National traditions of those living in Europe. Easter traditions in Eastern Europe. Intersections with Russian customs

Christmas and New Year are ideal times to visit Europe. German Christmas markets, pope speech, grandiose new year parties, a visit to Santa's residence in Lapland - each of the European countries can make your Christmas special.

In European countries, Christmas Eve is given greater importance, which must be spent with family. Therefore, even on Christmas, many restaurants, bars, cafes and shops are open here. Often New Year's festivities begin with just the midnight bells, and then everyone has fun until dawn.

This itinerary is based solely on what can be seen in different countries. You'll have to travel by plane to these wonderful destinations, but budget airlines usually offer fantastic discounts during the winter months. So, such a trip will not cost exorbitant amounts of money.

In late November and early December, head to Salzburg to attend the Advent singing festival. Christmas markets in Germany usually close on Christmas Eve. So hurry up to get your portion of spicy mulled wine. Paris and London are also great options for the Christmas holidays. Many illuminated signs are installed in these European capitals every year - come and see for yourself!

Visit Santa in Lapland, then head to Finland to admire northern lights. On New Year's Eve, head to Scotland to take part in the traditional Hogmanay celebrations. At the beginning of January, visit Spain for the Day of the Three Kings or, as it is otherwise known, the Day of the Three Wise Men. It is on January 5 that a ship with three travelers arrives in the cities of Spain, and the streets are filled with artists, buffoons and circus performers.

And although December is very traditionally considered the low season, the Christmas holidays are an exception. Therefore, we recommend booking hotel rooms in advance.

Italy

What is it like to be in Italy for Christmas? To imagine, you should learn more about the Christmas traditions of this country.

You may be surprised that Italian children do not write letters to Santa Claus to ask for gifts. These touching messages contain declarations of love for parents. Christmas dinner here is called the "Feast of the Seven Fishes" because there are seven different seafood dishes on each table. It is not customary to serve meat at Christmas. You also need to wear red lingerie on New Year's Eve. This should bring good luck in the new year.

Germany

Many German Christmas traditions are now common throughout the world. It was here that they began to decorate Christmas trees and hang wreaths of pine branches on the doors. All over Germany there are festive markets until Christmas Eve. Here you can buy souvenirs, aromatic mulled wine, traditional baked goods: vanilla crescents with hazelnuts, cinnamon stars, macaroons and gingerbread. For dinner, it is customary to bake a goose, and serve dumplings and cabbage as a side dish.

In Austria, in the south of Bavaria, as well as in Munich, an unusual Krampus procession takes place on two Sundays in December. Krampus is the evil counterpart of Saint Nicholas. Instead of a bag of gifts, Krampus holds chains, a bundle of birch twigs and a bag in which he will carry naughty children to hell. In recent years, this interesting tradition has become increasingly popular. Germans and tourists dress up as Krampus, who looks like a goat, and go for a walk through the streets of the city.

If you are traveling with children, we recommend that you visit Christmas markets and watch performances by artists, jugglers and gymnasts. Be sure to try the German stollen. This is a traditional candied fruit cake that will captivate you with its magical taste!

Switzerland

What better place for Christmas than the Swiss Alps? Swiss Christmas markets are not as steeped in the spirit of the past as in Germany, but are nevertheless very popular.

In Basel spreads out under open air the largest Christmas market in all of Switzerland. Here you will find charming handicrafts and lots of sweets. There are four Christmas markets in Zurich each year. The largest indoor market in all of Switzerland begins its work on December 8th. And on December 17th there will be annual festival floating lights.

In Bern, the largest Christmas market is located among houses built in the 15th-17th centuries. You can make pleasant purchases and admire medieval architecture. The Bernese Christmas Market on Waisenhausplatz is open until December 29, which means it's open longer than most and can keep you warm with mulled wine almost until the New Year.

Portugal

In this country, the so-called Janeiras are a mandatory attribute of Christmas. These are small groups of people who go from house to house, singing traditional songs and sometimes accompanying themselves with musical instruments. It is more common for us to call this phenomenon “carols.” Usually in Portugal, groups of friends or neighbors carol.

The Portuguese attach great importance nativity scenes In the village of Penela, up to five different nativity scenes are installed annually, some even using 3D technology. There is also a Christmas train and a stunningly detailed model. railway with 10 trains. Thematic master classes on making New Year's toys are held daily. The Christmas market will delight you with souvenirs and treats, and magicians, jugglers and clowns will not let you get bored.

Austria

One of the world's favorite Christmas songs originated in Austria. "Silent Night" or Stille Nacht is performed all over the world, although slightly differently than Franz Gruber's original version.

If you are lucky enough to be in Salzburg in early December, be sure to visit the Advent singing festival. In 2017, the Salzberg Advent Singing Festival will be held for the 70th anniversary. For the first time, performers from all over the world came here in 1946. Next year the festival will return to its roots, with the theme once again being the revival of the post-war world. Attend this touching event and you will never forget this encounter with art.

France

Did you know that since 1962, every child in France who sent a letter to Santa, or Noel as he is known here, received a response? As throughout Europe, December 25 is a non-working day, which all French people strive to spend with their families. And children find gifts under a festively decorated tree. House doors are traditionally decorated with pine wreaths. And in Alsace it is customary to richly decorate the house with garlands and luminous figures.

Young Frenchmen often spend New Year's Eve in clubs in Paris or other major cities. But France offers unique alternative options for celebrating the New Year. You can enjoy a romantic cruise on the River Seine, admire a torchlight procession or go on a tour of the city of Avignon, which will enchant you with its festive illuminations.

UK and Scotland

The main attribute of New Year's Eve in London is the fantastically beautiful fireworks display. Most clubs in London organize special parties on New Year's Eve. And restaurants organize a gala dinner with a show program on New Year's Eve. You can also take a cruise on the River Thames or attend a New Year's themed ball at the famous Torture Garden.

Nowhere does New Year's Eve have as much fun as the traditional Hogmanay celebration in Scotland. The Scots adopted this custom from the Varangians, who had fun on the shortest day of the year. Immediately after midnight, it is customary to go to friends and family to congratulate everyone, moving from house to house.

It is considered a good omen if an attractive brunette is the first to cross the threshold of the house in the new year, in his hands he should have coal, whiskey, shortbread cookies and a chocolate cupcake. In return, such a visitor receives a full glass of excellent whiskey, because the guest portends good luck, prosperity and prosperity. It is believed that this belief originated when blond Vikings raided the homes of the Scots. So it turns out that a brunette on the threshold of a house is a harbinger of happiness.

