but for real people of flesh and blood, whose lifestyle and established habits cannot be suddenly changed without great misfortune.

Conservatism, especially modern conservatism, has a positive attitude towards the idea of ​​equality of people before God. Equality exists in the field of morality and virtue, perhaps even political equality. But all forms of conservative ideology do not accept social equality, are anti-egalitarian. No society is conceivable without hierarchy and, therefore, inequality. This is precisely the basis of the order corresponding to “nature”. Egalitarianism destroys the social hierarchy on which social stability is based. At the same time, anti-egalitarianism does not mean that conservatives advocate a rigid pyramidal structure of society. Social mobility vertically and horizontally is important for social development. Back at the end of the 18th century, E. Burke formulated principle of meritocracy, according to which power should be in the hands of worthy people, people from various social groups. Having accepted political democracy over time, conservatives became supporters of elitist democracy, when the democratic mechanism makes it possible to form a professional political elite and promote worthy people to power. What is worthy is worthy - this is the principle of conservatives in relation to social status personality.

Conservative ideology has a negative attitude towards the tendency to politicize people, which became especially clear in the 20th century. Private interests are more important to a person than politics. Politics is the sphere of activity of political elites. The participation of the masses in political life must be limited and controlled.

Conservatism is characteristic focus on local, regional, national values. Society is not scattered into separate grains of sand of individuals, but is focused on the general, the whole, on “we”. It is concentrated primarily at the local level: in the family, community, parish, craft corporation, local government institutions. The social “we” at the local level is a natural source of stability, education, preservation of traditions, and the formation of patriotism.

Conservatism in the 19th century gradually turns into a modification of ideology that accepts some of the values ​​of liberalism, primarily political. The bourgeoisie, having survived revolutions and won political power, also sought support in new socio-political ideas. Particular attention in conservatism was drawn to the desire for the unity of society, to means of strengthening the authority of power, to hierarchy, and to emphasizing the connecting role of spiritual values.

In the 20th century, conservative theories developed under the significant influence of classical liberalism. In the United States, so-called market conservatism arose, which viewed trends towards state regulation of the economy as a dangerous break with the liberal traditions of Western civilization, as a “road to slavery” and totalitarianism.

Until the 70s of the 20th century, conservatism occupied a peripheral position and was on the defensive in relation to liberal reformism and social democratic theories. The rise of conservatism began in the second half of the 70s and especially from the beginning of the 80s, when political forces that adopted the ideology of conservatism came to power in many Western countries.

The objective basis for the appearance neoconservatism there was a structural crisis in the capitalist economy. Previous means used to overcome crisis situations and justified by the ideology of liberal reformism turned out to be insufficient. More radical means were required. The belief that scientific and technological progress, by virtue of its rational mechanism, will solve social problems has collapsed. It turned out that in order to stabilize society, strong moral reinforcement and additional funds legitimation. Neoconservatism was a response to the “challenge” of the crisis state of scientific and technological civilization and the weakening of its spiritual and moral foundations. It has proven to be more effective than other ideologies. Neoconservative ideology more strongly stimulated individual achievements, and neoconservative policies found fairly effective means of solving economic and social problems.

In terms of worldview, neoconservatism advocates the priority of the principle of freedom over the principle of equality. Equality is possible only as equality of opportunity, but not as equality of conditions and results. Social order is realized primarily through social hierarchy, which arises organically, naturally. While defending the idea of ​​freedom and human rights, neoconservatism focuses on a person’s responsibilities to himself and to society. Human rights only in combination with awareness of responsibilities and a developed sense of duty ennoble the individual.

In the economic field, neoconservatism advocates limiting government intervention in the market economy. The state is obliged to promote private initiative, and not stifle it. This assistance is possible through the provision of tax incentives, stimulation of private investment and market supply. Being opponents of patronage regulation of the economy, neoconservatives rely on the personal factor: personal initiative, personal interest, personal opportunities and personal responsibility - these are the most important and unshakable values ​​of an effectively functioning economy.

The social policy of the neoconservatives is closely related to the economic policy. Three basic principles constitute the essence of neoconservative social doctrine: the principle of solidarity, based on the idea of ​​the unity of labor and capital, the principle of justice, i.e. “fair distribution of income and property”, “fair wages”, “fair tax policy” and others, the principle of subsidiarity - assistance to promote self-help and private initiative. In accordance with these principles, individuals and small communities should solve their own socio-economic problems themselves, and entrust to the state only those issues that cannot be solved in a similar way. The essence of the socio-economic policy of the neoconservatives is to create conditions that allow workers to save, acquire property, gain financial independence and independence from state “social care”.

