How Britain became the most powerful colonial power. Pirates in search of old maps: how England became a great maritime power

In the 16th century, the Netherlands and England took part in the struggle for world maritime dominance. For a long time, Portugal and Spain had a monopoly on the export of gold and spices from the colonies. However, the weakness of industrial production in these countries determined the backwardness of their economies despite the constantly renewed supply of precious metals. Portugal and Spain were forced to buy manufactured goods from the more advanced European economies. Thus, the Netherlands, England, and France began to accumulate gold and silver, which Portugal and Spain brought from America, Africa and Asia, acting as intermediaries between industrial Europe and the rest of the world. The mediation was beneficial to Portugal and Spain, but did not suit the first the turn of the Netherlands and England, whose smuggling trade with the Spanish and Portuguese colonies at the end of the 16th century was twice as high as their trade with the mother countries. This was the reason for the loss of world domination by Portugal and Spain and its transition first to the Netherlands, and then, after a long struggle on the seas at different ends of the oceans, to England. France, although it aspired to world maritime domination, never mastered it.

The attempts of Portugal and, above all, Spain to protect their economic interests by restricting the trade of Holland and other European states with colonies led to a negative result. In 1573, after a seven-year war, Holland achieved independence from the Spanish kingdom, of which it had previously been a part.

England demanded "freedom of the seas". The commercial monopoly and dominance of Spain and Portugal on the seas were gradually destroyed. At that time, English ships and ships of other European countries were not allowed to enter the ports of the Spanish and Portuguese colonies, which naturally limited the possibilities and growth of world trade.

Initially, the struggle was fought with the help of pirates, many of whom were in the public service and had a “patent” (letter of marque) to rob foreign ships and kill. Privateering, as this type of maritime activity was called, especially flourished under the English Queen Elizabeth I, and English pirates are most famous in the history of that time. They attacked Spanish ships carrying gold and silver to Europe. Ports and even cities far from the coast were subjected to robberies in America. Many pirates made geographical discoveries, exploring the seas and coasts of America on their own. Simultaneously with piracy, the slave trade was actively carried out.

A famous English pirate who later became Lord and Admiral of the Royal Navy of England, Francis Drake started out as a slave trader. In 1577?-1580, he made the second trip around the world in history, discovering the southern tip of America? Cape Horn. Along the way, the British attacked and plundered Spanish and other foreign ships. Upon Drake's arrival in London, the Queen of England and the nobles who financed Drake's venture received 4,700 percent of the profits. The flagship of Drake's squadron, the Pelican (renamed Golden Hind on the way), had a length of 26 m, a width of 7 m, and a displacement of 100 tons (Fig. 8.13).

Piracy, smuggling and the unauthorized slave trade of the British, religious and political differences between Spain and England led to war. The Spanish King Philip II organized
in 1588, the construction, purchase and preparation of a powerful fleet for the transfer to England of a strong land army from the Netherlands.

However, this was the beginning of the end of Spain's world domination of the sea. The defeat of the “Invincible Armada”, as the Spaniards called the squadron, showed the advantage of high-speed English ships
leys with guns mounted on the sides, over the slow-moving clumsy Spanish galleons and galleasses, most of which were armed with guns on the bow and stern superstructures.

The Spanish squadron had 50 transport ships for the expeditionary force from the Netherlands, 60 galleons with a displacement of about 1000 tons, eight galleasses (sailing and rowing ships of obsolete
type). The British had 34 warships (of which only two had a displacement of more than 1000 tons), about 100 pirate and hastily armed merchant ships. English ships were faster and more maneuverable, guns? more long-range than the Spaniards. The total number of crews and troops in the Spanish squadron was about 30 thousand, but in the English? 15 thousand people.

At the end of July 1588, after a many-day battle in the English Channel, the Spaniards were defeated and the sea power of Spain was crushed (Portugal at that time was part of Spain).

But England has not yet become the "mistress of the sea." The Netherlands, which by this time had a large fleet and experienced naval personnel, certain conquests in South Asia and the Far East, are turning into the strongest maritime power in the world.

The Dutch began their ascent back in the 15th century, when they were mainly engaged in the export of grain from the countries of the Baltic Sea and caught herring in the North Sea. Then in the 16th century, in search of new ways to
China and India they are trying to find a north-eastern passage to the countries of the East (expedition of V. Barents).

In 1595, Dutch ships made their first voyage to the Indian Ocean. In 1596, a flotilla of four ships reached the island of Java. Holland's colonial takeover of countries began
South Asia and the Far East.

In South Asia, the Dutch were opposed by the Portuguese. In 1605, off the coast of Malacca, the Portuguese-Spanish squadron was defeated by the Dutch fleet. In the future, the Dutch also obsessed
whether repeatedly victories in naval battles against the Portuguese.

The 17th century was golden for the Netherlands. At this time, a new type of ship was recognized? the famous three-masted flute (Fig. 8.14), which, due to its maneuverability, very spacious holds, and the presence of cannons, was used as a warship and as a merchant ship. Shipbuilding in the Netherlands was on the rise, as flutes have been built here in large numbers since 1600. The first one was built in 1595. The length of these vessels was 4x6 or more times their width. This increased seaworthiness and allowed them to sail quite steeply into the wind. For the first time in shipbuilding practice, topmasts invented in 1570 were used in rigging. The height of the masts exceeded the length of the vessel, and the yards became shortened. The sails became small, narrow and easy to maintain, which reduced the overall number of the top crew. For the first time, a rudder appeared on flutes to facilitate rudder shifting. The flutes of the beginning of the 17th century had a length of about 40 m, a width of about 6.5 m, a draft of 3.0–3.5 m, and a carrying capacity of 350–400 tons. From 10 to 20 guns were installed for self-defense. The crew consisted of 60-? 65 people. The flutes had good seaworthiness, high speed and large capacity. In 1598 the Dutch reached Japan and established trade relations with it.

