MORALITY (lat. moralis - moral) - the subject of the study of ethics; a form of social consciousness, a social institution that performs the function of regulating people’s behavior in all areas of public life without exception. In any society, the actions of a huge number of people must be coordinated into a collective mass activity, and, with all their diversity, be subject to certain social laws.

The function of such coordination is performed by morality along with other forms of social discipline, closely intertwined with them and at the same time representing something specific. Morality regulates human behavior in all spheres of his social life without exception - in work and everyday life, in politics and science, in family and public places, although it plays a different role in them. (6, 188)

From other forms of regulation mass activity(laws, production and administrative regulations, state decrees, folk traditions, etc.) morality differs in the way it justifies and implements its demands.

In morality, social necessity, needs, interests of society or classes are reflected in the form of spontaneously formed and generally accepted instructions and assessments, supported by the power of mass example, habit, custom, public opinion.

Therefore, the requirements of morality take the form of an impersonal obligation. This standard is intended to be sustainable. They differ from simple custom or tradition, supported by the force of an inserted order, in that they receive ideological justification in the form of ideas about how a person should live and act.

Along with social consciousness, individual consciousness plays an equally important role in morality. Relying on the moral ideas developed by humanity, assimilating them in the process of education, an individual can largely independently regulate his behavior and judge the moral significance of everything that happens around him. Thanks to this, he acts not only as an object of social control, but also as its conscious subject, that is, as a moral personality.

Being a complex social formation, morality includes moral activity in terms of its content and motivation (the way it is customary to behave in a particular society, the behavior of many people, good luck); moral relations that regulate this activity and are manifested in various forms of obligation, requirements for a person, moral consciousness (norms, principles, social and moral ideals, concepts of good and evil, justice).

All these forms of moral consciousness are combined into a logically ordered system that allows not only to order, but also to motivate and evaluate moral actions in a certain way.

In relation to various areas of social life, special rules are formed in morality (work morality, professional, everyday, family morality), which constitute only an independent area of ​​​​morality and have a single justification.

In all these areas except morality. There are also other regulators of behavior - legal norms and state decrees, production and administrative schedules, organizational charters and instructions, instructions from officials.

Customs and traditions, public opinion, education - all these forms of social influence on the behavior of individual people, although related to morality, do not relate to it completely (an example is national traditions, aesthetic norms in everyday life, education of labor skills). The morality of a particular society primarily presupposes how it is customary to act.

But since the same act can simultaneously have economic, political, legal, moral and aesthetic significance, to distinguish specific moral side behavior in all the diversity of human social activities is possible only by means of regulating actions.

Economic regulation is carried out through the material interests of people. Rules of law (morality and law) are enshrined in official legislation and supported by the power of state coercion. Administrative forms of control are exercised through the distribution of responsibilities and official powers between officials. Everyone's fulfillment of moral requirements is monitored by everyone.

It depends on how correctly this person understands the meaning of moral requirements and fulfills them. Unlike simple customs, good luck is supported not simply by the force of an established and generally accepted order, but receives ideological justification in ideas about how one should behave.

The simplest of them - norms, in turn, are justified as reasonable and appropriate with the help of more complex shapes consciousness - moral principles, ideals, concepts of good and evil, etc. All these ideas are combined into a coherent system of views on the purpose of man and the meaning of life.

The role of consciousness in morality is especially great. Each action, line of behavior or lifestyle in general can be motivated and evaluated. (9,164)

Moral requirements and control over their implementation are carried out by means of spiritual influence - through a sense of duty, which every person must realize and make the motive of his behavior, and through assessment and self-assessment of his actions.

Responsibility in morality, unlike law, has not a material, but an ideal spiritual character (reward and punishment). Relying on the moral ideas developed by society and assimilating them, an individual can, to one degree or another, independently regulate his behavior and judge the moral significance of everything that happens around him.

Thus, in morality, a person acts not only as an object of social control, but also as an independent person (subject), possessing his own moral self-awareness - beliefs, feelings, inclinations, conscience. So, morality consists of moral activity, people’s behavior, actions, and moral relations of people. Moral activities and relationships are reflected and consolidated in moral consciousness.

The unity of all these aspects determines the nature and specificity of morality. Contradictions may arise between these aspects of morality.

A certain discrepancy always exists between the demands placed on people and the way they behave. This discrepancy may manifest itself in individual deviations from moral norms, but it can also take on a general character, directed during periods of crisis of a certain socio-economic formation.

Morality is a historical phenomenon; it changes and develops in the course of the general progress of human society. In history, the main types of morality replace each other (community - tribal, slaveholding, feudal, bourgeois morality and communist).

This or that morality ultimately serves to affirm and strengthen (or overthrow) existing social relations. In a class society, morality also has a class character.

The dominant morality performs the function of protecting the interests of the ruling class, while the exploited class, as it realizes the injustice of existing relations and begins to fight against them, produces its own morality, different from the one imposed on it. At the same time, there is a certain continuity in the development of morality, reflecting the historical progress of universal human culture, as well as a certain commonality of conditions social life to various historical eras and different social groups. “... In morality, as in all other areas of human knowledge,” writes F. Engels, “in general, progress is being observed” (vol. 20, p. 96).

As moral relations progress, the role of the individual in the social process of regulating behavior increases. IN primitive society social discipline was maintained by the force of habit, tradition, and the authority of the elders of the clan. There could be no talk of personal consciousness here, because the individual had not yet distinguished himself from the species and had not thought about why he obeyed its demands. Only in the later period of the tribal system, as K. Marx notes, does the concept of personal dignity arise. An individual is already able to act independently on behalf of the interests of the clan. During the period of decomposition of the tribal system and the development of state-political relations, they are already beginning to demand from a person that she take certain actions, demanding from her moral sense and her own self-awareness.

During the Reformation, man's awareness moral significance of their actions is brought to the fore in morality (the theory of moral goodness). But even due to the class nature of morality, social demands in an exploitative society were perceived by the individual as something external and often came into conflict with his conscience. The higher the degree of humaneness of relations between people, the wider the scope of morality in the life of society. As social activity and the consciousness of the people develop, the scope of law gradually narrows and the role of the moral principle in everyday life increases.

Morality as a form of social consciousness, it is born in a system of concrete historical social relations, is their spiritual product, the sum of rules, requirements, norms governing interactions between people, their attitude to things and phenomena of the real world. Morality, relying on the power of public opinion, uses spiritual encouragement, compulsion, inducement, condemnation, influences the consciousness of people, educates them in the spirit of moral laws accepted in society. Morality specific person there is a mastered, internally accepted social morality that regulates his individual behavior, based on worldview beliefs and a sense of conscience.

Scientific concept the origin, essence of morality and moral education was developed, for example, in the Marxist-Leninist doctrine of the forms of social consciousness. This theory emphasizes the concrete historical nature of morality, questions the idea of ​​eternal and unchanging morality, and emphasizes its objective class character. Analysis of the relationship and interaction of class and universal morality retains its scientific, theoretical and practical significance today.

