Writers of the 18th and 19th centuries and their works. Great Russian writers and poets: names, portraits, creativity. Features of Russian literature

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Writers and poets of the 19th century 1. Aksakov S.T. 2. Ershov P.P. 3. Zhukovsky V.A. 4. Koltsov A.V. 5. Krylov I.A. 6. Lermontov M.Yu. 7. Marshak S.Ya. 8. Nekrasov N.A. 9. Nikitin I.S. 10. Prishvin M.M. 11. Pushkin A.S. 12. Tolstoy L.N. 13. Tolstoy A.K. 14. Tyutchev F.I. 15. Ushinsky K.D. 16. Fet A.A. 17. Chekhov A.P. Svetlana Aleksandrovna Lyalina, primary school teacher, Kulebaki, Nizhny Novgorod Region

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Sergei Trofimovich Aksakov Famous Russian writer. Born into a noble family famous family Shimona. The future writer inherited his love of nature from his father. Peasant labor aroused in him not only compassion, but also respect. His book "Family Chronicle" was continued in "The Childhood Years of Bagrov's Grandson." Estate in Orenburg Museum Svetlana Aleksandrovna Lyalina, primary school teacher, Kulebaki, Nizhny Novgorod region

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Pyotr Pavlovich Ershov Born on March 6, 1815 in the Tobolsk province into the family of an official. Russian poet, writer, playwright. He was the initiator of the creation of an amateur gymnasium theater. He worked as a director in the theatre. He wrote several plays for the theater: “Rural Holiday”, “Suvorov and the Station Agent”. Ershov became famous thanks to his fairy tale “The Little Humpbacked Horse” Svetlana Aleksandrovna Lyalina, primary school teacher, Kulebaki, Nizhny Novgorod region

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Vasily Andreevich Zhukovsky Born on January 29 in the village of Mishenskoye, Tula province. Father, Afanasy Ivanovich Bunin, landowner, owner of the village. Mishensky; mother, Turkish Salha, was taken to Russia among the prisoners. At the age of 14, he was taken to Moscow and sent to the Noble boarding school. I lived and studied there for 3 years. Studied Russian and foreign literature. In 1812 he was in Borodino and wrote about the heroes of the battle. His books: Little Thumb Boy, No Mother Sky, The Lark. Svetlana Aleksandrovna Lyalina, primary school teacher, Kulebaki, Nizhny Novgorod region

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Alexey Vasilievich Koltsov A.V. Koltsov is a Russian poet. Born on October 15, 1809 in Voronezh, in merchant family. Father was a merchant. Alexey Koltsov delved into a variety of economic concerns from the inside villager: gardening and arable farming, cattle breeding and forestry. In the boy’s gifted, empathetic nature, such a life fostered a breadth of soul and versatility of interests, direct knowledge of village life, peasant labor and folk culture. From the age of nine, Koltsov studied reading and writing at home and showed such extraordinary abilities that in 1820 he was able to enter the district school, bypassing the parish school. Started writing at the age of 16. He wrote a lot about work, about land, about nature: Mower, Harvest, etc. Svetlana Aleksandrovna Lyalina, primary school teacher, Kulebaki, Nizhny Novgorod region

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Ivan Andreevich Krylov I.A. Krylov is a great fabulist. Born on February 2, 1769 in Moscow in the family of a poor army captain, who received the rank of officer only after thirteen years of military service. Krylov was 10 years old when his father died and he had to work. Russian writer, fabulist, academician of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences. In St. Petersburg, in the Summer Garden, there is a bronze monument where the fabulist is surrounded by animals. His works: Swan, Pike and Cancer. Siskin and Dove. A Crow and a fox. antique book Svetlana Aleksandrovna Lyalina, primary school teacher, Kulebaki, Nizhny Novgorod region

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Mikhail Yurievich Lermontov Svetlana Aleksandrovna Lyalina, primary school teacher, Kulebaki, Nizhny Novgorod region Born in Moscow in the family of captain Yuri Petrovich Lermontov and Maria Mikhailovna Lermontova, the only daughter and heiress of the Penza landowner E.A. Arsenyeva. Lermontov spent his childhood on Arsenyeva’s estate “Tarkhany” in the Penza province. The boy received a home education in the capital, and since childhood he was fluent in French and German. In the summer of 1825, my grandmother took Lermontov to the Caucasus; childhood impressions of the Caucasian nature and life of the mountain peoples remained in his early work. Then the family moves to Moscow and Lermontov is enrolled in the 4th grade of the Moscow University Noble Boarding School, where he receives a liberal arts education.