Dutch pirates and navy continue to undermine the maritime power of Spain and Portugal.

At this time, trading companies were created, which later became world famous, including the Dutch East India Company, which began to control the destinies of many states. The company was organized in 1602 (the English East India Company was founded in 1600, there was also the French East India Company). She received from parliament the exclusive right to trade, the right to mint her coin, as well as administrative and legal power in all the lands she discovered. The company maintained its own army and armed fleet, conducted independent military operations against Spain and Portugal.

In 1606, the Dutch East India Company sent a small ship called the Little Dove under the command of William Janson to search for Terra Australis Incognita (Unknown Southern Land). The ship reached Cape York and mapped 300 kilometers of the Australian coast. This was the first historically documented European visit to Australia.

The “Little Pigeon” (Fig. 8.15) had a waterline length of only about 20 m, a width of 6 m, a draft of 2.45 m, and a displacement of 110 tons.

Gradually the possession of the world's largest trading empire? The Dutch East India Company spread to Sumatra, Java, Timor, the Molluk Islands and the western part of New Guinea (Fig. 8.16). Throughout the 17th century, Holland remained the world's leading supplier of products such as coffee, sugarcane, and spices.

By the middle of the 17th century, the fleet of “sea cabs of Europe”, as the Dutch were called in those days, had 16,000 ships and accounted for half of the world's tonnage. The Netherlands has become the most powerful
maritime power of the world.

Half a century after the death of the “invincible Spanish Armada”, the British were forced to resort to the economic means introduced in their time against them by the Spaniards. Yes, as suggested
Cromwell in 1651 followed by a ban on the transport of goods to England on foreign ships. It was forbidden to purchase goods through Dutch intermediaries. This almost immediately led to war in 1652.

There were three wars between England and Holland almost without interruption: in 1652-? 1657; 1664?-1667; 1672?-1674. All three were militarily won by the Dutch. In the second war in June 1666,
It was one of the largest battles in world history. More than 80 English ships opposed more than 90 Dutch. The Dutch under Admiral de Ruyter won, inflicting one of the most crushing defeats on the British in their history. The British lost 17 ships of the line (nine were captured by the Dutch) against four lost by the Dutch. 60 Dutch ships sailed up the Thames and destroyed all English ships below London.

However, military victories exhausted the Netherlands, French troops invaded their territory, and the Dutch were forced to sign a peace treaty with England. They recognized the requirements of the British
vat in relation to maritime trade, and the era of domination of the Netherlands was gradually replaced by the era of the new “mistress of the seas”? England. In accordance with the change in the maritime influence of individual countries
the leading centers of shipbuilding are also moving.

210 years ago, on October 21, 1805, the Battle of Trafalgar took place - the decisive battle between the English fleet under the command of Vice Admiral Horatio Nelson and the Franco-Spanish fleet of Admiral Pierre Charles Villeneuve. The battle ended with the complete defeat of the Franco-Spanish fleet, which lost twenty-two ships, while the British fleet lost none.

The Battle of Trafalgar was part of the War of the Third Coalition and the most famous naval confrontation of the 19th century. This naval battle had strategic implications. The decisive British naval victory confirmed British naval superiority. Anglo-French rivalry at sea ran like a red thread through the entire 18th century. The naval confrontation, which began with the battles of England with Spain, and England with Holland, and then England with France (with the support of Spain), ended in a convincing victory for the British. England won the status of "mistress of the seas" for a long time. Napoleon, despite convincing victories on land, had to postpone the idea of ​​​​a landing operation in England.

At the same time, the assertions of some Western researchers that the Battle of Trafalgar was of decisive importance in the defeat of the French Empire have no basis. The outcome of the confrontation with Napoleon was decided on land. And only Russian bayonets crushed Napoleon's empire. In the field of tactics, Admiral Nelson successfully applied the recommendations of the English military theorist J. Clerk and the combat experience of the Russian fleet, including Admiral F. F. Ushakov. Nelson resolutely abandoned the dogmas of linear tactics that dominated the 18th century. and to which his adversary adhered. Earlier, the Russian Admiral Ushakov won his victories in the same way.

The battle became tragic for the commanders of the fleets. Admiral Nelson, who personified the last successes of the British fleet, was mortally wounded by a musket ball in this battle and died, having received before his death a report about the complete victory of England. French admiral Pierre-Charles de Villeneuve was captured. Was in England as a prisoner of war until April 1806. He was released on parole that he would no longer fight against Britain. Being completely demoralized due to the failure of the expedition to England and the loss of the fleet, on April 22, 1806, he committed suicide (according to another version, he was stabbed to death). The brave Spanish admiral Federico Gravina, who in this battle he lost his hand crushed by buckshot, was never able to recover from his wound and died on March 9, 1806.

background

Trafalgar became a landmark event, which, together with Waterloo, ended the long Anglo-French conflict, which was called the Second Hundred Years War. There was a "cold war" between the two great powers, which at times turned into a "hot war" - the wars of the Augsburg League, for the Spanish and Austrian inheritances. Seven-year, for the independence of the British North American colonies. London and Paris competed in everything - from trade and colonies to science and philosophy. During this period, Britain formulated the key principle of foreign policy - the struggle against the strongest continental power, as having the greatest opportunity to harm British interests. As a result, by the end of the 18th century, France lost most of its first colonial empire (the second was created already in the 19th century). French trade gave way to British, the French fleet could no longer challenge the British.