In connection with the introduction of a multi-structure and variety of forms of ownership in our society, social stratification occurs, and with it a divergence of ideas, concepts about moral principles and moral behavior. For example, some social strata retain a negative attitude towards the exploitation of man by man. In others, they see nothing immoral in partial exploitation, in the creation of a reserve army of the unemployed, in the polarization of wealth and poverty,

At the same time, one cannot help but see that, compared with the period of the October Revolution, changes have occurred in the field of economics and the entire ideological superstructure. Society has accumulated experience of centralized planning and moral and political unity. A number of common spiritual and moral values ​​have been developed. All this makes it possible today to talk about the priority of universal moral imperatives over class ones. The bitter experience of today's growth in social tension, the destructive consequences of strikes, and interethnic clashes also encourages us to understand the need for moral unity in society. Priority universal human values global processes and interactions also contribute. This is the unity of the world economic economy and the division of labor, the ecological unity of the planet, the unity of culture, the danger of nuclear war, the inability to cope alone with hunger, disease, and the consequences of natural disasters, natural Disasters. All this, of course, does not remove the problems of social-class confrontation between people and the class approach to morality. However, in the dialectical interaction of class and universal human imperatives, universal human interests and values ​​come to the fore, free people from class blindness, and allow them to look at class confrontations and confrontations through the prism of new thinking.

Moral consciousness a person in unity with his emotional sphere and behavior represents complex phenomenon. It consists of primary moral ideas, which become more complex and enriched over the course of life, and are integrated into moral concepts. However, the core of human morality is moral feeling, feelings, and conscience. An immoral individual may have fairly clear ideas about moral standards. But a person cannot be immoral if he has a developed moral sense, the ability to experience moral feelings, and torment of conscience. Moral feeling is inextricably linked with the moral ideal, perfect performance about human behavior, his attitude to life. Perfect, active, creative fulfillment of the moral demands of society is the moral ideal.

On the path of movement towards a moral ideal, teenagers, boys and girls experience moral quests, search for themselves, understand their essence, determine their place in complex, contradictory moral relations,

knowledge of oneself, determination of a moral position, manifestation of moral will. Moral quests constantly present schoolchildren with a moral choice in large and small matters between principled and unprincipled behavior.

The most important components of moral consciousness and behavior are moral need and will, desire, perseverance, and the ability to implement moral choices in life. Outside of moral will there can be no moral behavior. Blind obedience and thoughtless execution lead to weakness of will, spinelessness and, ultimately, immorality. Only conviction, agreement with one’s own conscience and strong-willed firmness together provide the possibility of a truly moral act.

The final component of moral consciousness and behavior is moral skills and habits that arise and are consolidated in the child’s nervous system as a kind of result of the entire set of moral attitudes and behavior. A state of habitual moral consciousness and behavior occurs when immoral acts, especially within the framework of simple norms, become practically impossible. Moral behavior becomes habitual, ordinary, and does not require control.

Morality is inextricably linked with other forms of social consciousness. It is especially closely intertwined with law. Moral education ensures law-abiding behavior of students. The educational function of art, in addition to the development of artistic taste, also lies in the moral formation of the student’s personality. Science contributes to the moral education of children, encourages them to serve people. All religious teachings have always been and are a way of introducing a certain morality into the consciousness of people. On the basis of morality as a form of social consciousness and influence, there are also. Pedagogical theories and systems of moral education are being developed.

ESSENCE AND "MECHANISMS" OF MORAL EDUCATION

Moral education is effectively carried out only as a holistic process of pedagogical, corresponding to the norms of universal morality, organization of the entire life of schoolchildren:

activities, relationships, communication, taking into account their age and individual characteristics. The result of the holistic process is the formation of a morally integral personality, in the unity of its consciousness, moral feelings, conscience, moral will, skills, habits, and socially valuable behavior.

The fundamental basic category of moral education is the concept moral sense- constant emotional sensation, experience, real moral relationships and interactions. Moral norms are transformed into sub-

active morality only thanks to their sensory assimilation by the child. Morality for him is first of all a living feeling, a real state and experience of deep satisfaction or, on the contrary, discomfort, suffering, physical disgust, self-condemnation and bitter repentance. Moral feeling is the system-forming principle of human morality. Thanks to him, moral consciousness, knowledge of norms of behavior, and habitual actions acquire moral meaning. Moral education that ignores the emotional sphere and aesthetic attitude to reality is weak, unable to form internal incentives and motivations for highly moral actions of children, and to control their behavior.

Assessing moral feeling as a fundamental principle does not mean neglecting moral consciousness. Developed moral consciousness presupposes knowledge of moral principles, norms and, at the same time, constant awareness and comprehension of one’s moral position in society, moral state, sensations, feelings. Moral consciousness is an active process of a child reflecting his moral attitudes and states. The subjective driving force for the development of moral consciousness is moral thinking- the process of constant accumulation and comprehension of moral facts, relationships, situations, their analysis, evaluation, making moral decisions, making responsible choices. Moral experiences and torment of conscience are generated by the unity of sensory states reflected in consciousness and their comprehension, evaluation, and moral thinking. The morality of an individual consists of subjectively mastered moral principles that guide him in the system of relationships and constantly pulsating moral thinking.

Moral feelings, consciousness and thinking are the basis and stimulus for the manifestation moral will. Outside of moral will and an effectively practical attitude towards the world, there is no real morality of the individual. It is realized in the unity of moral feeling and conscious, unshakable determination to realize one’s moral convictions in life. The moral behavior of an individual has the following sequence: life situation - the moral and sensory experience generated by it - moral understanding of the situation and motives of behavior, choice and decision-making - volitional stimulus - action. In life practice, especially in extreme conditions, all named components are always realized in unity. Children are often not inclined to deeply comprehend the situation, which leads them to random decisions. Their choice and behavior are made under the influence of crowd psychology, random external influences, mass hobbies, and impulsive stimuli. The instability of motives is determined by the strength of the feelings accompanying the situation, for example, fear, which deprives the child of the opportunity to make a conscious choice and implement volitional action. The point of instilling free moral will in schoolchildren is to

teach them self-control, help them gain inner freedom, the determination to act unwaveringly in accordance with moral feelings and convictions, and affirm moral standards in relationships with people. Human morality is manifested in conscious adherence to moral principles and in customary forms of moral behavior.

The child passes life path, at the beginning of which his behavior is determined by external influences and instinctive impulses. Education helps him to achieve internally meaningful behavior, self-control, self-regulation and self-government, conditioned by a worldview, moral sense and consciousness. Throughout this journey, the child is on different levels managing your own behavior.