Neoconservatives believe that social benefits should be provided free of charge to those who need them and are not able to provide for themselves. All other citizens must pay for all the services they need and use, but receive them in the form and quality that they desire and that their material wealth allows.

A social market economy is the formula of the neoconservatives. The social market economy, from the point of view of modern conservatives, is not only the most successful economic form, strengthening and expanding the class of owners. It is also best suited to people: it gives tasks to citizens, but does not control them.

In the political sphere, neoconservatives are faithful to the old conservative tradition - democracy must be vertical, elitist. Political activity- not a privilege and not a monopoly of one social group, but a profession available to everyone, but only if he has the appropriate abilities, vocation and special education. Everyone can and even should be interested in politics, since it concerns everyone, and everyone can participate in the political life of the country in one way or another, but only professionals should be politicians and work in politics in order to rid political decisions of amateurism, and politics itself from ochlocratic tendencies.

Neoconservatism absorbed the principles of classical liberalism, primarily the principle of individual freedom, but managed to link them with such traditional values ​​as religion, family, law and order, decentralization and self-government, and ethnocultural diversity.

Conservatism is the ideology and policy of preserving existing forms of social life. The emergence of conservatism as a reaction to the radicalism of the French Revolution.

Conservatism (from the French conservatisme, from the Latin conservo - I protect, preserve) is a set of socio-philosophical ideas, as well as economic, political, and other values ​​and ideals, which, revealing the nature of society, the state and the place of the individual in them, focused on preserving established traditions and a cautious attitude towards radical changes.

In contrast to liberal views on human nature, which defend the ideals of freedom, equality, and fraternity, conservatives believe that human nature is inherently imperfect, that a radical reorganization of society is always doomed to failure, since it violates the natural order established for centuries, corresponding to the nature of man, to whom perfect The concept of freedom is alien.

The father and founder of classical conservatism is the English politician, philosopher and publicist Edmund Berne (1729-1797). In 1790, his book-pamphlet “Reflections on the Revolution in France” was published, where he was the first to criticize the French Revolution and for the first time formulated the basic principles of the ideology of conservatism. These ideas of Burke gave rise to numerous followers.

Great contribution to the development of the ideology of conservatism in the 19th century. contributed: in England - poet S. Coleridge and religious thinker D. Newman, politicians B. Disraeli and R. Salisbury; in France - thinkers J. de Maistre and L. de Bonald; in Germany - G. Meser and A. Muller.

The following main ones stand out: principles and provisions of the ideology of conservatism.

• 1. The principle of the established order of things as the “law of prescription” (E. Burke). According to this principle, society is a product of natural historical development, and its institutions are not artificial inventions, since they embody the wisdom of their ancestors.
• 2. Basis civil society is religion, since man is a religious being.
• 3. The basis of human behavior is experience, habits, prejudices, and not abstract theories, since man is an instinctive, feeling and rational being.
• 4. Society (community of people) is a form of protection of a person from himself and therefore it should be valued above the individual, and human rights are a consequence of his duties.
• 5. The principle of anti-egalitarianism, according to which people are not equal by nature and therefore differences, hierarchy and the right of those more worthy to rule over others are inevitable in society. The ideology of conservatism recognizes the equality of people only in the sphere of morality and ethics, relations “before God and divine justice.” Conservatism is consistent anti-egalitarianism. This is justified by the fact that the social hierarchy, i.e. inequality of people is necessary basis order, social stability. People are not equal in their abilities, and the attitude of hierarchy is directed toward the “power of the inferior.”
• 6. The principle of stability and immutability of the social system, according to which the existing social order must be protected, because attempts to radically change it, improve it, for example, eliminate existing evil, lead to even greater evil. (According to this principle, there is a presumption "in favor of any established system of government, against any unused project."
• 7. The principle of moral absolutism, according to which there are eternal and unshakable moral ideals and values, since human nature is unchangeable. Due to the fact that the sphere of human reason is limited, the universal moral order, sanctioned and supported by religion, tradition, ritual and even everyday prejudices. Calls for "restoration eternal values“and the education of society on their basis are necessary to curb the “sinful nature” of man.
• 8. According to the principle of “meritocracy”, formulated by E. Burke, power should belong to the “natural aristocracy”, i.e. the most gifted, worthy people, people from various social groups.
• 9. The principle of regionalism, according to which it is necessary to focus on local, regional, national values and traditions. Hence the importance of the ideas of local self-government. At the local level, in the family, community, parish, local government institutions, personality and a sense of patriotism are formed, traditions are preserved, and a natural source of social stability is created.