A new war between England and France began after the termination of the Treaty of Amiens by London in May 1803. Napoleon began to plan an invasion of England. England put together a new anti-French coalition, the main striking force of which was Austria and Russia.

Confrontation at sea

By the beginning of the new war, in 1803, the position of England at sea was, on the whole, excellent. During the previous war, British military power increased many times over: in the eight years of the war, the British fleet increased from 135 ships of the line and 133 frigates to 202 and 277, respectively. At the same time, the French fleet was greatly weakened: the number of battleships and frigates of ships decreased from 80 and 66 to 39 and 35. After naval victories at Cape San Vicente, at Camperdown in 1797 and Abukir in 1798, when the Spanish, Dutch and the French fleets, the battle of Copenhagen in 1801, which ended in the destruction and capture of the Danish fleet, in Britain they were sure of victory at sea. London was concerned only with the plan to land an amphibious army in England. Considering the practical absence of full-fledged ground forces in England, and the excellent fighting qualities of the Napoleonic troops, such an operation undoubtedly led to a military catastrophe in Britain.

Therefore, the British command attached great importance to the blockade of the Franco-Spanish naval forces. The largest of the French squadrons were located in Brest (18 battleships and 6 frigates), Toulon (respectively 10 and 4), Rochefort (4 and 5), Ferrol (5 and 2). Every French port was blocked by superior British forces: 20 ships of the line and 5 frigates for Brest, 14 and 11 for Toulon, 5 and 1 for Rochefort, 7 and 2 for Ferrol. Additional British squadrons were deployed in the Channel and approaches to it - a total of 8 battleships and 18 frigates in both straits. The Dutch fleet was guarded by 9 British ships of the line and 7 frigates. The approaches to Ireland were guarded by several frigates.

Thus, the British had a significant superiority in naval forces. In addition, they occupied an advantageous position, being relatively close to their ports and bases, all their communications were free. It is also worth noting that the French fleet during this period was greatly degraded and the former balance between the English and French fleets, which used to be worth one another, disappeared. France, due to internal unrest, heavily launched its fleet. Emigration deprived the French fleet of most of the old officers, the fleet was poorly organized, supplied according to the residual principle (in the first place was the army, which solved the problem of France's survival). The ships were hastily prepared for battle, the crews were weak, heterogeneous, recruited from everywhere to replace those who had dropped out.

As a result, the French, in order to transfer the amphibious army across the English Channel, needed to gather their strongest squadrons together, each time avoiding a dangerous battle with superior British blocking squadrons, bring them to the Channel and wait there for a favorable moment to throw into England. The task of the British was simpler: to maintain the blockade, if possible, destroy enemy ships. However, the weather factor had to be taken into account. Sailing ships depended on the wind, and the weather could prevent the French from leaving the harbor and vice versa, allow the blockaded squadron to slip out, for example, from Brest, while the English ships could remain in the calm zone.

The plans of the French command. Actions of the French fleet

The French command had to solve a difficult task. Initially, it was planned that the Toulon squadron, taking advantage of favorable weather, would break through the blockade and break away from the British squadron under the command of Nelson, which was based on the La Maddalena Islands in the Strait of Bonifacio between Sardinia and Corsica. Then the Toulon squadron was supposed to break through Gibraltar and follow the situation to Ferrol (a naval base and port on the northern coast of Spain), and preferably to Rochefort (a French port on the Atlantic coast). The squadron at Brest was supposed to be active in order to distract the British. The French squadron, formed from forces based in Toulon and Rochefort, was to move north, but not through the Channel, but around Ireland, demonstrating the intention to land troops on this island and raise an uprising of the local population oppressed by the British. Only then, without entering the Irish Sea, the French fleet had to go around England itself and go to Boulogne from the north. Here the French planned to break through the blockade of the Dutch fleet, and further intensify at the expense of the Dutch ships.

Thus, the French were going to collect a strong fleet that would be stronger than the British squadron in the English Channel. The British, according to the calculations of the French, did not have time to form a combined fleet, and the united Franco-Dutch fleet had to break separate squadrons and detachments. This made it possible to create local superiority in forces and to land amphibious forces on the coast of England.

But in 1804, the French were unable to start implementing this complex and multi-stage plan, in which a lot depended on the elements of nature and the luck and skills of the French captains. On August 19, 1804, the outstanding French admiral Louis René Latouche-Treville, who was highly valued by Napoleon, died in Toulon. Bonaparte greatly appreciated him for his indomitable military spirit, ardent character and hatred of the British. When Napoleon embarked on his grandiose plan to invade England, he gave Latouche-Tréville a major role and placed him in command of the Toulon squadron. Latouche-Treville set to work with great energy and achieved good results in the preparation of the squadron for the purposes of the expedition and in the fight against Nelson, who blocked it. His death was a huge blow to the cause. France was no longer able to put up such a talented and determined admiral. While Napoleon was choosing a successor, autumn came, and at that time it was extremely dangerous to operate in the northern seas.