The initial level, practically internally uncontrolled, is characterized by the dependence of behavior on unconscious impulses and external influences. Gradually, through the emotional subconscious sphere of the psyche, habits and habitual forms of behavior are formed. At this level of development, the possibility of some self-control over behavior arises thanks to habits and strengthening of habitual actions. On the basis of habitual behavior in diverse life situations, under the influence of targeted pedagogical influence, the child develops moral thinking. Together with him and with his help, on the basis of moral feelings, consciousness and will, moral qualities and personality traits are formed: patriotism, kindness, decency, honesty, truthfulness, justice, hard work, discipline, collectivism. These personality traits and qualities are mental new formations that arise as a result active interaction child with the world in the system of social relations. They are consistently manifested by the child in these relationships, recognized, and fixed in character traits, personality traits, habits and habitual forms of behavior. The highest level of moral behavior, a measure of a person’s moral stability, is conscious self-control, maintaining firmness and loyalty to moral convictions, especially in crisis and extreme situations. For children, such situations constantly arise in the process of life in a team, in educational, work, sports activities, in relationships with comrades and adults.

The success of moral education of children largely depends on the nature of the subjective moral space in which they live. It includes relationships and communication in a team, family, on the street with comrades and friends, parents, teachers, attitude towards oneself, towards nature, towards the outside world, work, lifestyle, and social demands. As soon as a child enters into a relationship with the world around him, he immediately forms real objective relationships and interdependencies, which are reflected in his subjective moral perception and form a subjective moral space for him.

earlyness This space has its own temporary, volumetric, aesthetic characteristics. It can be in a state of positive expansion, activity of moral interaction, be comfortable or uncomfortable, give rise to sublime experiences or a feeling of dissatisfaction with life. It can be limited, conservative, closed to narrow groups, companies, informal associations, which often leads the child to a narrowing of his subjective spiritual space, to experiencing a state of moral crisis, even hopelessness. The subjective moral space of schoolchildren is painted with aesthetic colors and shades, giving them a whole range of moods: major, minor, dramatic tension, tragic stress. The emergence of contradictions in the life relationships of children with outside world and among themselves generates tension of experiences, manifests itself in opposition, resistance to education, in hidden and open conflicts. Overcoming contradictions in the subjective moral space colors the life of schoolchildren in positive tones.

It is important for the teacher to know the state of the subjective moral space of all children, which reveals the moral climate in the team. He needs, through the pedagogical organization of children’s relationships and activities, to minimize spontaneous influences in the zone of moral space and interaction. If successful, managing interactions in the subjective moral space of children turns into an effective mechanism for the qualitative transformation of their personality.

All this. allows for a deeper understanding of the essence moral education. It is a mistake to consider inconsistency in the behavior and consciousness of schoolchildren as an accidental phenomenon or only as a result of shortcomings in education. The very essence of the moral development of the individual lies in the child’s overcoming of external and internal contradictions. In the endless stream of moral choices between desire and duty, discipline and misunderstood freedom, good and evil, conscience and delinquency, compassion and cruelty, love and hatred, truth and lies, selfishness and collectivism, openness and hypocrisy, character traits, moral qualities and personality properties. Moral education is not hammering home, not formal memorization of moral norms and thoughtless practicing of behavioral habits. It is an active life process of relationships, interactions, activities, communication and overcoming contradictions. It is a process of constant and systematic decisions, choices of volitional actions in favor of moral norms, a process of self-overcoming and self-government in accordance with them.. Only in struggle, overcoming contradictions within and outside oneself, can a child feel, feel and realize himself morally whole and strong, possessing yourself, not a prisoner of passions and circumstances. Thus, the pedagogical process of moral education is the organization of children to overcome and resolve

dealing with life's contradictions, problems, questions, conflicts and clashes. Inconsistency of content moral life schoolchildren should be considered as main object educational process, the organization of which must be systematically and constantly worked on, concentrating efforts on the skillful resolution of contradictions, the development of their moral sense, consciousness, habits, and habitual forms of behavior in this process.

The result of moral education is moral education. It materializes in socially valuable properties and qualities of the individual, manifests itself in relationships, activities, and communication. Moral education is evidenced by the depth of moral feeling, the ability to experience emotions, torment of conscience, suffering, shame and sympathy. It is characterized by the maturity of moral consciousness: moral education, the ability to analyze, judge the phenomena of life from the standpoint moral ideal, give them an independent assessment. Moral education is the stability of positive habits and habitual norms of behavior, a culture of relationships and communication in a healthy environment. children's group. Moral education is also indicated by the presence of a strong will in a student, the ability to exercise moral-volitional control and self-control, and regulation of behavior. It manifests itself in an active life position, unity of word and deed, civil courage and determination in difficult life situations to remain true to one’s convictions and to oneself.

Moral education is effective when its consequence is moral self-education and self-improvement schoolchildren. Self-education is the individual’s purposeful influence on himself in order to develop the desired character traits. For these purposes, children resort to radical means, putting themselves in extreme situations to strengthen their courage, strengthen their will, discipline, and endurance. Self-improvement is the process of deepening the general moral state of an individual, elevating the entire way of life, raising it to a level of higher quality. Schoolchildren of adolescence and adolescence are characterized by a desire for self-education. By the end of school, some boys and girls have a spiritual need for conscious self-improvement.

The moral education of children and adolescents, carried out in school, public organizations, out-of-school institutions and the family, ensures that the overwhelming majority of schoolchildren develop love for the Motherland, careful attitude to all the diversity of property and creative attitudes to work. Its result is collectivism, healthy individualism, attentive attitude towards people, self-exacting demands, high moral feelings of patriotism and internationalism, a combination of public and personal interests.

At the same time, today one cannot help but see shortcomings in the moral behavior of children and youth generated by the conditions of the stagnant period, the influence of bourgeois mass culture hostile to people, remnants in people’s consciousness, the immoral behavior of individual officials, the penetration of philistinism into family life, failures of moral education in school, and children's public organizations. The shortcomings and failures of moral education are due to the aggravated contradictions in life. On the one hand, the law of formation of morality is personal active labor participation in ensuring the satisfaction of social and personal needs. -On the other hand, there are harmful, outdated educational dogmas and vicious practices: traditions of satisfying all the needs of children without involving them in serious socially useful work. Protection from labor and meeting the needs of schoolchildren, regardless of its quality, leads children to consumer psychology. This distorts and distorts the spiritual and material needs of young people. Some schoolchildren are affected by social infantilism, skepticism, reluctance to actively participate in public affairs, and outright dependent sentiments. Some children suffer from lack of spirituality or see it in the exclusivity of their position in the society of their parents, and become isolated in their exclusive circle of friends. A peculiar form of lack of spirituality and impoverishment of spirit is the withdrawal of some young people from society into the subjective world or a state of “intoxication” under the influence of pop music, alcohol, and drugs. The most dangerous form of immoral state of some schoolchildren is moral hypocrisy, the practical use of two-three-degree morality:

one external, ostentatious - for school, public events; the other is for the home, for the family, misleading parents; the third is genuine - for your social circle and for yourself. In sight - social activity, in the soul - the conviction that life is built according to the laws of cruel egoism. They build all their relationships, even with friends, on the basis of “commodity-money” interaction: they trade in foreign rags, let them rewrite a film for money, girls provide paid sexual services, and boys, for a fee, protect their friend from being beaten or, conversely, beat him up . This is how the results of the contradiction between moral education in school and everyday life, spontaneous influences of reality. This contradiction and its negative consequences for society are gradually being removed along with the renewal of social life and the improvement of the system of moral education, strengthening the educational influence of all aspects of pedagogically organized life.