Climate in Italy

Italy is called sunny, but the weather here is very capricious. The country is located on the Apennine Peninsula. Despite its small area, the terrain varies significantly between regions. It is precisely because of this, and also because of the significant extent from north to south, that the climate in Italy has a number of features that cannot be ignored when planning a trip.

Transport in Italy

No trip is complete without transport. Trains and planes, buses and sea transport - all this an integral part of trips. To visit the best corners of sunny Italy, to get better acquainted with the culture of the country, it is worth not only planning a route, but also becoming familiar with all the intricacies of local public transport and road traffic.

What to bring from Italy

When we hear “shopping in Italy,” we most often think of fashion boutiques, then we think of olive oil, pasta, cheese; some may have associations with Venetian glass or carnival masks. So what is next? Next, we bring to your attention a list of popular, original and simply interesting souvenirs and other goods that may interest you, and some will even turn out to be very useful.

3.1. Basic rituals, customs and traditions of the peoples of Europe

Back in the second half of the 19th century. Many peoples of foreign Europe had families of the patriarchal type, but by the middle of the 20th century. A simple monogamous family began to exist almost everywhere. Although the husband is usually still considered the head of the family, patriarchal principles have weakened greatly.

It should be noted that in recent years, women have increasingly demanded the establishment of complete equality in all spheres of life and have practically achieved serious results in this long-term struggle: little remains of the oppressed position in which they were previously.

The Christian religion in its original dogmas was characterized by great asceticism; she not only allowed, but also welcomed celibacy as the most worthy way of serving God. That is why almost immediately after the advent of Christianity, monastic orders appeared, celibacy among Catholic clergy, etc.

The Church was quite harsh on divorces, not allowing them even in the case of the physical impossibility of one of the spouses to have children. It is obvious that in many ways it was the church that determined the development of the European family for many years. At the same time, the emergence of Protestantism eased the situation for the family: peoples (or parts of peoples) who converted to Protestantism began to allow civil marriage, allow divorces, be more tolerant of extramarital relationships, etc.

In Catholic countries, the influence of the church is still felt; Marriages, as a rule, are concluded in the church; divorces are very difficult and are often replaced by obtaining church permission only for the spouses to live separately (with the possibility of them entering into an informal marriage relationship).

The most significant family ritual, which has high social significance, is the wedding. This is the process of connecting two different surnames, various families, through which the foundations of a new unit of natural and socio-cultural reproduction are laid.

Most peoples maintain the tradition of getting married after the end of spring and autumn field work, before and after major religious fasts; among Germans, the maximum number of marriages occurs in November, the second maximum in May; Among the English and some other peoples, May is considered an unlucky month for marriages, and the happiest month is June.

Before entering into a marriage, an engagement is announced, which plays a very important role, since it, as it were, binds the bride and groom and can be dissolved without losing the respect of friends and neighbors only in exceptional cases. The engagement period is not only a time to test feelings and marital intentions, but also a kind of social control over marriage; For this purpose, it is customary to post an announcement about the upcoming wedding or announce it several times at Sunday services in church.

In Europe, the age for marriage is usually determined by the civil age of majority (usually 21 years), but there may be exceptions: in Italy it is 14 years for women and 16 years for men.

In some countries, only church marriage is considered valid (Spain, Portugal and Greece), in other countries both church and civil marriage(Great Britain, Sweden, Norway and Denmark), in third countries (Italy, France, Germany, etc.) civil marriage is mandatory, although here, after marriage in the municipality or town hall, the newlyweds often go to church.

In rural settlements, not only relatives and neighbors were usually invited to the wedding, but also all fellow villagers, who gave gifts of goods or money to the newlyweds.

It was customary for most peoples to decorate the wedding house with fresh flowers and greenery, if the time of year permitted; The bride and groom rode to church or town hall in a decorated carriage.

Among the Italians and some other peoples, until recently, a custom was preserved according to which the guys, holding hands, blocked the newlyweds from leaving the church and let them in only for a small ransom. However, some customs associated with the baptism of a newborn have been preserved. Thus, the Celtic peoples of Britain adopted a system of taking their father’s name as a surname with the prefix “son” (in Scotland - “poppy”, in Ireland - “o”).

There is a widespread attitude when the first child in a family is named after one of the father’s parents, the second - the mother’s parents, so that there may be children in the family with the same names.

Baptism, especially among Catholics and Orthodox Christians, is preceded by a careful choice of godfather and godmother, who then play a significant role in the life of the godson or goddaughter, in their family celebrations, etc.; Catholics often chose from 3 to 6 godfathers and mothers.

Despite the fact that the religiosity of the inhabitants of Western and South-Eastern Europe has decreased almost everywhere, the solemn events and holidays of the Christian calendar have become so strongly integrated into life that they are still preserved even among people who have almost moved away from churches and, say, those who prefer to celebrate a birthday rather than a name day.

One of these main holidays is the Nativity of Christ, celebrated by Catholics and Protestants on December 25, i.e. before the New Year, and for the Orthodox - 13 days later.

An important attribute of Christmas is the Christmas tree, decorated with bright toys, and in recent decades, with garlands of light bulbs; It is customary to light candles on the Christmas tree only on Christmas Eve.

In Italy and some other countries, they begin to prepare for Christmas from the beginning of December; along city streets they put up Christmas trees in tubs with sand, hang garlands of light bulbs, and in churches they prepare models and figures for Christmas performances (moving figures of Mary, Joseph, the Magi, mock-ups of nurseries, etc.).

It is customary to clean houses and apartments with greenery; in Britain, mistletoe, which was considered sacred by the Celts, is often used for this purpose. At midnight they strike church bells, light candles on the Christmas trees.

Christmas is universally considered family holiday, conducted in a relatively narrow circle. Children are especially happy about it, expecting gifts that are placed in their shoes under their beds or given by Santa Claus. It is customary to spend the New Year in a less intimate setting, for example in a cafe, restaurant, or just on the street, organizing noisy processions. In Austria, processions of mummers with brooms are organized, “sweeping away” the remnants of the Old Year. Such New Year's processions are often accompanied by firecrackers, fireworks, rocket launches and special orchestras. In Italy, on New Year's Day, it is customary to throw unnecessary dishes, old furniture and other rubbish into the street as a sign of liberation from everything old.

Important spring holidays everywhere are Maslenitsa and Easter. In the Mediterranean and neighboring countries, where winter passes quickly, it is Maslenitsa, held after mid-February, before Lent, that is considered the holiday of the onset of spring.

An indispensable component of the carnival are processions in various masks and costumes accompanied by orchestras and usually led by the king and queen (prince and princess) of the carnival chosen for this occasion, riding in a car decorated with flowers (and previously on a carriage).