But in 1805, work in the admiralties of the French ports began to boil again. During this period, the plans of the emperor underwent quite serious changes, now more successful misinformation of the enemy came to the fore in order to divert his attention from the straits and, at the same time, strengthen positions in the colonies. In two letters to the Minister of Marine Decre dated September 29, 1804, Napoleon speaks of four expeditions: 1) the first was to strengthen the position of the French West Indian island colonies - Martinique and Guadeloupe, to capture some of the islands of the Caribbean; 2) the second - to capture the Dutch Suriname; 3) the third - to capture the island of St. Helena in the Atlantic Ocean to the west of Africa and make it a base for attacks on British possessions in Africa and Asia, to disrupt the enemy's trade; 4) the fourth was to be the result of the interaction of the Rochefort squadron, sent to the aid of Martinique, and the Toulon squadron, sent to conquer Suriname. The Toulon squadron was supposed to remove the blockade from Ferrol on the way back, attach the ships located there and park in Rochefort, creating an opportunity to lift the blockade from Brest and strike at Ireland.

In 1805, France increased its naval power. On January 4, 1805, a Franco-Spanish treaty was concluded, according to which Spain placed at the disposal of the French command at least 25 ships of the line in Cartagena, Cadiz and Ferrol. The Spanish fleet was to act in conjunction with the French squadrons in order to defeat the British fleet in the English Channel.

But the French failed to realize these grandiose plans. In January 1805, Villeneuve's squadron left Toulon, but returned due to a strong storm. On January 25, the Missiesi squadron departed from Rochefort. The French were able to reach the West Indies and ravaged the British possessions there, but returned back, as the Toulon squadron could not come to the rescue. The Brest squadron of Admiral Gantome could not overcome the British blocking forces, namely, its connection with the Toulon squadron was given the greatest importance in Napoleon's new plans.

At the end of March 1805, Villeneuve's squadron of eleven ships of the line, six frigates and two sloops left Toulon again. The French were able to avoid a collision with Admiral Nelson's squadron and successfully passed the Strait of Gibraltar. Villeneuve's ships linked up with a squadron of six Spanish ships of the line under the command of Admiral Gravina. The combined Franco-Spanish fleet sailed for the West Indies, reaching Martinique on 12 May. Nelson tried to catch up with them, but bad weather delayed him in the Mediterranean and he was unable to get through the channel until May 7, 1805. The English fleet of ten ships of the line did not reach Antigua until 4 June.

For about a month, the Villeneuve fleet strengthened French positions on the Caribbean islands, waiting for a squadron from Brest. Villeneuve was ordered to remain in Martinique until 22 June, awaiting Admiral Antoine Gantoma's fleet from Brest. However, the Brest squadron failed to break through the English blockade and never appeared. On June 7, Villeneuve learned from a captured English merchant ship that Nelson's fleet had arrived in Antigua, and on June 11, deciding not to wait for Gantome, he sailed back to Europe. Nelson again began the pursuit, but headed for Cadiz, believing that the enemy was heading for the Mediterranean. And Villeneuve went to Ferrol. The Toulon squadron, returning from the Caribbean, was supposed to release the Franco-Spanish squadrons in Ferrol, Rochefort and Brest and then, with the combined forces, solve the main task in the English Channel - attacking in the forehead or, bypassing the British Isles, from the rear.

The French hoped that the British would be diverted to the Caribbean theater and not have time to respond to the actions of the Villeneuve fleet. However, the British learned in time about the beginning of the reverse transition of Villeneuve. On June 19, an English brig, sent by Nelson to Britain to notify the Admiralty of the return of the Franco-Spanish fleet to Europe, spotted an enemy fleet 900 miles northeast of Antigua, which Nelson had been vainly catching for three months. At the rate of Villeneuve, the British realized that the French were not planning to go to the Mediterranean. Captain Bettsworth immediately realized the importance of this incident and instead of returning to Nelson's squadron, which he might not have met, he continued on his way to Britain. The English ship reached Plymouth on 9 July and the captain informed the Lord of the Admiralty.

The Admiralty directed Cornwallis to lift the blockade at Rochefort by sending five of his ships to Admiral Robert Calder, who was watching Ferrol with ten ships. Caldera was ordered to cruise at a distance of one hundred miles west of Finisterre to meet Villeneuve and prevent him from linking up with the Ferrol squadron. On July 15, on the Ferrol parallel, the 10 ships of Vice Admiral Calder were joined by 5 ships of Rear Admiral Sterling. Meanwhile, the Villeneuve fleet, which was held up by the northeast winds, did not reach the Finisterre region until 22 July.

July 22 there was a battle at Cape Finisterre. Villeneuve with 20 ships of the line was attacked by the English blockading squadron Caldera with 15 ships. With such a disparity of forces, the British were able to capture two Spanish ships. True, one of the English ships was also badly damaged. In addition, Calder had to take into account the likelihood of the Ferrol and, possibly, the Rochefort squadrons of the enemy hitting him in the rear. As a result, the next day the opponents did not continue the fight. The battle ended with an indeterminate result, both admirals, Villeneuve and Calder, declared their victory.