Resolving the contradictions of moral education requires a critical assessment of existing approaches to the organization and mechanisms of implementation of educational work. One of them -

verbal-event, requiring mainly the development of a certain amount of educational conversations that reveal the content moral rules on positive examples. However, moral education does not consist of giving young people sweet talk about morality. Verbal-action education is carried out, as a rule, in isolation from the rich moral problems real life children, without interfering with her and without influencing her in any way. Therefore, in the practical life and activities of children, a moral vacuum arises, which is filled by spontaneous, often negative influences.

Another approach is activity-based. It is opposed to verbal and consists of involving children in a specially designed system of activities and practicing behavioral skills. The activity approach to education, like the verbal one, being absolutized, distorts the process of moral education. There is no direct connection between the child’s activities and his moral consciousness. The child often does not discover and is not fully aware of the true motives of his activities. The absolutization of the activity approach relegates the assimilation of political, philosophical, and moral ideas to the background. The narrow activity approach essentially opposes the holistic approach to personality formation, which organically combines spiritual influence, and activity, and relationships, and communication, and the manifestation of internal motives, and independent comprehension of moral problems.

The approach of integrity, organic unity of moral education and life is theoretically justified and has proven itself in practice. The integrity of moral education is achieved when the basis, source and material of the pedagogical process is the complex and contradictory life itself. Morality is formed not at verbal or activity events, but in everyday relationships and the complexities of life, which the child has to understand, make choices, make decisions and perform actions. As a result, the moral consciousness of children matures, the principles of behavior and the ability to control themselves are strengthened. The holistic, dialectically contradictory process of moral education comes from life with its ideals, for which one must fight, make sacrifices, experience difficulties, negative phenomena, to overcome which one needs remarkable will and self-control. The true, deep, effective mechanism of moral education lies in resolving contradictions between the child, his self-affirmation and life. A schoolchild acquires good or bad moral qualities thanks to how he gets out of life situations, what moral choices he makes, and what actions he performs. Either he acquires the ability to manage himself, overcome external obstacles and internal weaknesses, or the situation captures him, creates confusion and fear, suppresses him, forces him to deceive and be a hypocrite. In the process of overcoming life's difficulties

and contradictions, deep emotional experiences, the child develops in himself the basis of morality - a moral and aesthetic feeling, the need for a good deed and moral satisfaction.

A teenager, a young man, a girl will never be able to fight evil if in life they pass by it indifferently and have not learned to hate it with all the strength of their soul. They will not be kind if they themselves have not experienced hardship and have not felt with their whole being the lack of human kindness. They will not love anyone but themselves if they have not had to overcome selfishness, give up pleasure for the benefit of other people. They will not be brave if they have never overcome their cowardice. They will not be able to sympathize and sympathize if they themselves do not experience suffering and pain. They will not learn to win and feel the joy of victory if they do not experience the bitterness of defeat. They will not be simple and modest in glory without experiencing loneliness, persecution and obscurity. Morality is formed in overcoming contradictions, in the fight against immorality. Each child needs to experience and overcome its own dose of difficulties, resolution of contradictions, and gain irreplaceable experience of a genuine moral life: satisfaction from good deeds, victory over oneself and external obstacles; strengthening the strength of spirit from choosing principled behavior; remorse for a false step; joy from kindness; courage from the fight against evil.

Forms of social consciousness: legal consciousness and moral consciousness (morality)

Forms of social consciousness are understood as various forms of reflection in the minds of people of the objective world and social existence, on the basis of which they arise in the process of practical activity.

Social consciousness exists and manifests itself in the forms of political consciousness, legal consciousness, moral consciousness, religious and atheistic consciousness, aesthetic consciousness, and natural scientific consciousness.

The existence of various forms of social consciousness is determined by the richness and diversity of the objective world itself - nature and society. Various forms of consciousness reflect the relations between classes, nations, social communities and groups, states and serve as the basis for political programs.

In science, specific laws of nature are learned. Art reflects the world in artistic images, etc. Having a unique subject of reflection, each form of consciousness has its own special form of reflection: scientific concept, moral norm, religious dogma, artistic image.

But the richness and complexity of the objective world only create the possibility of the emergence of various forms of social consciousness. This opportunity is realized on the basis of a specific social need. Thus, science arises when the simple empirical accumulation of knowledge becomes insufficient for the development social production. Political and legal views and ideas arose along with the class stratification of society.

Moral consciousness. Moral consciousness is one of the forms of social consciousness, which, like its other forms, is a reflection of social existence. It contains historically changing moral relations, which represent the subjective side of morality.

The basis of moral consciousness is the category of morality. Morality is a concept that is synonymous with morality, although in the theory of ethics there are different interpretations of these terms. For example, morality is considered as a form of consciousness, and morality is the sphere of morals, customs, and practical actions.

Morality arose earlier than other forms of social consciousness, even in primitive society, and acted as a regulator of people’s behavior in all spheres of public life: in everyday life, in work, in personal relationships. It had universal significance, extended to all members of the team and consolidated everything in common that constituted the value foundations of society, which formed the relationships between people. Morality supported social principles of life and forms of communication. It acted as a set of norms and rules of behavior developed by society. Moral rules were mandatory for everyone; they did not allow exceptions for anyone, because they reflected the essential living conditions of people, their spiritual needs. Morality reflects the relationship of a person to society, the relationship of a person to a person and the requirements of society to a person. It presents rules of behavior for people that determine their responsibilities to each other and to society.

Moral consciousness permeates all spheres of human activity. We can distinguish professional morality, everyday morality and family morality. At the same time, moral requirements have an ideological basis; they are associated with an understanding of how a person should behave. Moral behavior must be in accordance with relevant ideals and principles, while great importance here they have the concepts of good and evil, honor and dignity. Moral ideas are developed by society and can change as it develops and changes.

The main function of morality is to regulate the relationships of all members of society and social groups. Each person has certain needs (material and spiritual) and interests, the satisfaction of which may conflict with the needs and interests of other people or society as a whole. According to the “law of the jungle,” these contradictions could be resolved through the affirmation of the strongest. But such a resolution of conflicts could lead to the extermination of humanity. Therefore, the question arose about the need to approve the method of regulation conflict situations. A person was forced to combine his interests with the interests of society, he was forced to submit to the collective. If he did not obey the norms and rules of conduct in the tribe, then he should have left it, and this meant death. Therefore, the fulfillment of moral standards meant a significant stage in the development of mankind, and it is associated with the need for self-preservation.