In Southern France and especially in the Netherlands, where floriculture is highly developed, figures made of flowers are carried in carnival processions, “flower battles” are organized, etc. Preparations for such magnificent, costumed carnivals usually begin 2-3 months in advance.

In the Protestant countries located to the north, Maslenitsa is celebrated more modestly. In England, for example, according to tradition, only one day is allotted for it, when at 11 o’clock, at the sound of the bell, the housewives begin baking pancakes; In some villages, it was customary for women to race with frying pans, on which they hold hot pancakes, sometimes throwing them up.

The Easter holiday, compared to Maslenitsa, is usually celebrated outwardly less brightly, mainly in the family and church. In Spain, Portugal and Italy, it is customary to organize church processions in which scenes of the crucifixion and resurrection of Christ are played out.

In more northern countries, the most fun on this holiday is for children who collect colored eggs hidden for them in different places by their parents or given to them by neighbors, relatives and acquaintances.

Bright summer holiday St. John, coinciding with the Slavic Ivan Kupala (June 24), unlike Maslenitsa, is most popular in the northern countries - Scandinavia and Finland.

In honor of this holiday, large bonfires are lit, houses are decorated with greenery, high poles with a crossbar are erected, where garlands of greenery and flowers, yellow and blue ribbons are hung, round dances are performed around, songs are sung, people jump over the fire, etc.; young people swim in lakes and rivers and wonder about their fate. In southern countries, bonfires are often replaced with fireworks, especially in cities.

In addition to the mentioned holidays, there are others associated with established Christian church calendar saints' days. It is customary everywhere to celebrate All Saints' Day (November 1), which is considered the day of remembrance of the departed and those killed in wars; on this day they visit the graves of relatives, and on major cities they organize processions to the tomb of the Unknown Soldier.

In some carnival (spring) processions of masks and costumes, adult participants increasingly began to give way to children, preferring dance floors and costume balls. Their main feature is that it is true folk holidays and the celebrations acquired the character of stylized performances, organized not so much for oneself as to attract tourists.

And since tourism is a prominent source of income in all countries of Western Europe, carnival performances have spread almost everywhere, and their organizers try to ensure that they do not coincide in time and are unique.

In the nature of leisure and entertainment European peoples There are some specific features that distinguish them to one degree or another from each other and from the peoples of other countries of the world. In terms of daily time structure, Spain, Portugal and Southern France stand out here, where the hottest hours of the day are reserved for lunch and afternoon rest (siesta).

The Romanesque and especially Mediterranean peoples are also characterized by a greater openness of life and leisure time, the residents (especially men) spend time outside the home - on the streets and squares, where the tables of cafes, snack bars and restaurants are taken out; women go out mainly in the evening to walk along the main street of a city or village.

In this ethnogeographical zone, ancient folk spectacles and performances have been preserved, the most striking of which is bullfighting in Spain (bullfighting); There is a similar spectacle in Portugal, but in a less cruel form - the bull is not killed here.

Many sports games themselves originated in England, which is still one of the most sporting countries in the world. Among these games, the most popular are football, tennis, cricket, golf, horse racing, cycling and yachting competitions.

In addition to these sports, which have spread in many European countries, we can name speed skating, skiing, and ice hockey (mainly in Northern European countries). Along with various types sports in many European countries, folk national games are still loved, for example, pushing logs, competitions for the speed of sawing wood (Finland, Norway), playing with metal balls (France) and wooden balls (Italy), playing cards. In conclusion, it should be noted that the culture of European peoples, their main rituals, customs and traditions are fundamentally regulated by Christian ideology. This religion, quite ascetic in its initial attitudes, turned out to be popular not only among the lower classes, who were promised a heavenly paradise in the afterlife for their suffering, but also for the ruling groups, to which the completely earthly attitude of “Caesar's and Caesar's” is applicable. Christianity, as a world religion, includes Orthodoxy, Catholicism, Monophysitism, Protestantism and Nestorianism, which are discussed in detail in the course on the fundamentals of religious studies.

Questions for seminar session 1

The main customs and traditions of Western European peoples: the British, French, Germans, Italians, Spaniards, etc.

Christianity as the basis of the way of life, customs and traditions of Western European peoples.

Give a generalized ethnopsychological portrait of a German.

Give a generalized ethnopsychological portrait of a Spaniard.

Give a generalized ethnopsychological portrait of a Frenchman.

Give a generalized ethnopsychological portrait of an Englishman.

Give a generalized ethnopsychological portrait of an Italian.

Questions for Seminar Lesson 2

Diversity and unity of cultural customs and traditions of the peoples of Western Europe.

Features of etiquette in England.

French etiquette: history and modernity.

Features of business communication with Germans.

Features of business communication with the French.

Features of business communication with Italians.

Analyze the relationship between the traditions of the peoples of the United States and European countries.

FEATURES OF CULTURE AND DEVELOPMENT TRENDS

ETHNIC AND RELIGIOUS TRADITIONS OF PEOPLES

JAPAN AND CHINA

There is no people in the world who are more scrupulous about their own honor than the Japanese. They do not tolerate not only the slightest insult, but even a rude word spoken. They never bother others with complaints and listing their own troubles. From childhood they learn not to reveal their feelings, considering it stupid. For the Japanese, the law is not a norm, but a framework for discussion. A good Japanese judge is someone who can settle most cases before trial based on compromises.

The Japanese always tries to be officially recommended to the person or company with which he wants to do business; strives to give business relationships a personal character. He should never violate external harmony (this is more important than proving he is right or getting benefits), or put his fellow citizens in a position that would force them to “lose face” (that is, admit a mistake or incompetence in their field). He does not appeal to logic - after all, emotional considerations are more important for him. The Japanese do not show increased interest in the monetary side of things, because the concept of “time is money” is not in circulation in their country. They tend to express themselves vaguely - while avoiding independent steps, since their ideal is an anonymous general opinion.

The Japanese have a favorable attitude towards everything that Christian morality calls human weaknesses. Temperance, strict taste, and the ability to be content with little do not at all mean that the Japanese are characterized by asceticism. They are weighed down by a heavy burden of moral responsibilities. Japanese morality only emphasizes that physical pleasures, carnal pleasures should be given a proper, secondary place. They do not deserve condemnation and do not constitute sin. But in certain cases, a person is forced to abandon them for the sake of something more important. Life is divided into a circle of responsibilities and a circle of pleasures, into a main area and a secondary area.

Japanese children never cry. The education system strives to avoid this. Children in Japan are incredibly pampered. You could say they are simply trying not to give them a reason to cry. They, especially boys, are almost never prohibited from doing anything. Until school years, the child does whatever he pleases. IN school years children's nature learns the first limitations, prudence is cultivated.