The fundamental practical idea of ​​conservative ideology is traditionalism - an orientation toward the preservation and protection of old patterns, ways of life, and values ​​that are recognized as universal. Centuries-old traditions, accumulating the experience and wisdom of ancestors, “healthy prejudices” should form the foundation of any healthy society, connection and “solidarity of generations.” Politics should be based on established traditions according to the principle: “Everything old is clear and pleasant. Everything new is unclear and dark.” However, conservative traditionalism does not exclude social change. E. Burke wrote: “If the state is deprived of the possibility of change, then it does not have the opportunity to take care of own condition". Changes are necessary, but any changes must be introduced gradually, deliberately, selectively, with a constant glance at the past, and “what can not be changed does not need to be changed.”

Conservatism as a socio-political phenomenon and ideology has undoubted positive features and positive social significance, therefore it can and should be present within reasonable limits in the political life of every country. Without a conservative principle, it is impossible to ensure the stability of society and its evolutionary development. Conservatism defends and affirms many of the values ​​that are necessary for society and any decent person. What is very attractive in conservatism is its sacred respect for historically established traditions, customs, moral norms and ideals, as well as a cautious, balanced attitude towards all innovations and arbitrary transformations. Natural, healthy and moderate conservatism is persistently present in the character of the Belarusian people, our national mentality. As noted in the report of the President of the Republic of Belarus A. Lukashenko “On the state of ideological work and measures to improve it”, certain elements of the ideology of conservatism “are inherent in Belarusians by nature in such traditional features as “good-naturedness”, “pamyarkunity”, “tolerantness” , "razazh-l1vasts". This has already entered into the blood. Our generation does not know this, does not remember this, but previous generations lived, apparently, under the dominance of this conservative approach to ideology. And many concepts today do not lose their relevance. It is necessary "Be good conservatives in the good sense of the word. We are by no means throwing away many of the ideas of the ideology of conservatism."

1. The emergence and essence of conservative ideology

2. Liberal-conservative statism

3. Republican statism

4. The concept of libertarianism

5. Neoconservative ideology

1. The emergence and essence of conservative ideology

Historically, conservative ideology was formed at the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries. The term "conservatism" (from the Latin Conservo - I save) was first used by the French writer R. Chateaubriand, who in 1818 began publishing the magazine "Conservator". Conservative thought initially appealed to the “unshakable,” natural foundations of social life, and was based on a fundamental rejection of the idea of ​​progress. This reflected the anti-revolutionary sentiments of elite social groups feudal society, dissatisfied with the new order. But at the same time, conservatism was something more than political program certain social forces. He was an integral worldview system, a special type of thinking and perception of the world around him.

The fundamental principle of conservative ideology can be considered traditionalism - a specific side of social consciousness associated with the natural desire of a person to stabilize, preserve, and strengthen the existing social order as a familiar habitat. The values ​​of traditionalism were the most important component of the ideological complex of pre-industrial social systems. But they manifested themselves rather as a certain state of mind, a style of behavior. Natural, “instinctive” traditionalism did not require additional argumentation or a system of evidence. The situation changed with the advent of liberalism - a worldview system based on the ideals of progress, the denial of the past in the name of the future. As an alternative, an equally holistic, rationally based ideological and political doctrine began to take shape, reflecting the principles of traditionalism.

The works of E. Burke, J. de Maistre, L. de Bonald, S. Coleridge and others laid the foundations of protective, or traditional conservatism. The leitmotif of this concept was a protest against unconditional progressivism, the cult of individualistic and egalitarian values, moral utilitarianism, and a materialistic, purely pragmatic orientation of politics. Conservatism rejected the very rationalistic “quantitative” form of thinking as the basis of human ideas about the world and society. Conservatism contrasted the mechanical perception of reality, the cult of logic and rationalism, and economic determinism with knowledge based on a holistic perception of life, the intuitive experience of man. Conservative ideology was based on a special kind of social pessimism - a refusal to see in the human mind a phenomenon capable of rationally understanding all aspects of social existence, cognizing the meaning of existence, consciously constructing and implementing a fundamentally new social mechanism.