In the process of moral development, certain principles and rules of behavior were developed, which were passed down from generation to generation; their observance was mandatory, and non-compliance was punished. In primitive society, morality and law were identical concepts, and the punishment system was harsh. With the division of society into classes, morality acquires a class character; each class has its own ideas about the norms and rules of behavior, which are determined by social and economic interests. Moral norms, reflected in the categories of good, evil, duty, conscience, honor, dignity, responsibility, have a specific historical content, determined by the level of development of society.

The concept of morality is dialectically changeable. F. Engels was right that “ideas about good and evil changed so much from people to people, from century to century, that they often directly contradicted one another.”

The content of morality is determined by the interests of specific social classes; at the same time, it should be noted that moral norms also reflect universal moral values ​​and principles. Such principles and norms as humanism, compassion, collectivism, honor, duty, loyalty, responsibility, generosity, gratitude, friendliness have a universal meaning. Moral norms of this kind are the basic rules of any society.

The modern world is becoming extremely interconnected and interdependent, so now, first of all, we should highlight universal human Eternal values. Under these conditions, the role of morality as a form of social consciousness and a universal regulator of activity increases significantly. There is continuity in moral requirements associated with simple and understandable forms of human relations, such as not stealing, not killing, honoring parents, keeping promises, helping those in need, etc. And always, at all times, cowardice, betrayal, greed, cruelty, slander, and hypocrisy have been condemned.

Moral consciousness is studied by one of the philosophical disciplines - ethics. Ethics (Greek, from - morality, custom, habit) is a theory of morality, the science of morality, which studies human relationships, the meaning of life, the concept of happiness, good and evil, moral values, and the reasons for the emergence of morality. Already the ancient philosophers considered ethics as a practical philosophy, for it sought to substantiate thoughts about what should be in the form moral principles and norms, in the form of ideals and spiritual needs. The term "ethics" was introduced by Aristotle.

In moral consciousness, two main principles should be distinguished: emotional and intellectual. The emotional principle is expressed in the form of attitude and worldview - these are moral feelings that represent a personal attitude towards various aspects of life. The intellectual principle is presented in the form of a worldview of moral norms, principles, ideals, awareness of needs, concepts of good, evil, justice, conscience.

The moral development of people becomes especially important due to the need modern society. Understanding universal human values ​​is possible only under the condition of the moral development of the individual, i.e. development in social terms, when it rises to the level of understanding of social justice.

Moral consciousness is connected with other forms of social consciousness, it influences them and, first of all, such a connection is visible with legal, political consciousness, aesthetic and religion. Moral consciousness and legal consciousness interact most closely. Both law and morality regulate relationships in society.

It should be noted that moral norms should not be dogmatic in the sense that morality could properly evaluate non-standard actions and phenomena; morality should not limit the freedom of individual development. A person’s moral consciousness can be ahead of its time, and people were very often pushed to fight against an unfairly structured world not only by economic reasons, but also by moral dissatisfaction with the existing situation, the desire to change and improve the world based on the principles of goodness and justice.

Legal awareness- this is one of the forms, types of social consciousness. Legal consciousness is most closely related to political consciousness, because both the political and economic interests of social groups are directly manifested in it. It has a significant impact on the economy, politics, and all aspects of social life.

Legal consciousness is understood as a system of knowledge and assessments through which the sphere of law is understood by social subjects (individuals, groups, classes). Legal consciousness performs regulatory, evaluative and cognitive functions in society.

Legal awareness is a form of social consciousness that reflects knowledge and assessments of the standards of socio-political activity of subjects of law accepted in society as legal laws: an individual, a collective, an enterprise.

Legal consciousness has a specific historical nature; it changes in connection with changes in the economic and political conditions of society, but at the same time, it should be noted that there is a significant continuity between the past and the present. Legal consciousness is closely connected with all forms of social consciousness, but most of all it interacts with political and moral consciousness. Legal consciousness is the means that guarantees the fulfillment of tasks and rules identified by political consciousness; it has the opposite effect on it. The legal consciousness of society helps to support the idea of ​​regulated relations between the individual and the state; it is necessary to establish law and order, to protect society from arbitrariness and anarchy. But if political consciousness is formed depending on socio-economic interests, then legal consciousness is also based on rational and moral assessments.

Legal consciousness arises with the advent political organization society, law, with the division of society into classes. It arose as a social order for the need to regulate social relations and served as a means of political stability of society. Legal awareness appeared as a need to have clear knowledge about the law, about its assessment by various social groups and classes. Legal awareness is related to law. This connection is explained by the common reasons for their occurrence, functioning and change. Legal awareness and law at the same time are not identical. Law is legal laws, it is a system of universally binding social norms protected by the power of the state. With the help of law, social forces that have state power in their hands regulate the behavior of people, groups, classes, and establish certain social relations as mandatory.

Execution of the right is mandatory, it is ensured state power. The rules of law regulate social relations, the participants of which are bearers of rights and obligations. Legal relations are relationships between individuals, organizations, government agencies, related to each other by duties and rights, they are guaranteed by law and reflect the measure of possible and proper behavior. Legal norms do not allow deviations from legal requirements. The law provides for civil, administrative, disciplinary and criminal liability for violations.

A legal state differs from a non-legal state in the content and quality of laws; they must be fairer, more humane, and enshrine the rights of every person. Man has these rights by nature. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights states: “Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person.” But freedom has a certain measure, i.e. implies a limitation. In society, this measure of freedom is expressed in the form of law and should be equal for everyone. Human rights express the possibilities of his actions in various spheres of life: political, economic, cultural, personal.

The rule of law constitutionally enshrines the freedom of people and their equality in rights as the innate qualities of every person. The inviolability of human rights, his honor and dignity, his interests, their protection and guarantee are the principles of the rule of law. In turn, the individual also undertakes to obey the general regulations of the state. In a rule-of-law state, the principle of mutual responsibility of the individual and the state is established. Unlike a non-legal state, a legal state manages society in a normative manner, i.e. through laws, the basis of which is civil society.

Legal consciousness is called upon to play a major role in the creation of a rule of law state.

Legal consciousness reflects those changes that occur in the sphere of both material and spiritual production, in the sphere of law. Legal awareness includes views, ideas about lawful and unlawful, legal and illegal, fair and unfair, as well as feelings and emotions.

The structure of legal consciousness includes such elements as legal ideology and legal psychology.

Legal ideology is designed to reflect the legal and related political reality quite deeply; it is characterized by consistency, logic, and the ability to predict. Legal ideology includes the theory of state and law, a system of knowledge about the legal basis, a theory of legal development based on an analysis of objective reality. Legal ideology, like any other ideology, is developed by specialist ideologists and legal scholars.