The Japanese are the mystery of our century; they are the most incomprehensible, the most paradoxical of peoples.

The face of Tokyo is not streets or buildings, it is, first of all, people. Tokyo excites, amazes and depresses, like a gigantic accumulation of human beings. It is home to eleven million inhabitants. Moreover, nine million of them live on an area of ​​570 square meters. kilometers. It's like moving all of Hungary to Budapest. The population density on this piece of land is growing from a statistical concept into a tangible one.

Music. Japanese folk music is rich and varied. It developed under the significant influence musical culture China. In the Kabuki theater, instrumental music is used to accompany singing, dance and pantomime scenes.

Theater and cinema. The origins of Japanese theater go back to the most ancient folk games - taasobi, which reproduced the agricultural process. The theatrical art of Japan is saturated with the religious ideas of Shinto, mythological plots predominate in it, and the spectacular side of theatrical performances comes to the fore.

Very popular in Japan puppet show, who developed original puppetry techniques and various types of dolls, who created dramaturgy based on the folk epic tale - dzeruri. The text of the dzeruri was performed by the narrator gidayu, to the accompaniment musical instrument oyamisena. The Kabuki repertoire included jeruri plays, the actors imitated the movements of the puppets, repeating the manner of performance of the gidayu in a declamatory speech-tative; Sometimes I myself was introduced into the performance. Ballet panto mimes (se-sagoto) were also widespread in Kabuki.

Movie. Since 1896, mainly French films have been shown in Japan. In 1906, domestic film production emerged.

Major Japanese film companies produce many feature films, imitating Hollywood standards. At the same time, progressive directors, overcoming reactionary influences, reflect in their films the ideas of the world and the true interests of the working people. The work of director Akira Kurosawa especially stands out.

The words of Confucius are more relevant to us than ever: “Respect virtue, protect the people” and “He who rules with the help of virtue is like the North Star, which takes its place, and all the other stars surround it.” Genuinely cultured people will never allow a rapist to take the place of the North Star; in the fire of his culture any authoritarian power, no matter what democratic clothes she dresses up in.

4.1. Features of the mentality, customs and traditions of the Chinese

The Chinese ethnic group has created a special type of culture. A sane Chinese never thought about the mysteries of existence and the problems of life and death, but he always saw before him the standard of the highest virtue and considered it his sacred duty to imitate it. The greatest prophets here were considered those who teach to live with dignity, in accordance with the accepted norm, to live for the sake of life, and not for the sake of bliss in the next world or salvation from suffering.

IN Chinese tradition religion turned into ethics, the individual in it seemed to obscure the gods. The people were declared the herald of the will of Heaven. The universal feeling of the people was perceived by the ancient Chinese as the most accurate manifestation of the supreme justice of heaven. And at the same time, cosmically sanctioned collectivism, according to the Chinese, completely excludes from the culture individualism and the personal principle, which in Western European culture constitute the cornerstone of the spiritual life of a European.

The world is initially perfect, harmony is inherent in it, therefore it does not need to be remade. On the contrary, you need to withdraw yourself, become like nature, so as not to interfere with the implementation of harmony. Initially, nature has five perfections: humanity (zhen), a sense of duty (i); decency (li), sincerity (xin) and wisdom (zhi).

From the point of view of Confucius, personality receives its content directly from nature. Thus, the harmony of society and nature was based on the idea of ​​a socio-ethical-political order sanctioned by the great Heaven. Taoism called for an organic fusion with nature. The creator of Taoism is considered to be Lao Tzu, who stated that Confucius makes too much noise about himself and is completely wasting his energy on social projects and reforms. Lao Tzu believed that it is necessary to follow the Tao (literally, “the way”). Tao is something all-encompassing that fills all space, it stands above everything and reigns in everything. Listening Tao. does not have the habit of seeing only one side of a thing; he does not have a linear perception, but a three-dimensional one, recording changes.

As we see, Tao is the basis of everything in the Universe, the source of all things and phenomena, the individual manifestation of Tao - “de”, i.e. the form of manifestation of Tao in an individual. It reveals the moral perfection of an individual who has achieved absolute harmony with the environment worlds.Lao Tse expressed these thoughts in his book “On the Path to Virtue.”

Confucius gives a detailed image of a noble husband, contrasting him with a commoner, or “low man” - “xiao zhen”.

He formulated the basic principles of the social order that he would like to see in the Celestial Empire: “Let the father be a father, the son a son, the sovereign a sovereign, an official an official,” everyone will know their rights and do what they are supposed to do. The criterion for dividing society into upper and lower classes was not supposed to be nobility of origin and, especially, not wealth, but knowledge and virtue, or more precisely, the degree of closeness to the ideal of Jun Tzu.

Since ancient times, in China there have been several methods for selecting officials, both common to the entire East and specifically Chinese. The first included appointments to positions by personal decree of the emperor. It was necessary to earn a recommendation as a wise and fair official and pass a competitive examination. Those who passed the exams three times received the highest academic degree and could hope for a prestigious position, the lowest of which was the position of district chief. Chinese dignitaries believed that a solid knowledge of the letter of Confucianism and the ability to stand up for its canons in an open dispute with an opponent is the best proof of an official’s suitability to manage the affairs of the country in accordance with traditions. That is why education was a huge incentive for the Chinese to realize their ambition and loyalty.

Confucius declared the interests of the people to be the ultimate and highest goal of government. Of the three most important elements of the state, the people are in first place, the deities in second, and the sovereign in third. However, the same Confucians believed that their own interests were incomprehensible and inaccessible to the people themselves, and that they could not manage without the constant paternal tutelage of educated rulers. An important basis of social order is strict obedience to elders.

In China, there is an ancient cult of ancestors - both dead and living. Confucius developed the doctrine of "xiao" - filial piety. "Xiao", as Confucius believed, is the basis of humanity. Following Confucian traditions, the Chinese consider it their duty to honor their parents and are ready to sacrifice personal interests in the name of the interests of the family and clan. They have an unusually developed sense of responsibility: the father is responsible for all family members, the guilt of the parents extends to the children, the boss is responsible for the activities of all his subordinates.

Since the Chinese must always remember that his actions must support the dignity of his family and clan, he always tries to “have nice face", that is, to look like a worthy, respected person in the eyes of others. He will be deeply offended if any violation of traditional ceremonial occurs (say, when welcoming guests, in a festive ritual, or in official relations) and he does not receive the honor due to him. There is no greater misfortune for a Chinese than to “lose face.” According to ancient custom in China, the highest sign of honor and respect for a boss is to present him with an umbrella. For this purpose, a special umbrella is made - large, made of red silk, with inscriptions and the names of the donors. It is called the “umbrella of a thousand faces.” The Chinese take great care to strictly observe the ceremonies that, “according to the behests of their ancestors,” should accompany various life events.