Calder was later removed from command and court-martialed. The trial took place in December 1805. The British admiral was exonerated from the charge of cowardice or negligence, yet he was judged to have failed in all that depended on him to renew the battle and to take or destroy the enemy ships. His behavior was deemed worthy of extreme condemnation, and he was sentenced to a severe reprimand. Calder never again served at sea, although he was promoted to admiral and awarded the Order of the Bath.

Villeneuve took the ships to Vigo to repair the damage. On 31 July, after taking advantage of a gale which drove back Calder's blockading squadron and leaving three of his worst-hit ships at Vigo, he sailed for Ferrol with fifteen ships. As a result, 29 ships of the line ended up in Ferrol (the Ferrol squadron by this time already numbered 14 ships of the line). Calder was forced to retreat and join Cornwallis' squadron. On August 15, Nelson approached the combined forces of Cornwallis and Calder near Brest, with his arrival the strength of the British fleet reached 34-35 ships of the line.

Villeneuve, in his own words, “not having confidence in the state of armament of my ships, as well as in their speed and dexterity of maneuvering, knowing about the connection of enemy forces and that they know all my actions since my arrival to the coast of Spain. .. lost hope of being able to fulfill the great task for which my fleet was intended. As a result, the French admiral took the fleet to Cadiz.

Upon learning of the withdrawal of the French fleet, Cornwallis made what Napoleon called an "obvious strategic mistake" - he sent a Caldera squadron reinforced to 18 ships to Ferrol, thus weakening the British fleet in a vital sector and losing to the enemy superiority in forces near Brest, and near Ferrol. If there had been a more decisive naval commander in Villeneuve's place, he could have forced battle on the much weaker British fleet and, perhaps, despite the qualitative superiority of the enemy's crews, achieved victory due to numerical superiority. Having defeated Calder's squadron, Villeneuve could already threaten Cornwallis's squadron from the rear, also having an advantage in strength.

However, Villeneuve did not know about this and did not seek happiness in battle, like more determined naval commanders. On August 20, the Franco-Spanish fleet anchored in Cadiz. As a result, the Allied forces increased to 35 battleships. This fleet, despite Napoleon's demands to go to Brest, remained in Cadiz, allowing the British to renew the blockade. Calder, finding no enemy at Ferrol, followed to Cadiz and there joined Collingwood's blockading squadron. The strength of the British blockade squadron increased to 26 ships. Later, this squadron was brought up to 33 battleships, several of which regularly went to Gibraltar for fresh water and other supplies. Thus, the Franco-Spanish fleet retained some numerical advantage. Nelson took charge of the combined squadron on September 28, 1805.

To be continued…

ctrl Enter

Noticed osh s bku Highlight text and click Ctrl+Enter

Before Elizabeth's reign, England had been little more than a northwest European maritime power. When Elizabeth I died in 1603 England was a much more significant force in sea trade and conflict than it had been in the 1550s. English ships became a regular presence from northern Russia to the Mediterranean, as well as in parts of the Americas, Africa and Asia.

Until the reign of Elizabeth I, England did not go as a maritime country beyond the north-west of Europe. When Elizabeth died in 1603, the military and commercial power of England on the seas had increased greatly compared to the 1550s. The presence of English ships from the north of Russia to the Mediterranean, as well as in parts of America, Africa and Asia, has become commonplace.

Most ships were built for the purpose of trade and cloth was the main English export throughout the period. In the first half of the 16th century the English maritime economy was dominated by the trade between London and Antwerp. Economic and political crises led to the decline and eventual collapse of the Antwerp market in the 1550s and 1560s. This prompted English merchants to start looking further afield. From the 1550s onwards a succession of voyages to the more distant parts of Europe, as well as growing numbers of transoceanic enterprises, sought to open new markets and gain access to exotic, high-value goods. London merchants were the principal financiers of this expansion and the capital's elite was probably the main beneficiary.

Most of the ships were built for trading purposes. At that time, (woolen) fabrics were the main export of England. In the first half of the 16th century, maritime trade between London and Antwerp played a major role in the economy of England. Economic and political crises led to the decline and then collapse of the market in Antwerp in the 1550s and 1560s. This forced the English merchants to turn their eyes to distant lands. Since the 1550s, systematic voyages began to distant ports of Europe [including Russia, where, under Ivan the Terrible, English merchants received large preferences in trade - approx. translator], as well as across the ocean in search of new markets and exotic, valuable goods. This commercial expansion was financed mainly by London merchants, and the metropolitan elite was the main recipient of all the benefits from trade.

Ships were expensive to build and maintain and part-ownership was common because it helped spread the risk of financial loss from shipwreck or capture. Jointstock companies were set up to exploit trading possibilities, the most famous of which was the East India Company, created in 1599 with the aim of breaking into the valuable spice trade of the Far East. Even small ships were costly: in 1576, the 30-ton hull Gabriel cost £83 to construct. This figure, which does not include the cost of masts, rigging and other equipment, was equivalent to at least seven years' pay for a merchant seaman.However, costs could be defrayed over a long period and it was not unusual for ships to stay in service for ten years or more.