The formation of legal ideology is significantly influenced by economic basis society.

In the structure of legal consciousness, an important element is legal psychology, as a specific form of its manifestation, including feelings, moods, traditions, customs, public opinion, social habits and formed under the direct influence of a variety of social phenomena.

In the structure of legal consciousness, according to subjective criteria, one can distinguish individual, group and mass (for example, class) consciousness.

According to the level of reflection of reality, the following concepts can be distinguished: ordinary, professional and scientific legal consciousness. Ordinary legal consciousness is formed spontaneously in the everyday practice of people, as an empirical reflection of the legal and interconnected moral and political aspects of the life of society. Professional and theoretical legal consciousness are a reflection of the essential connections and patterns of reality and find their expression in legal science and other forms of consciousness (for example, political and moral).

In practice, everyday, professional and theoretical consciousness are very closely interconnected and interact, however, for philosophical understanding they need to be isolated and presented in a specific form. The named levels of legal consciousness cannot replace each other, but they interact very actively. For example, at the ordinary level of legal consciousness, the laws existing in society are considered and assessed from the standpoint of their compliance with moral standards, while professional and scientific legal thinking examines law from the standpoint of its political content and compliance with the principles of a rational state structure.

Legal consciousness is historical in nature, since legislative law itself is historically specific. But along with the changing aspects in legal consciousness, it also retains a stable constant characteristic - this is the idea of ​​​​society, based on specific legal relations. Legal awareness is intended to support this idea, which regulates the relations between classes, social groups, individuals and the state. At the same time, the specificity of legal consciousness lies in the fact that it not only reflects existing law, but can also critically evaluate the current legal system and can put forward its moral and legal ideal as a symbol of justice.

Ethics deals with problems of morality and morality. Morality means a certain sphere of public and personal life, the sphere of culture. The sphere of morality includes various phenomena: rules and norms of behavior, assessments and values, ideals, properties and abilities of human character, human behavior itself.

The first ethical ideas arose during the disintegration of the primitive communal system and the emergence of class society.

The essence of morality. Morality- a form of self-awareness, through which a person comes to comprehend his existence, his calling, and therefore the purpose and meaning of his existence.

Throughout history, any class has tried to adapt morality to its interests, with its help to justify its way of life.

The peculiarity of morality is that it does not apply in any one area human activity, it has an all-penetrating ability, regulating human relations in any sphere.

Morality is multifunctional, i.e. it can solve various socio-historical problems. With the help of morality a person can navigate the world social values, in the world of human culture. Through a system of norms, prohibitions, assessments, and ideals, morality regulates people's behavior.

Morality is selective. The questions that morality confronts a person and the destruction of which it requires him to destroy are ideological in nature. But she puts them in practically behavioral form. This is where morality differs from philosophy and science.

Due to its ideological orientation, morality is an internally integral, ordered system. The specific essence of morality is manifested in its functions:

1. regulatory

2. educational

3. educational

4. evaluative-imperative

5. orienting

6. motivational

7. communicative

8. prognostic.

Morality includes: moral activity, moral attitudes, moral consciousness.

There are 3 types of connections that exist between people, and on this basis 3 types of morality:

· the first type of connections are natural connections characteristic of the initial stage of human development

· the second type of connections – connections, relationships of personal dependence, determined by the nature of the social structure.

In their simplest and cruelest form, these relations manifest themselves at the initial stage of the development of class society, where a person is the property of another person.

In their most weakened form, these relations are inherent in the later stage of development of class society, which is characterized by social inequality maintained through political and legal institutions, religious and moral mechanisms.

· the third type of connections is characteristic of a society in which personal independence and new form dependencies are real.

The word aesthetics is Greek. origin, translated meaning “related to sensory cognition" The term aesthetics entered science in the middle. XVIII century It was first used by the German philosopher A. Baumgarten to designate a new branch of philosophy. This word has been fixed in philosophical terminology since the 18th century. aesthetics began to be understood as a science that studies either the “philosophy of beauty” or the “philosophy of art.” Aestheticians now have their own subject of study.

Categories (Greek kategoria - “statement, attribute”) are the most general and fundamental concepts that reflect the essential, universal properties and relationships of the phenomena of reality and knowledge and are the result of a logical generalization of empirical (experience-based) material.

The phenomenological series of the meta-category “aesthetic” is represented by a system of basic aesthetic categories: beautiful, ugly, sublime, base, tragic, comic. They reflect the most essential aspects of human aesthetic activity, aesthetic cognition and assessment of reality.

Beautiful- an aesthetic category that characterizes phenomena that have the highest aesthetic value and embodies ideas about positive perfection and harmony. Modern aesthetics considers the category of beauty as one of the most general aesthetic concepts, in which not only the real properties of objects and phenomena of reality are recorded and the attitude towards them is expressed, but also ideas about perfection are embodied. The category of beauty contains a positive assessment of objects and phenomena, properties, aspects, processes of real natural and social reality from the standpoint of the superlative degree of beauty.

Specific manifestations beautiful are studied using so-called auxiliary categories that describe one or another modification of beauty. The main auxiliary categories are: harmony (consistent unity of opposites in complex objects); grace (beauty in motion); grace (fragility, delicacy of form); charm (manifestation of beauty in objects of small forms); measure (required quantity); order; rhythm; symmetry; proportion, etc.

In the history of aesthetics ugly traditionally considered as a category correlated with the beautiful, it was presented as the antipode of the beautiful, as the denial of beauty, as something opposite and opposed to the beautiful, devoid of integrity (without an image). In the modern interpretation, the category of ugly reflects the negative aesthetic value. Ugly denotes something repulsive, causing displeasure due to its disharmony, disproportion, disorder, and reflects the impossibility or lack of perfection. The category of ugly indicates the aesthetic property of objects, the natural characteristics of which have a negative universal significance, although they do not pose a serious threat to humanity, since the forces contained in these objects have been mastered by man and are subordinated to him. Ugly is a kind of dissonance, a contradiction between reality and ideal, which, however, does not pose a danger to a person and his values.

Different forms of art have different possibilities for conveying ugliness. For example, in painting these possibilities are more limited (too obvious for the viewer, which can cause rejection), while a poet can depict the ugly and ugly more widely.

Sublime- a category of aesthetics that reflects the totality of natural, social and artistic phenomena that are exceptional in their qualitative and quantitative characteristics and, thanks to this, act as a source of deep aesthetic experience.

Category sublime characterizes the aesthetic value of objects and phenomena that have a special positive significance, but due to their colossal power cannot yet be mastered by society and the individual. In nature, for example, the vast expanses of sky and sea, huge mountains, majestic rivers and waterfalls, grandiose natural phenomena - storm, thunderstorm, tornado, volcanic eruption, etc. are sublime. In social life, vivid manifestations of the sublime are contained in outstanding deeds of both individuals (great people, heroes) and entire classes, masses, and peoples serving the cause of progress. In art, the sublime manifests itself in such forms as grandeur, scale, and monumentality. In the history of art, a number of special genres have been formed dedicated to the reflection of the sublime: epic, heroic poem, ode, hymn, oratorio, cantata, monumental genres of painting and sculpture.