According to conservatives, the development of society is a natural and spontaneous process. Social creativity does not consist in a radical disruption of the social order in the name of rationally chosen global goals, but in solving situational, current problems through trial and error, accumulating positive experience, and finding a balance between pragmatic policies and basic traditional values. Stability, balance, continuity are the main guidelines of social life, capable of overcoming the influence of innate human sinfulness and arrogance.

The key to the stable existence of society, according to conservatives, is a patriarchal state. Power itself is divine in origin. But the power of the monarch and the aristocracy is determined not only by sacred, sacred powers. At the head of the state is the elite, which bears, first of all, special responsibility for the fate of society. This is an aristocracy not only of blood, but, above all, of spirit. The guarantee of their power is not the political approval of the people, but exclusively personal qualities, “virtues”, loyalty to traditions, readiness to rely on the results of centuries-old natural selection of institutions and forms of economic, political, social organization society. Democracy, from the point of view of conservatism, is simply organized violence of the majority over the minority. A democratically structured state does not unite, but divides and opposes people. It is the result of an artificial compromise between egoistic claims and is not based on the moral and political unity of society. The true state is organic in nature and form. It unites not only those living today, but also many generations of ancestors and descendants. This is an organism with its own destiny, not divided into individual destinies, a common interest that is not the sum of private interests.

2. Liberal-conservative statism

By the beginning of the twentieth century. the objective prerequisites for the existence of protective traditional conservatism were exhausted. With the deepening of modernization processes, the reduction of traditional social groups and the strengthening of the main classes of industrial society, conservative ideology was deprived of its former protective pathos. The conservative ideological tradition began to disintegrate into two movements, which were oriented towards completely different models of political behavior and were the results of a synthesis of certain aspects of traditional conservatism with liberal ideological doctrine. One of them was statist in nature, reproducing the conservative concept of the organic state. The second was based primarily on the ideas of naturalness and spontaneity of social development inherent in traditional conservatism.

The prerequisites for the formation of the statist ideology of liberal conservatism were formed at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries. primarily in those European countries that were caught up in the processes of accelerated, “catch-up” modernization. In Germany, Russia, Austria-Hungary, and Italy, large-scale reforms began in the socio-economic and political spheres, designed to respond to the “challenge of the West” and prevent the transformation of these countries into the periphery of the industrialized world. But direct perception of the experience of liberal reforms, orientation towards the principles of classical liberalism threatened the power of the ruling elite of these countries - the direct initiator of the ongoing reforms. The liberal project did not correspond to the peculiarities of the political culture of a given society or the specifics of mass consciousness. The resulting ideological niche was filled with liberal-conservative statism.

Liberal conservatism was a moderate reformist concept. He did not question the general expediency of modernization, but limited it with a number of reservations. From the point of view of liberal-conservative statism, reformism can only be pragmatic and limited in nature, while the priority of national, cultural, and religious values ​​is indisputable. We can only talk about reforms designed to continue the historically chosen path of the nation. Thus, the ultimate goal of the reforms was considered to be the good of the state, and the specifics of the reforms being carried out depended, first of all, on the uniqueness of national statehood and the religious and confessional system of values.

In political vocabulary, the concept of conservatism has long been used with a negative connotation. It served, as a rule, to indicate an inert adherence to everything that is unchangeable, outdated in public life and was defined only as a reactionary trend in politics, but recently it has been characterized by a steady interest in this political trend, a desire to rethink its ideological principles. This interest is connected, first of all, with the fact that the 80s were triumphant for political parties of a conservative orientation in all leading Western countries. The interest in conservatism for our socio-political science is also associated with the process of breaking the old paradigm and searching for a new one. It must be assumed that this process will lead to a rethinking of the tradition of the hierarchy of various ideological and political values ​​that developed in previous years.

There are various definitions of political conservatism in the literature. In its most general form, it can be interpreted as a socio-political movement, focused on preserving and strengthening existing forms of economic, social and political life, traditional spiritual values, denial of revolutionary changes, distrust of popular movements, critical and negative attitude towards reformist projects. This socio-political orientation is inherent both in fairly broad social groups, organized political forces, and in individuals in a wide variety of countries.