The construction and maintenance of ships was expensive, so the ownership of ships on shares was common, which reduced for each co-owner the risk of a shipwreck or capture by the enemy. Joint-stock companies were created for risky trade enterprises. The most famous was the East India Company, established in 1599 with the aim of penetrating the Far Eastern spice trade market. Even the construction of small ships was expensive. So, in 1576, the construction of the hull (without masts and equipment) of the 30-ton vessel "Gabriel" cost 83 pounds sterling, which was equal to 7-year earnings of a merchant seaman. However, the ships served for 10 or more years, which made it possible to stretch the reimbursement of construction costs over time.

Because trade brought huge profits. Cargoes were generally worth a good deal more than the ships that carried them. Sometimes the difference was extraordinary. In 1588 the cargo of cloth and goods on a small, old Dunkirk ‘flyboat’proved to be 56 times more valuable than the paltry £15-worth of vessel that carried it.

Because trade brought huge profits. The goods transported cost much more than the ships themselves. Sometimes dozens of times. So, in 1588, a load of cloth and other goods on one small, old ship from Dunkirk cost 56 times more than the ship carrying it (worth 15 pounds sterling).

How many seamen were there in England at that time? A 1582 survey noted over 16,000 seafarers in England, including fishermen and Thames watermen. Over 2,200 of these men were in London, but Devon and Cornwall also accounted for about a quarter of the recorded sailors. Ordinary seafarers occupied an odd social position, for within their own sphere sailors had some autonomy and status. Professional ability and personal qualities could count for more at sea than birth or social position, which helps to explain the rise of men like Drake. Merchant sailors normally negotiated their own wages and signed up for just a single voyage. The casual nature of this employment was the source of the seaman’s relative freedom, but it could also be the freedom to starve.Work was often uncertain and, if a ship was lost, any survivors were paid nothing.

How many sailors were there in England at that time? According to the 1582 census in England, 16 thousand sailors were recorded, including fishermen and boatmen-carriers on the River Thames. Of these, 2.2 thousand people lived in London, and a quarter lived in Devon and Cornwall. Ordinary sailors occupied an unusual position in society, enjoying autonomy and (high) status in their field of activity. Professional skills and personal qualities at sea mattered more than birth and social position, which explains the rise of people like the famous sailor Drake. Merchant sailors usually negotiated their own remuneration, and contracts were signed, as a rule, for a single voyage. The casual nature of earnings was a source of relative freedom for a sailor, but it could also become a cause of hunger. When the ship was lost, the surviving sailors did not receive anything.

Elizabeth I's 'navy royal' was never a large force. It did not have a permanent body of sea officers and mariners. As a result, the royal fleet relied on manpower from the ‘merchant navy’ and the support of merchantmen as additional warships, stores vessels and troop transports. Between 1585 and 1603 England and Spain waged a bitter maritime war that England survived rather than won. In 1588, out of some 226 English vessels mustered to face the Armada, only 34 were the queen’s ships. The rest belonged to her subjects.

The navy under Elizabeth was not a major force, did not have a permanent staff of officers and sailors. He borrowed cadres from their merchant fleet. And merchant ships were used in it as warships, storage and transport ships (for transporting troops). In the period 1585-1603, there was a fierce naval war between England and Spain, in which England survived rather than won. In the naval battle of 1588 with the Spanish Armada, out of 226 English ships, only 34 belonged to the queen. The rest were the property of her subjects.

Officially the lowest size for a merchant vessel capable of fighting was reckoned at 100 tons burden, or carrying capacity. A 1582 survey counted over 1,600 vessels of all sizes (of which only 177 exceeded 100 tons). 500 ships between 1560 and 1610. A merchant ship of around 100 feet (30 meters) in length would have exceeded 200 tons burden, making it a sizeable vessel in Elizabethan terms.

Officially, a merchant ship capable of carrying 100 tons of cargo was considered suitable for participation in battles. According to the 1582 census, out of 1.6 thousand registered ships of all sizes, only 177 exceeded the carrying capacity of 100 tons. The government gave loans to private individuals for the construction of such 100-ton ships (due to their military importance). Between 1560 and 1610 such loans were made for the construction of just over 500 ships. A merchant ship 30 meters long usually had a carrying capacity of more than 200 tons and was a large ship for that time.

Given its discomforts and dangers, why did men go to sea? Family tradition or the prospect of freedom undoubtedly drove some, but it is probable that most became sailors because it offered a hope of escaping poverty or perhaps even the chance of getting rich. Service aboard a merchant ship provided a poor man with wages, accommodation and regular meals.

Given all the inconveniences and dangers, why did men become sailors? Some became sailors out of family tradition or out of a desire for freedom. But probably the majority went to the sailors in the hope of escaping poverty or even getting rich on occasion. Service on board a merchant ship gave the poor man an income, a place to live and constant food.

And piracy also gave a chance to enrich. Piracy was endemic in the 16th century and many merchant ships were armed. Privateer and pirate crews were paid by means of shares in the ships and cargoes they captured, if any, and privateering often turned into piracy... The war with Spain turned privateering into a major industry. Each year between 100 and 200 (sometimes more) English ships were engaged in privateering and piracy during the conflict. By the early 1600s indiscriminate English privateering and piracy was having a bad effect on England’s relations with other European powers.