Sublime reveals the dual nature of man: it suppresses a person as a physical being, makes him realize his limitations, but at the same time elevates his spiritual essence, awakens in a person the consciousness of moral superiority over events that are incommensurable and overwhelming him, sets the ideal of overcoming, developing human abilities and capabilities.

In the phenomenon sublime the sensual principle is not denied, but undergoes a moral transformation. It becomes spiritually sensual. In the sublime, reflection and spiritual feelings come to the fore. The sublime provides an incentive to achieve a new, even more significant measure of beauty and serves as a guide on the path to the aesthetic ideal.

Lowland- an aesthetic category that characterizes extremely negative phenomena of reality and the properties of social and individual life associated with the manifestation of disharmony and accompanied by the perception of feelings of disgust or contempt.

Lowland directly borders on the aesthetic categories of the ugly and the comic. These adjacent, intersecting categories find artistic reflection and evaluation in a number of art genres (comedy, pamphlet, epigram, farce, parody, caricature, etc.).

Natural phenomena are perceived as base if their individual aspects or properties are associated with unworthy behavior of a person or threaten his existence. The base in social life is manifested in those cases when human actions There is a lack of spirituality and an excess of the biological, animal nature, i.e. the harmony of internal and external entity in a beautiful person. Betrayal, cowardice, meanness, cynicism, disharmony of the spiritual and physical - all this is “subject to the jurisdiction” of the category of base.

Category lowland is common to two sciences - ethics and aesthetics, since it characterizes phenomena that represent moral evil and threaten the good of humanity. Therefore, in contrast to the category of ugly, for the base it turns out that the presence of defects in form in an object is unimportant.

Tragic- an aesthetic category that characterizes the intense experience of conflict associated with spiritual overcoming, transformation (catharsis), suffering or emotions of the hero. Within the framework of philosophical analysis, tragic is a form of dramatic awareness and experience by a person of a conflict with forces that threaten his existence and lead to the death of a person or important spiritual values.

Tragic does not imply the passive suffering of a person under the weight of forces hostile to him, but his free, active activity, rebellion against fate, fate, circumstances and the fight against them. In the tragic, a person reveals himself at a turning point, a tense moment of his existence.

The sphere of the tragic is in that area of ​​reality where a person in his activity encounters phenomena that are not yet known to him and are not subject to his will.

Tragic is closely related to the sublime and heroic, since it presupposes a heroic personality striving to achieve sublime goals.

Aristotle in “Poetics” introduced the concept of “catharsis”, with the help of which he explained the mechanism of the impact of tragedy on the soul of the viewer, the process of experiencing the tragic. In modern research on aesthetics, this concept is interpreted more broadly as the general process of experiencing art. In addition, it is believed that catharsis has not only the function of purification, but also the release of feelings. Therefore, the purification of the spirit is characteristic not only of tragedy, but also of other genres and types of art, the purpose of which is to discharge the psychological stress of the perceiving subject and create an internal balance of his psyche.

Existence tragic beginning V human life was originally realized in artistic form- in myths and legends, then in the genre of tragedy, and on this basis received a theoretical generalization in aesthetics in the works of Aristotle, G. Lessing, F. Schiller, A. Schlegel, G. Hegel, N. Chernyshevsky and others.

Comic- an aesthetic category that reflects the degree of discrepancy between reality and the ideal, what is and what should be, and represents in an emotional form the contradictions of social life and the shortcomings of people. The category of the comic reflects life phenomena that are characterized by internal inconsistency, a discrepancy between what they essentially are and what they look like. The comic is a specific form of revealing and assessing social contradictions, an emotionally rich form of their criticism.

For contradictions that give rise to the comic, it is characteristic that the first side of the contradiction in time of perception looks significant and makes a great impression on us, while the second side, which we perceive later in time, disappoints with its inconsistency.

Comic found in different types art. In literature, painting, cinema, theater, comedy is obvious and is realized in various genres: comedy, parody, epigram, anecdote, farce, caricature, cartoon, etc. In music, comedy is less obvious and its existence is complicated by the very nature of music. It is believed that the only type of art that is unable to reflect the comic is architecture, since it directly expresses the ideals of society and cannot directly criticize or deny anything.

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Ethics is the most important part of philosophy, the subject of which is morality.

In a traditional society, a person does not set critical tasks; he is part of the cultural environment and he accepts its cultural values, traditions and stereotypes almost automatically or unconsciously. When performing a generally accepted ritual or following a cultural tradition, a person does not think about the possibility of other behavior options. Cultural tradition acts as a way to unite people, demonstrating their commitment to a common value system that is common to all.

The word "Ethics" was formed by Aristotle from the word "ethos", which had several meanings. It with- this is a habitual habitat, a dwelling, an animal lair. Later it began to denote the stable nature of a phenomenon, a custom, simply a habit, disposition, character, temperament.

Ethics- moral philosophy, where ethics is a field of knowledge, and morality is its subject.

The specificity of ethics is that it gives a universal human scale to the problems of an individual, so that the proposed solutions can be extended to any other individual facing the same problems.

Ethics is a study of the fundamental values ​​and goals of human life (good and evil, happiness, love, etc.), but also an analysis of the concept of morality.

FUNCTIONS OF MORALITY:

regulatory (basic) the essence is to guide the behavior of the individual in accordance with the moral norms developed in society, the tool is public opinion, customs, authority

educational patterns of behavior are formed, morality forms moral qualities

evaluative-imperative human behavior is determined by a value system

educational associated with the acquisition of knowledge (how to make choices in simple or extreme situations)

communicative ensuring understanding of each other, exchange of values

prognostic what can you expect from society

cultural and creative morality is the side of social life, moral dimensions of personality, guided by reason (subordination of passion to reason)

ideological, ideological moral assessment

Morality is inextricably linked with morality. If morality is certain principles, ideas, norms. cat. guide, regulate people’s behavior., then morality is that part of life, cat. associated with the affairs, customs, morals, and practical behavior of people.

Speaking about the moral dimension of society, it is of great importance Golden Rule morality is a fundamental rule of morality, identified with morality itself, which sounds like a trace. image: “DO NOT DO (WISH) TO ANOTHER PERSON WHAT YOU DON’T WISH FOR YOURSELF”

The structure of morality consists of several elements. Since the time of Aristotle, they have been distinguished as such moral consciousness And moral actions. Modern ethics adds to them moral relations. Thus, the structure of morality includes:

A) moral consciousness – regulatory ideas that encourage action;

b) moral activity – actions, to the extent that they are generated by moral motives (the structure of a moral act - see the next lecture);

V) moral relations – any relationship, to the extent that they are the implementation of moral requirements ( relationship to family, to work, to the Motherland, to nature; and relationship between people, if moral standards are embodied in these relationships).