The Institute of Sociology of Beijing People's University conducted a study in which residents of 13 provinces and cities in China were surveyed. They were asked to express their attitude towards various personality traits on a 9-point scale from “+5” (“very much approve”) to “-5” (“very disapprove”). The average ratings were as follows.

		Commitment to the middle
Humanity		Practicality
Filial Piety		Utilitarianism (the desire to get rich)
Intelligence		Obedience
Hard work and frugality		Envy
Chivalry		Deceit (deceit, diplomacy)

This study shows that Confucian virtues - “humanity”, “filial piety”, “hard work and frugality”, etc. - still occupy a dominant position in the minds of the Chinese. 70-80% of respondents consider them to be the main values ​​in life, and only 6-15% do not consider it necessary to adhere to them. It is worthy of attention that the Chinese people themselves are very disapproving of the deceit that McGowan talks about.

Thus, despite the profound social changes that occurred in China in the 20th century, the traditions of Confucianism have not lost their defining place in the culture of Chinese society.

China is one of the most original countries in the world, but traveling there is associated with great psychological stress. You are always the center of attention of hundreds, and sometimes thousands of people. The Chinese are very cheerful, sincere and smart people, but their ideas about the rules of good manners in many ways do not coincide with ours.

China attaches great importance to establishing informal relationships with foreign partners. You may be asked about your age, marital status, children - do not be offended: this is a sincere interest in you.

During business meetings, Chinese negotiators are very attentive to two things: gathering information about the subject being discussed and the negotiating partners; formation of the “spirit of friendship”. Moreover, the “spirit of friendship” in negotiations is generally very important for them, which is largely due to Chinese cultural traditions and values.

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They try to make the wedding magnificent, but elegant, without vulgarities and unnecessary fuss. Many European wedding traditions are adopted by other countries to make the celebration just as elegant and stylish.

Many beautiful wedding traditions were borrowed from European countries. For people in England, Germany, France, Spain and other countries, marriage is a reverent and romantic event, which is intertwined with many customs and memorable moments.

The essence of the rituals

Peoples with a rich history have accumulated a whole storehouse of different traditions, signs and superstitions, some of which relate specifically to weddings. Whatever the culture of the country, marriage is given special role, and since ancient times there have been special procedures for its preparation and conduct.

Many of the wedding traditions in Europe were forgotten, others were modified, and only a small part has survived to this day in its original state. With the advent of Christianity, the isolated features of peoples began to be forgotten, and in the customs of different cultures they began to appear general patterns. This does not mean that people lost their individuality - they only interpreted the same faith.

Now even those wedding rituals in Europe that have been preserved from ancient times can rarely be seen at holidays. Conservative Europeans, too, began to give preference to holding the celebration.

Old customs can be found only in cases where the bride and groom want to pay tribute to their ancestors, and even then such rituals are only a formality and do not carry any sacred meaning.

Most often, the observance of wedding traditions can be found if the future newlyweds decide to organize their wedding in a specific style. For example, French, and are popular.

Which ones exist and where?

Among all European countries, the richest in customs related to marriage are England, Greece, Germany, France, Italy, Spain, Ireland and Sweden. Most often, stylized weddings are organized in accordance with these concepts.

In England, for example, a bride must wear four mandatory things to her wedding - something new (the dress itself, underwear), something old (family jewelry, shoes), something borrowed from a friend or relative (clutch, bracelet) and something blue (garter, hairpin). It is believed that in this case the girl will attract good luck and favor. higher powers. According to another English tradition, a little girl from among those invited to the wedding walks ahead of the bride and strews her path with rose petals.

In Greece, there is a wonderful custom of presenting gifts to guests, and they are purchased with money from the groom’s family. Another wedding tradition in Europe is the wedding, which takes place on Sunday, and on Friday they bake bread, showering flour on everyone who wants to receive a little happiness and good luck. Children invited to the celebration are given a special role - they are allowed to jump on the newlyweds’ bed so that they have many strong and healthy children.

In Germany, there is a wonderful custom: when newlyweds get married, they drink a glass of wine together. The groom drinks first, then the bride, after which she throws the glass behind her. If it breaks, the spouses will have a long and happy life. According to another tradition, any of the male guests may try to “steal” the hero of the occasion during the banquet. If he succeeds, he will have as many as three dances with the bride.

Wedding planner

To create an unusual and vibrant atmosphere at the wedding, in addition to external resemblance With style, you can adopt some wedding traditions of European countries.

Elena Sokolova

Reader

Most European traditions are aimed at bringing happiness, good luck, financial well-being and healthy children into the married life of young people.

Karina

In France, they are very sensitive to pre-wedding preparations. Literally every detail of the newlyweds’ outfits, including even a belt or tie, is hand-sewn to individual measurements, and there are practically no wedding salons in this country. The entire French wedding is divided into three stages: a wedding in a church, a cocktail party and the main banquet. Not all guests are invited to each of these events; instructions to this effect are included in the invitation envelope.

Many Italian customs are observed to this day. For example, the custom of carrying the bride over the threshold of the family home in his arms originated in this country. The Italians also came up with the name for the honeymoon - back in Ancient Rome newlyweds consumed honey for 30 days after the wedding to make their life together sweet and enjoyable.

Interesting! An Italian groom asks his beloved's hand from her mother, not her father. If you are planning a European wedding, you can follow the tradition.

In Spain, despite the ardent nature of its inhabitants, young people who decided to get married were treated strictly. After the engagement, the bride and groom were under constant surveillance; the most they were allowed was to hold hands, and then not in public.

The Spaniards created their own male and female communities, one might say, according to their interests. Then such groups intersected with each other, and the girls could meet the boys, and the main criterion for choosing the second half on both sides was thriftiness.

The Irish are used to celebrating weddings on a royal scale. It is noteworthy that matchmaking in most cases takes place in early January, as lovers try to get married before Maslenitsa. Then Lent begins, and according to the laws of this country it is impossible to have a wedding.

An interesting tradition in Ireland is the “Aitin Gander” ritual. On the appointed day, the groom comes to the house of the bride's parents, where the young man is treated to baked goose. Everyone who is involved in organizing the wedding is invited to the party, right down to the priest, and everyone together discusses pressing issues in preparing the celebration.

Sweden has fairly loose wedding traditions. Girls and boys met at dances on weekends, after which the latter accompanied their chosen ones home and did not hesitate to stay overnight. Because of this, weddings often took place when the bride was already pregnant, or even after the birth of the child. It is interesting that society did not condemn this, but, on the contrary, supported it, because it served as proof that the girl was healthy and capable of giving her husband heirs.