And piracy gave a chance to get rich. Piracy was an epidemic in the 16th century and many merchant ships were armed. The crews of privateer and pirate ships received in payment a share of the captured ships and cargo. [Privacy is when an armed private vessel engages in piracy under license from its government against enemy merchant ships. In another way, privateers were called corsairs - approx. translator.] Often, privateering turned into piracy... The war with Spain in 1585-1603 turned privateering into a major trade. During this war, from 100 to 200 or more English ships annually engaged in privateering and piracy. By the early 1600s, the indiscriminate privateering and piracy of English ships began to affect England's relations with other European powers badly.

Sir Francis Drake, privateer and Vice-Admiral of the English Navy (1540-1596)

Francis Drake was chosen by Queen Elizabeth I of England in 1577 to command the first English voyage around the world. Drake was already a successful privateer (or sea pirate), and his voyage was designed to disrupt the command of the Pacific Ocean and the Americas enjoyed by England's rival Spain. He made a landing in 1579 somewhere on the Pacific coast of North America , and returned to England in 1580 to be knighted by the Queen.(Drake was the second captain to circle the globe -- the trick had already been turned by the expedition of Ferdinand Magellan in 1519.) and ports, and he was vice admiral of the English fleet when it defeated the Spanish Armada in 1588. He died during an expedition to the Caribbean in 1596, and was buried in a lead coffin somewhere near modern-day Panama.

In 1577, the British made their first circumnavigation of the world. Elizabeth appointed Francis Drake, who had already become famous as a privateer, to command them. The goal was to end Spanish dominance in the Pacific and the Americas. In 1579, Drake landed somewhere on the Pacific coast of North America. In 1580 he returned to England and was knighted by Elizabeth. (Drake became the second captain in history to circumnavigate the world. The first was the Spaniard Ferdinand Magellan in 1519.) Drake was a thunderstorm for Spanish ships and ports. In the battle with the "Spanish Armada" (August 1588), he participated as vice-admiral of the English fleet. He died (of dysentery) on an expedition to the Caribbean in 1596 and was buried in a lead coffin somewhere in what is now Panama.

See below the famous Francis Drake Prayer, 1577. This is a sample of thinking that made England a grear sea power.

Below is Francis Drake's famous prayer from 1577 (the beginning of the world tour). This is the mindset that made England a great maritime power.

Disturb us, Lord, when we are too well pleased with ourselves,
when our dreams have come true because we have dreamed too little,
when we arrive safely because we sailed too close to the shore.

Lord, don't let us get too complacent
When our dreams come true because of their smallness,
When we return home alive and well (only) because we did not sail far from the coast.

Disturb us, Lord, when with the abundance of things we possess,
we have lost our thirst for the waters of life, having fallen in love with life,
we have ceased to dream of eternity, and in our efforts to build a new earth,
we have allowed our vision of the new heaven to dim.

Lord, disturb us when, having gained riches,
We will lose our thirst for the water of life and begin to fall in love with life
Let's stop thinking about eternity; when in your quest to build a new land
We will cloud our vision of the new skies.

Disturb us, Lord, to dare more boldly, to venture on wider seas, where storms will show your mastery,
where losing sight of land, we shall find the stars.
We ask you to push back the horizon of our hopes, and to push us into the future in strength, courage, hope, and love.
This we ask in the name of our Captain, who is Jesus Christ.

Lord, give us more courage to go to the far (wide) seas, where storms will show us your power and strength,
Where the shore will be invisible, and the stars will show us the way.
We ask: expand the horizon of our hopes and raise us up in the future in strength, courage, hope and love.
We ask this in the name of our Captain, whose name is Jesus Christ.

Great Britain was the most powerful colonial empire, occupying vast territories - from Australia to North America. The sun never set on Britain. How did the British manage to conquer half the world?

economic power

England was one of the first European countries to embark on the path of industrialization. The system of protectionism protecting the domestic market from foreign competition by the middle of the 18th century provided the country with rapid economic growth.
At the end of the 19th century, when the world was actually divided among the major metropolises, England had already become the main industrial monopoly: in the "workshop of the world", as Britain was called, a third of the world's industrial output was produced. Such sectors of the British economy as metallurgy, engineering and shipbuilding were the leaders in terms of production volume.
With high rates of economic growth, the domestic market was oversaturated and was looking for a profitable application outside not only the Kingdom, but also Europe. Production and capital from the British Isles flowed actively into the colonies.
An important role in the success of England as a colonial empire was played by the high level of technology that the English economy has always tried to follow. Innovations ranging from the invention of the spinning machine (1769) to the installation of the transatlantic telegraph (1858) kept Britain one step ahead of the competition.

Invincible Fleet

England was constantly in anticipation of an invasion from the continent, which forced her to develop shipbuilding and create a combat-ready fleet. Having defeated the "Invincible Armada" in 1588, Francis Drake seriously shook the Spanish-Portuguese dominance in the ocean. Since then, England, albeit with varying success, has strengthened its status as a maritime power.
In addition to Spain and Portugal, Holland was a serious competitor of England at sea. The rivalry between the two countries resulted in three Anglo-Dutch wars (1651-1674), which, having revealed the relative equality of forces, led to a truce.
By the end of the 18th century, Britain had only one serious competitor at sea - France. The struggle for maritime hegemony began during the period of revolutionary wars - from 1792. Then Admiral Nelson won a series of brilliant victories over the French fleet, effectively securing England's control over the Mediterranean.

In October 1805, Great Britain was given the opportunity to assert the right to be called "mistress of the seas." During the legendary battle of Trafalgar, the British fleet won a crushing victory over the combined French-Spanish squadron, convincingly demonstrating its tactical and strategic superiority. Britain became the absolute maritime hegemon.