Moral consciousness is one of the forms of social consciousness, which, like its other forms, is a reflection of the social existence of people. Moral consciousness includes values, norms, and ideals. Here morality manifests itself as the pursuit of perfection. Moral consciousness is the spiritual side of morality: norms and principles of behavior, goals, emotions, feelings, experiences, beliefs, acts of will and other ideal factors. It is a reflection of the life-practical and historical experience of people in the form of individual and collective ideas, serves as a mechanism of social continuity, regulation and organization of life, and provides an assessment of the results of individual behavior.

Moral consciousness functions at two levels of regulation in relations between people: emotional-sensual (ordinary consciousness) and rational-theoretical (ethics). Emotional level - a person’s mental reaction to an event, attitude, phenomenon. It includes emotions, feelings, mood.

Emotional-sensual moral consciousness determines a person’s relationship: to other people (feelings of sympathy or antipathy, trust or mistrust, jealousy, hatred, etc.); to oneself (modesty, dignity, vanity, pride, exactingness, etc.); to society as a whole (sense of public duty, patriotism, national pride and etc.). The rational level - the individual’s ability for logical analysis and self-analysis - is the result of the purposeful formation of moral consciousness in the process of training, education and self-education.

Moral self-awareness. This is a person’s awareness of himself as an individual and his place in the social activities of people.

Self-awareness is a critical component of the structure of morality. Self-awareness is fundamentally moral, since, firstly, it is permeated by the presence (significance) of another or others. And secondly, the image of the “I” initially contains the “ideal-I” or the desire for perfection.

Duty – a category of ethics, meaning the individual’s attitude towards society and other people, expressed in moral obligation towards them in specific conditions. Duty is a moral task that a person formulates for himself on the basis of moral requirements addressed to everyone. This is a personal task for a specific person in a specific situation. Duty can be social: patriotic, military, the duty of a doctor, the duty of a judge, the duty of an investigator. Personal debt: parental, filial, conjugal, comradely.

Conscience sometimes called the other side of debt. Conscience is a self-evaluating feeling, experience, one of the oldest intimate and personal regulators of human behavior. Conscience is a category of ethics that characterizes a person’s ability to exercise moral self-control, internal self-esteem from the standpoint of compliance of his behavior with moral requirements, independently formulate moral tasks for himself and demand that he fulfill them. Conscience is a person’s subjective awareness of his duty and responsibility to society and other people, acting as a duty and responsibility to himself.

The sense of conscience protects a person from the bad, the vicious, stimulates nobility, responsibility - people often appeal to their own conscience and to the conscience of others, evaluate themselves and others, using the concepts of “clear conscience”, “bad conscience”, “sleeping conscience”, “ conscientious person", "unscrupulous", "remorse", etc. The role of conscience is especially important when a person is faced with a moral choice, and external control from public opinion is either excluded or difficult.

Guilt - a state of a person caused by his violation of duty. The feeling of guilt is caused by a situation of choice in which a person finds himself as a result of awareness of a duty or the presentation of a demand to him, the very fact of which confirms his freedom as the ability to choose between the right (required, appropriate) and the wrong. Awareness of guilt is expressed in a feeling of shame, pangs of conscience. Repentance lies in the recognition (in particular, confessional) of one’s guilt, and in the conscious acceptance of punishment, guilt is expiated.

Guilt is a negatively colored feeling, the object of which is a certain action of the subject, which seems to him to be the cause of negative consequences for other people. If the consequences have Negative influence only on the subject, then a feeling of annoyance arises, not guilt.

Repentance - a feeling of regret about one’s actions or misdeeds.

Separately, manners constitute elements or traits of culture, and together they form a special cultural complex called etiquette.

The words “etiquette” and “ethics” are perceived as close in meaning. And this is natural. This perception is prompted not only by the similarity of the words themselves, but also by the close connection of these concepts. However, in fact, these words came together relatively recently. The word "etiquette" is borrowed from French, and “ethics” is from Latin. The French word etiquette has two meanings: 1) label, label, inscription and 2) ceremony, etiquette - and in turn is borrowed from the Dutch sticke (“peg”, “peg”). Initially, it meant a peg to which a piece of paper with the name of the product was tied, and later - the piece of paper itself with the inscription. Based on the meaning of “inscription”, a narrower meaning developed - “a note indicating the sequence of ceremonial actions” and then “ceremonial”. Even at the beginning of the 20th century, the word “etiquette” could mean in Russian “a label pasted on bottles and wrappers of goods, indicating the name of the company, trader and manufacturer,” but the word “label” was still stuck with this meaning.

The very concept of “etiquette” became isolated relatively recently. It is not easy to define its boundaries. In the dictionary, this sAov is understood as “a set of rules of behavior relating to the external manifestation of attitude towards people (dealing with others, forms of addresses and greetings, behavior in public places, manners and clothing).” However, here, according to the fair remark of A.K. Bayburin and A.L. Toporkov, the differences between everyday, etiquette and ritual situations are not taken into account.

Etiquette as a ritual norm and cultural standard is a system of rules of behavior adopted in special cultural circles that make up a single whole.

Nevertheless, etiquette can be understood more broadly - as a special form of everyday communication, which contains a set of rules of politeness and special formulas of colloquial speech. Certain elements of etiquette are interspersed into the cultural fabric of communication between representatives of all walks of life, but for some to a greater extent and for others to a lesser extent. An example is telephone etiquette. The rules of etiquette do not recommend calling a friend at work on private matters, or at home on business matters.

The concepts of “etiquette” and “communication” are not equivalent. Etiquette is always implemented in communication, but not all communication is etiquette (A.K. Bayburin and A.L. Toporkov). The concept of communication is much broader than etiquette.

Any act of cultural communication presupposes the presence of at least two partners with different communicative status. Communication partners may differ in age, gender, social status, nationality, religious affiliation, degree of acquaintance and relationship. Depending on them, the style, tactics and strategy of communication changes. For example, the younger one is obliged to listen to the older one and not interrupt his speech; a man in the communicative process does not have the right to tell a lady such phrases that may confuse her, say, vulgarity or ambiguity. The culture of communication allows a subordinate to show some elements of flattery in a conversation with a boss, and a man to show elements of flirtation in a conversation with a woman. In this case, etiquette should be understood as “a set of special techniques and behavioral traits with the help of which the communicative status of communication partners is identified, maintained and played out.” Etiquette can be compared to a system of cultural restraint, since it is intended to ensure polite communication between unequal partners.

According to T.V. Tsivyan, the implementation of each rule is always aimed at a specific addressee and requires a specific response (at least to the degree of “notice”). Etiquette behavior is usually designed for two addressees - immediate and distant (the public). In such situations, etiquette is compared to the actions of actors, oriented simultaneously towards both the partner and the audience.