Interesting! Find out what they are. This could be a nightmare...

Other countries

There are no less interesting and funny traditions in other European countries. If desired, such customs can be observed at your own wedding in order to surprise the guests and make the celebration individual.

For example, there are the following traditions associated with marriage.

Such customs do not bring anything bad, so if you want to bring them to life, you can safely experiment.

Intersections with Russian customs

In every culture, a wedding will acquire new details and customs borrowed from other peoples. The most striking confirmation of this is that it is believed that the unmarried girl who catches him will be the next to marry.

Previously, there was no such tradition in Rus', although it was similar in meaning. All the girls who had not yet started a family danced around the newlywed, and she closed her eyes and spun in the opposite direction. Whoever she points to when she stops will be the one she will marry next. And by the way, Russian girls never gave the bouquet to anyone, keeping it in the family for good luck.

Interestingly, in many European countries and in Russia there is a similar The parents of the newlyweds bring fire from their home to help the newlyweds light their own. In the modern interpretation, the hearth is replaced with ordinary candles, since not everyone even has a fireplace.

If a European wedding is being organized, traditions and customs make it possible to make the celebration elegant and romantic. Many couples strive to plan their wedding in the Western style, avoiding vulgar ransoms, vulgar competitions and other inappropriate events. Such customs will not only diversify the celebration, but also make it memorable for guests.

There are 58 nations in Western Europe. 96% of the population speaks a language of the Indo-European family. The most significant of this family (by number of peoples) are the Germanic group, the Romanesque group, Slavic group and etc.

Anthropological composition: Caucasian racial type.

Greeks: the beginning of this ethnic group on the lands of modern Greece. In the 8th-5th centuries. BC. a common ethnic name was established - Hellenes, homeland - Hellas. The main occupations are growing grapes, olives, almonds, transhumance sheep and goat breeding, pottery and carpet weaving. Houses made of untreated stone (1st and 2nd floors), where livestock also live. Men's folk costume: black or blue trousers, white shirt, vest, sash, fez, cloak; for women - a long white shirt of a tunic cut with wide long sleeves, a wide long skirt.

Albanians. They come from the ancient population of the Balkans - the Illyrians (Thracians). In the 4th century BC. the first state formations. Main occupations: transhumance, farming (cereals - barley, rye; in the mountains - oats, wheat; in the valleys - millet; potatoes, corn, cotton, sugar beets are also grown). There are three types of rural settlements: scattered, crowded and regular. Usually 2-story houses with a veranda. More than 2/3 are Muslims, about a quarter are Orthodox.

Roman group. 15 nations (Italians, Italian-Swiss, Corsicans, Spaniards, Portuguese, French, Romanians, etc.). The Romans subjugated and assimilated many peoples, Romanization continued until the 5th century. AD The traditional occupations of Italians are gardening, grain farming, and animal husbandry. Food – pasta, a lot of spices and seasonings. More than half of the population lives in cities, rural settlements of 3 types: villages, hamlets, fortresses. Costume: men's - trousers, kamicha (tunic-like shirt), jakka (jacket), hat or beret; female - gona (long skirt), kamicha, corsetto, jacket ( outerwear), fazzoletto (head scarf), wooden shoes with iron spikes. The majority of believers are Catholics. Traditional occupations of the French: animal husbandry, field farming, viticulture. The main crops are rice, corn, rye. Food: cheese, rabbit meat, poultry (pigeons in the south), vegetables, root vegetables. Rural settlements are of 2 types: street plan (row) and cumulus. This is a 1-story house with a roof, residential and utility premises. Men's suit: pants, shirt, vest, scarf, straw hat. The believers are mostly Catholics. Walloons(40% of the Belgian population) are a craft people. Large villages of street and cumulus type. Peoples of the Iberian Peninsula: Spain ranks 1st in olive oil production. Grain farming has been developed. Already in the Roman era, cattle were bred; fishing has very ancient origins. Woman suit: wide pleated skirt with an apron, light blouse, bodice, scarf on the head. Catholics.

German group– 17 nations. They speak languages ​​of the Germanic group (Germans, Austrians, German-Swiss, Luxembourgians, Lorraineers, Danes, Swedes, Dutch, Norwegians, English, Scots, etc.). The traditional occupation is livestock raising (cattle) - transhumance, farming. Traditional settlements: large cumulus villages with haphazardly located houses and crooked streets. Clothing: men's - shirt (consists of two panels), long trousers, shoes were leather soles with leather straps; women's - a shirt also made of two panels, a cloak with a hood. Crafts – knitting, carpet weaving, weaving, embroidery.

Celtic group. 4 peoples - Irish, Welsh, Gaels, Bretons. Traditional occupations are agriculture and cattle breeding. They grow barley, oats, and wheat. Livestock (cattle) plays a major role. Food – cereals, fish, dairy dishes, soups. One of the oldest cities is Dublin. Rural settlements of the farm type. The houses are stone and wicker. Traditional costume: black clothes for older women; young people have a long wide skirt and corset, a long white apron and a white lace cap; male - tight short pants, jacket with a closed collar, hat. Mostly Catholics.

Traditional economic activities of the population of Western, Northern, Central and Southern Europe. Foreign Europe is a highly developed region, so traditional forms of economy have hardly survived there. In the past, the main occupations of Europeans were agriculture and animal husbandry. In other matters, the latter was inferior to agriculture everywhere, except for a few areas (Iceland, the Alps, the Faroe Islands).

In Europe very early - back in the 2nd-1st millennium BC. e. - plow farming spread. Farmers used two types of arable implements: the ralo (which did not have a blade and wheeled limber) and the plow (equipped with a moldboard and wheeled limber). Ralo was common in the southern and northern regions, the plow - in the central regions. Oxen were used as draft animals in the south of Europe, and horses in the north. The rough crops were harvested using sickles and scythes. Bread

they threshed with flails, and in the south they sometimes drove oxen over the compressed ears of corn. Grain was ground in water and windmills. Nowadays, these old agricultural tools and methods of processing crops are largely a thing of the past and are used newest ways agriculture.

The most important agricultural crops in the northern regions of Europe are barley, rye, oats, and in the central regions - wheat, rye, and sugar beets. In the south of Europe, in addition to wheat and rye, corn imported from America is grown, and in some areas rice is also cultivated. A crop of American origin, such as potatoes, has also spread widely in Europe. Gardening and horticulture have long been very developed in Europe. The cultivation of fruit and citrus trees and viticulture are common in the Mediterranean. Vineyards, the bulk of the harvests of which are used to make wine, are also found to the north - along the valleys of the Loire and Rhine rivers. Industrial crops grown in northern Europe include flax and hemp, and in southern Europe cotton and tobacco are grown. In many European countries, especially in Holland, Denmark, Germany, and England, floriculture is developed.