Combat-ready army

To maintain order and maintain stability in the colonies, the British were forced to keep a combat-ready army there. Using its military superiority, by the end of the 1840s, Great Britain conquered almost all of India, whose population was almost 200 million people.
Moreover, the British military constantly had to sort things out with competitors - Germany, France, Holland. Indicative in this regard was the Anglo-Boer War (1899-1902), during which the British troops, inferior in number to the forces of the Orange Republic, were able to turn the tide of confrontation in their favor. However, this war is remembered for the unheard-of cruelty of the British soldiers, who used the "scorched earth tactics".
Colonial wars between England and France were especially fierce. During the Seven Years' War (1756-1763), England won almost all of her possessions in the East Indies and Canada from France. The French could only console themselves with the fact that Britain was soon forced to capitulate to the United States during the war of independence.

The Art of Diplomacy

The British have always been skilled diplomats. Masters of political intrigue and behind-the-scenes games in the international arena, they often got their way. So, having failed to defeat Holland in naval battles, they waited until the war between France and Holland reached its climax, and then made peace with the latter on favorable terms for themselves.
By diplomatic means, the British prevented France and Russia from retaking India. At the very beginning of the Russian-French campaign, the British officer John Malcolm concluded two strategic alliances - with the Afghans and with the Persian Shah, who confused all the cards for Napoleon and Paul I. The first consul then abandoned the campaign, and the Russian army never reached India.
Often, British diplomacy acted not only cunningly, but also menacingly persistent. During the Russian-Turkish war (1877-1878), she failed to acquire a "soldier on the continent" in the face of the Turks, and then she imposed an agreement on Turkey under which Great Britain acquired Cyprus. The island was immediately occupied and Britain set about establishing a naval base in the Eastern Mediterranean.

Managerial Talents

The area of ​​British overseas possessions by the end of the 19th century was 33 million square meters. km. To manage such a huge empire, a very competent and efficient administrative apparatus was needed. The British created it.
The well-thought-out system of colonial government included three structures - the Foreign Office, the Ministry of Colonies and the Office of Dominions. The key link here was the Ministry of the Colonies, which managed finances and recruited personnel for the colonial administration.
The effectiveness of the British system of government demonstrated itself in the construction of the Suez Canal. Vitally interested in a sea canal that shortened the route to India and East Africa by 10,000 kilometers, the British spared no expense, investing them in the Egyptian economy. However, the huge interest that investors received soon turned Egypt into a debtor. Ultimately, the Egyptian authorities were forced to sell their shares in the Suez Canal Company to the UK.
Often, British methods of government in the colonies brought great trouble. So, in 1769 - 1770. colonial authorities created a famine in India by purchasing all the rice and then selling it at exorbitant prices. The famine claimed the lives of about 10 million people. The British also practically destroyed the industry of India, importing cotton fabrics of their own production to Hindustan.
The colonial hegemony of Great Britain ended only after the Second World War, when a new leader, the United States of America, entered the political arena.

From the history. The British were the first in the world to create their own fleet, became the geographical discoverers of Australia, New Zealand, etc. (discoveries that could not have happened otherwise than through sea routes). Great Britain is an island washed by the sea. To get to the mainland, the British were forced to engage in the science of navigators and the construction of ships, and also become one of the first sea travelers, conquerors.

Elizabeth I, Queen of England and head of the Anglican Church. During the reign of Elizabeth I, English ships cut through the waves of the world's oceans, demonstrating their superiority. In 1588, England finally established itself as the main maritime power by defeating the Spanish Invincible Armada.

Sir Francis Drake, corsair and vice admiral of the English fleet () in the year the English admiral Francis Drake defeated the Invincible Armada: the Spanish-Portuguese power on the oceans was dealt a crushing blow.

The Pelican is the flagship of Francis Drake.

Power at sea repeatedly passed to Holland and France In 1805, Napoleon decided to destroy a powerful competitor with the help of a landing on the British Isles. A strong army was assembled in Boulogne, which was waiting for the approach of the combined Spanish-French fleet.

Victory is the largest ship of the line in the British Navy, commanded by Admiral Nelson.

The battle for power. Admiral Nelson was killed at the end of the battle, but this did not affect the outcome of the battle in any way - the combined Franco-Spanish fleet was almost completely destroyed. The historical significance of the Battle of Trafalgar is enormous: Great Britain became an absolute sea power. The ships of all countries half-mast their flag at the sight of a British ship. Until 1914, no one dared to challenge British control of the seas, and if they did, they were defeated, since they had to protect their own harbors first of all. Over the next 100 years, the "mistress of the seas" created a huge colonial empire that occupied a quarter of the Earth's land and collapsed only after the Second World War.

The memorial ship "Victory", restored in the form in which she participated in the battle of Trafalgar, on the eternal parking lot in Portsmouth

Seaports are located along the coast of Great Britain. The largest British port London. You can also name Liverpool, Southampton, Manchester, Swansea, Cardiff and Bristol, Newcastle and Middlesbrough in the northeast of England, Glasgow in the west of Middle Scotland. At the Pas de Calais, the port of Dover is located, through which passenger traffic passes with France (ferries carry London-Paris trains). In Northern Ireland, the port of Belfast plays an important role in communication with the UK.