All researchers of conservatism agree that this current of socio-political thought was formed after the Great French Revolution as a result of a critical assessment of its experience and results. Its fundamental postulates were born as a response, a reaction to the first experience of the French revolutionaries implementing the ideas of the Enlightenment. Of course, conservative thought did not remain unchanged; over 200 years it has undergone significant evolution, adapting to a changing world.

Conservatism is an ideology aimed at consciously maintaining identity and preserving the living continuity of evolutionary development.

Conservatism- ideological commitment traditional values and orders, social or religious doctrines. Behind main value the preservation of the traditions of society, its institutions and values ​​is accepted. Conservatives in domestic policy emphasize the value of the existing state and social order and reject radical reforms, which they regard as extremism. In foreign policy, conservatives rely on strengthening security and allow the use military force, try to support traditional allies, and defend protectionism in foreign economic relations.

Conservatism is a set of socio-philosophical ideas, as well as economic, political, and other values ​​and ideals, which, revealing the nature of society, the state and the place of the individual in them, are focused on preserving established traditions and a cautious attitude towards radical changes. Conservatism as an ideology does not always coincide with the programs of political parties that call themselves conservative.

The most important feature of conservative ideology is that it is focused on protecting the existing foundations of social life and has a negative attitude towards popular movements and revolutionary changes. Conservatism is based on the priority of continuity over innovation, on the recognition of the inviolability of the order that has developed naturally, as well as the paramount importance in the life of society of morality, family, religion and property.

The conservative reaction to change can be very different: it is open opposition, based on the idea of ​​the modern model of society as justice for all times, and a reactionary focus on restoring the social order that existed in an earlier period. Conservatism does not recognize one thing once and for all chosen form social order, paying attention mainly to the nature of changes and insisting that they should only be gradual, evolutionary.

His characteristic feature is opposition to certain types of reforms, especially those that proceed from abstract ideas, and not from the objective course of development of activity. Ideologically, conservatism can take many forms.

The following basic principles and position of the ideology of conservatism are highlighted:

• § The principle of the established order of things as the law of prescription (E. Burke). According to this principle, society is a product of natural historical development, and its institutions are not an artificial invention, because embody the wisdom of their ancestors.
• § The basis of society is religion, because Man is a religious being.
• § The basis of human behavior is experience, habits, prejudices, and not abstract theories, because Man is an instinctive, sensual and rational being.
• § Society (community of people) is a form of protection of a person from himself and therefore it should be valued above the individual, and human rights are a consequence of his duties.
• § The principle of anti-ethalitarianism, according to which people are not equal by nature and therefore differences, hierarchy and the right of those more worthy to rule over others are inevitable in society. The ideology of conservatism recognizes the equality of people only in the sphere of morality and ethics, relations before God and divine justice. Conservatism is consistent anti-ethalitarianism. This is justified by the fact that the social hierarchy, i.e. inequality of people is a necessary basis for order and social stability. People are not equal in their abilities, and the attitude of hierarchy is directed against the power of the inferior.
• § The principle of stability and immutability of the social system, according to which the existing social system must be protected, because attempts to radically change it, improve it, for example, eliminate existing evil, lead to even greater evil. According to this principle, there is a presumption in favor of any established system of government, against any unused project.
• § The principle of moral absolutism, according to which there are eternal and unshakable moral ideals and values, since human nature is unchangeable.
• § According to the principle of meritocracy, formulated by E. Burke, power should belong to the natural aristocracy, i.e. the most gifted, worthy people, people from various social groups.
• § The principle of regionalism, according to which it is necessary to focus on local, regional, national values ​​and traditions. Hence the importance of the ideas of local self-government.

Modern conservatism, which accepts political democracy, adheres not so much to the orientations of anti-etalitarianism, but rather to elitist democracy, which provides mechanisms for a professional political elite and the power of the worthy. At the same time, this ideology is characterized by a negative attitude towards the politicization of the property of wide public highways as a trend of the twentieth century, leading to the destabilization of society.

Conservatism as a socio-political phenomenon and ideology has undoubted political features and positive social significance, therefore it can and should be present within reasonable limits in the political life of every country. Without a conservative principle, it is impossible to ensure the stability of society and its evolutionary development. Conservatism defends and affirms many of the values ​​that are necessary for society and any decent person. What is very attractive in conservatism is its sacred respect for historically established traditions, customs, moral norms and ideals, as well as its prudence. A balanced attitude towards all innovations and arbitrary transformations. Natural healthy and moderate conservatism is persistently present in the character of the Belarusian people, our national mentality.