Livestock farming plays a fairly important role in the economy of most peoples of Europe. Mainly cattle are raised. Livestock are kept in stalls. Livestock farming is focused both on the production of milk and dairy products, and on the production of meat and meat products. In many areas of Europe, sheep (mainly for wool) and pigs are also bred.

In coastal areas, fishing is very developed in combination with the production of other seafood: shrimp, oysters, mussels. It is especially important among Norwegians and Icelanders.

Since the Middle Ages, Europe had a very developed handicraft industry, on the basis of which a diverse industry was later formed. Later, the craft was greatly supplanted by industry, but some of its types, primarily those artistic value, are preserved to this day. This includes lace weaving, embroidery, jewelry making, the production of ceramic and glass products, and some musical instruments.

The economy of the Sami living in the Arctic regions differs significantly from the occupations of other peoples of Europe. They have the most developed tundra reindeer herding and fishing.

Settlements and types of rural houses. Currently, most European countries have a sharply urban population. In many countries, urban dwellers make up more than three-quarters of the total population, and in Great Britain and Northern Ireland even over 90%. Among European cities there are very ancient ones, with a history of more than a thousand years: Rome, for example, arose in the 7th century. BC e., Athens - even earlier - in the 16th century. BC e. Ancient cities founded during the Roman Empire include, in particular, Paris, London, and Cologne. There are many cities in Europe that grew up during the Middle Ages (for example, Bristol, Stockholm, Berlin, Madrid) and during the period of rapid industrial development (Birmingham and Manchester in England, the cities of the Ruhr Basin in Germany and many others). In old cities, as a rule, their historical part is preserved, the most ancient historical monuments, giving each city uniqueness and originality. The unique appearance of Athens is associated with the ancient Harphenope, Rome with the Colosseum, Paris with Notre Dame Cathedral and the Louvre, London with Gaucher, Cologne with the famous Cologne Cathedral.

Europe is characterized by a large concentration of population in the largest cities, or more precisely in urban agglomerations, which also include settlements adjacent to the city. The population of such cities is especially diverse, since this is where the main flows of migrants are sent. IN big cities especially intensive communication and mutual influence of representatives different nationalities, which, along with other factors, leads to the formation of a special urban subculture.

However, despite the early development of urban life in Europe, before the onset of intensive industrialization, it was still dominated by a rural population. In some countries (for example, Portugal, Albania) it is still numerous. Among rural settlements There are both multi-yard and single-yard ones. Single-yard settlements - hamlets - are most often found in the mountainous regions of France, northern Spain, northern Italy, northwestern Germany, western England and Norway. Multi-yard settlements - villages - predominate in the lowland parts of Central Europe, France, Italy and Spain, as well as in the Balkans. Multi-yard rural settlements differ significantly in their development. In Central and Southern Europe, cumulus villages predominate, when houses and adjacent estates are located in disarray, the streets are crooked and confusing. There are also circular villages in eastern Germany. Houses in such a village are built around a square and face it with their facades. In some places in Western Europe there are street villages, although this type of settlement is more typical of Eastern European peoples. Street villages were usually built along roadways. In Europe you can also find scattered, or scattered, villages that are something between groups of one-door farmsteads and multi-yard villages. They are common in Western Europe.

Rural dwellings found in Europe are also divided into several types, of which only the most common are discussed here. So,

The so-called Mediterranean house is especially characteristic of southern Europe. This is a two-story, or less often three-story, stone structure, with utility rooms at the bottom and living quarters at the top. The roof of a Mediterranean house is gable and tiled. Spaniards, southern French, southern Italians live in such houses.

In northern Italy, in the mountainous regions of Switzerland and Austria, and in southern Germany, the most common is the so-called Alpine house. It is also two-story, its lower part is stone, and its upper part is wooden, log frame, with a gallery. The roof of such a house is also gable, supported on longitudinal beams. Residential premises are located on both floors, utility rooms - only on the first. A Basque home is similar to an Alpine house, but unlike an Alpine house, the second floor of a Basque house is frame.

In most of France and the Netherlands, in Belgium, Great Britain, Central Germany, and the lowland regions of Austria and Switzerland, houses of the Western Central European type are common. One of its options is a High German (Franconian) house. This is a building of one or two floors - brick or with a frame of wooden intersecting beams, the spaces between which are filled with a variety of materials (clay, rubble stone, brick, etc.). Residential and utility rooms enclose the open courtyard on four sides. The roof rests on the rafters.

A North French house is a stone or frame residential building stretched along the street, with utility rooms adjacent to it. The house is not fenced. In contrast, the South Limburg house, common in Belgium (also one-story, stone or frame), is enclosed by a high wall. Utility premises are sometimes freely scattered around the yard, sometimes located along its perimeter. The entrance to the house is made under an arch.

In the northern regions of Germany and the Netherlands, as well as in Denmark, houses of Northern European-style

sky type. A particularly characteristic variety of this type is the Low German (or Saxon) house. This is an extensive one-story building - frame or simply brick (without a frame). In the middle part there is a threshing floor (a room where compressed bread is stored and threshed) or a covered courtyard, on both sides of which there are living quarters, stables, and barns (pen for livestock). The massive roof of such a house rests not on the walls, but on thick pillars standing inside the house along the walls.

The Pannonian house, common in Hungary, is a one-story adobe structure with a thatched roof. Along the house there is a gallery on pillars.

In Scandinavia and Finland, log-frame, one-story dwellings are common. A North Scandinavian house consists of a heated living space, an unheated entryway and a room. In a South Scandinavian house, cold vestibules adjoin the heated living space on both sides.

The traditions of building rural houses in the past have had noticeable influence and on urban architecture. Currently, urban architecture is characterized by increasing unification and smoothing of traditional specifics. A similar trend is evident in rural areas.

Traditional food. Traditional food varies quite markedly in different parts of Europe. In the south of Europe they eat wheat bread; in the north, along with wheat, rye bread is widespread. In the north they mainly use animal oil, in the south - vegetable oil. Among the drinks in Great Britain, Ireland, and the Netherlands, tea is preferred, in other countries - coffee, and in Central Europe it is usually drunk with milk or cream, and in Southern Europe - black. In southern countries they eat very little in the morning, in northern countries they have a larger breakfast. In the south, naturally, they eat more fruit. In coastal areas, fish and other seafood occupy a significant place in the diet, for obvious reasons.

At the same time, along with regional originality, characteristic features are inherent in the food of each ethnic group. Thus, the French, compared to other European peoples, eat large quantity bakery products. To prepare appetizers, first and second courses, the French use a lot of vegetables, roots and tubers: potatoes, different varieties of onions (especially leeks and shallots), cabbage and salads, green beans, spinach, tomatoes, eggplants. Asparagus and artichokes are very popular. Compared to other Western European nations, they use less milk and dairy products, with the exception of cheese. There are hundreds of varieties of French cheese, among which soft cheese with internal green mold is very popular - Roquefort and soft cheese with external white mold - Camembert. The favorite traditional dishes of the French are steak with deep-fried potatoes, stew with white bechamel sauce. A variety of sauces are generally very widely used by the French when preparing meat main courses and salads. Of the first French dishes, it is especially common onion soup with cheese. Delicacies of French cuisine include oysters, snails and the fried hind legs of large ligushek. The French rank first in the world in the consumption of grape wines. Wine is served twice a day - for lunch and dinner.

The favorite food of Italians is pasta, all dishes from which are called paste. Pasta is prepared with tomato sauce, butter and cheese or meat. Beans, peas, and cauliflower are often served with pasta. Cheese occupies a significant place in the Italian diet. Its traditional varieties are Parmesan(hard dry cheese), Mozzarella(steam from buffalo milk), pecorino(salted dry sheep's milk cheese). Italians also eat risotto pilaf with ham, grated cheese, onions, shrimp and mushrooms, polenta- thick corn porridge, which is cut into pieces before serving. Italians prefer olives among spices and seasonings.

capers (buds of the plant of the same name), chicory and nutmeg.

The British eat quite a lot of meat (beef, veal, lamb, lean pork). The most popular meat dishes are roast beef And steak. The meat is usually served with tomato sauce, pickles (small pickled vegetables), potatoes and vegetables. The traditional food of the British are also a variety of puddings: meat, cereal, vegetable (they are served as main courses), as well as sweet fruit (dessert). In the morning, the British like to eat thin oatmeal. (porridge) or wheat (corn) flakes with milk. For first courses, they prefer broths and puree soups. On holidays in England they try to cook traditional dishes. A favorite among them is Christmas flame-pudding lard, bread crumbs, flour, raisins, sugar, eggs and various spices. It is doused with rum, set on fire and served flaming. Scottish traditional food is in many ways similar to English, but also has its own characteristics. Black (blood) pudding and white pudding (made from a mixture of oatmeal, lard and onions) are very characteristic of the Scots. The Scots use cereals more than the English to prepare various dishes. A traditional Scottish dish is lamb or veal tripe with oatmeal, generously seasoned with onions and peppers.

The Germans are characterized by widespread consumption of all kinds of sausages, frankfurters and small sausages. A very common dish is sausages with stewed sauerkraut. Potato soup with sausages and pea soup with sausage are also popular. The Germans also prepare a variety of pork and poultry dishes. Vegetables are usually eaten boiled (cauliflower and red cabbage, green beans and carrots are especially common). Boiled peas, beans, and potatoes are popular. The Germans prepare many dishes from eggs: stuffed eggs, baked eggs, scrambled eggs, omelet. The Germans also love various sandwiches. The traditional drink of the Germans is beer.

The basis of the cuisine of the Scandinavian peoples is fish and other seafood. Fish dishes are on the tables of Danes, Swedes, Norwegians, and Icelanders almost every day. The Danes love herring, mackerel, eel, flounder and salmon, boiled or salted. Smoked and dried fish are less common. A popular Norwegian dish is herring with potatoes. They also eat fried cod, flounder, and halibut. Their favorite food is clipfix- headless cod dried on rocks. Sandwiches are very common among the Scandinavian peoples. In Denmark, the sandwich is even called the king of cuisine. There are up to seven hundred types of sandwiches here: from a simple slice of bread with butter to the so-called multi-story sandwich, called “Hans Christian Andersen’s favorite sandwich.” This sandwich consists of several slices of bread interspersed with several layers of bacon, tomatoes, liver pate, jelly and white radishes. They eat it, removing one layer after another. Multi-decker sandwiches are also prepared using various seafood. Milk occupies a prominent place in Scandinavian cuisine. Scandinavian people love to drink fresh milk, various porridges and soups are prepared from milk, potato dishes are washed down with it, and various fermented milk products are made from it.

Traditional clothing of the peoples of Western, Central, Northern and Southern Europe. National characteristics V modern clothes Quite a few European peoples have survived. The so-called European urban costume, the birthplace of which was Great Britain, is widespread there. For men, this suit consists of trousers, a shirt with long sleeves and a jacket, for women - a skirt, a blouse with sleeves and a jacket. Such a suit in late XIX V. spread among city dwellers, and later among rural residents, almost everywhere replacing national clothing complexes. National costumes are now worn only during folk festivals, concerts of folk art groups, etc.

Nevertheless, certain elements of traditional clothing continue to exist, not only in rural areas, but also in cities. So, in Edinburgh and other cities of Scotland, men often wear national plaid skirts (kilt). By the way, the skirt as a typical element of men’s clothing was also common among the Irish, Greeks and Albanians.

The most common element of European men's clothing in the past there were pants that went slightly below the knees. They were worn with short stockings or leggings. Men also wore a long-sleeved shirt and a vest or jacket over it. The French, Spaniards and other Romanesque peoples tied a colored scarf around their necks. A typical headdress was a felt or felt hat. The traditional Basque headdress - a cloth beret - was later borrowed by other peoples of Europe. In particular, it became the most popular headdress of the French.

Women's traditional clothing different nations was very diverse. Among most Romanesque peoples, women wore long, wide skirts with a frill or border. German women wore short wide pleated skirts. Sometimes several skirts of different lengths were worn at once. It was customary to wear several skirts trimmed with lace at once (with the overskirt being darker) in some other areas, for example in Holland and Flanders (northwestern Belgium). Greek women also wore a sundress with a belt. In some places, especially in mountainous areas, women wore long trousers. Everywhere in Europe there was

It is customary to wear a bright apron. White sweaters with long sleeves were also typical; a tight-fitting bodice with laces or buttons was worn over the jacket. They wore scarves, caps and hats on their heads.

In many parts of Europe, wooden shoes were common along with leather ones.

The traditional clothing of the Sami is very different from the costumes of all other European peoples. For men, it consisted of a knee-length shirt and narrow cloth pants, for women - of a long white shirt and a dress worn over it (in warm weather - calico, in cold weather - cloth). In winter, both men and women wore clothes and shoes made of reindeer skins.