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Samuil Yakovlevich Marshak S.Ya. Marshak is a Russian poet. Born on October 22, 1887 in Voronezh in the family of a factory technician and a talented inventor. At the age of 4 he wrote poetry himself. A good translator from English, Russian poet. Marshak knew M. Gorky. Studied in England at the University of London. During the holidays, I traveled a lot on foot around England, listened to English folk songs. Even then he began working on translations of English works. , Svetlana Aleksandrovna Lyalina, primary school teacher, Kulebaki, Nizhny Novgorod region

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Nikolai Alekseevich Nekrasov Svetlana Aleksandrovna Lyalina, primary school teacher, Kulebaki, Nizhny Novgorod region Nikolai Alekseevich Nekrasov is a famous Russian poet. He came from a noble, once rich family. Born on November 22, 1821 in Podolsk province. Nekrasov had 13 brothers and sisters. The poet spent his entire childhood and youth on Nekrasov’s family estate, the village of Greshneva, Yaroslavl province, on the banks of the Volga. He saw people's hard work. They pulled barges across the water. He dedicated many poems to the lives of people in Tsarist Russia: Green noise, Nightingales, Peasant children, Grandfather Mazai and the hares, Motherland, etc.

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Ivan Savvich Nikitin Russian poet, born in Voronezh into the family of a wealthy merchant, owner of a candle factory. Nikitin studied at a theological school and seminary. I dreamed of graduating from university, but my family went broke. Ivan Savvich continued his education himself. He composed poems: Rus', Morning, Meeting Winter, Swallow's Nest, Grandfather. Svetlana Aleksandrovna Lyalina, primary school teacher, Kulebaki, Nizhny Novgorod region Monument to Nikitin I.S.

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Mikhail Mikhailovich Prishvin Mikhail Mikhailovich Prishvin was born on January 23, 1873 in the Oryol province near Yelets. Prishvin's father is from a native merchant family of the city of Yelets. Mikhail Mikhailovich is educated as an agronomist and writes a scientific book about potatoes. Later he leaves for the North to collect folklore from folk life. He loved nature very much. He knew the life of the forest and its inhabitants well. He knew how to convey his feelings to readers. He wrote: Protecting nature means protecting the Motherland! His books: Guys and Ducklings, Pantry of the sun, Nature Calendar, etc. Svetlana Aleksandrovna Lyalina, primary school teacher, Kulebaki, Nizhny Novgorod region

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Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin Born on June 6, 1799 in Moscow. His father, Sergei Lvovich, came from a wealthy family, but little of his ancestors’ estates (in the Nizhny Novgorod province) reached Pushkin. Pushkin spent his childhood in Moscow, going for the summer to Zakharovo County, to his grandmother’s estate near Moscow. In addition to Alexander, the Pushkins had children: the eldest daughter Olga and younger son A lion. Little Sasha grew up under the supervision of his nanny Arina Rodionovna. He loved nature and his homeland very much. He wrote many poems and fairy tales. Svetlana Aleksandrovna Lyalina, primary school teacher, Kulebaki, Nizhny Novgorod region

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Lev Nikolaevich Tolstoy Lev Nikolaevich is a great Russian writer. He wrote the first ABC and four Russian reading books for children. IN Yasnaya Polyana opened a school and taught the children himself. He worked hard and loved work. He plowed the land himself, cut the grass, sewed boots, and built huts. His works: Stories about children, Kids, Filipok, Shark, Kitten, Lion and dog, Swans, Old grandfather and granddaughter. House in Yasnaya Polyana Svetlana Aleksandrovna Lyalina, primary school teacher, Kulebaki, Nizhny Novgorod region

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Alexey Konstantinovich Tolstoy Svetlana Aleksandrovna Lyalina, primary school teacher, Kulebaki, Nizhny Novgorod region A.K. Tolstoy was born in St. Petersburg, and the future poet spent his childhood in Ukraine, on the estate of his uncle. While still a teenager, Tolstoy traveled abroad, to Germany and Italy. In 1834, Tolstoy was assigned as a “student” to the Moscow archives of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Since 1837 he served in the Russian mission in Germany in 1840. received service in St. Petersburg at the royal court. In 1843 - the court rank of chamber cadet. During Tolstoy's lifetime, the only collection of his poems was published (1867). Poems: The last snow is melting, Cranes, Forest Lake, autumn, etc.

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Fyodor Ivanovich Tyutchev Fyodor Ivanovich - Russian poet, diplomat. Born on November 23, 1803 in the Oryol province in the village of Ovstug. As a child, he was educated at home. His teacher was Semyon Egorovich Raich, who instilled a love of nature. At the age of 15, Fyodor Ivanovich was a student at Moscow University. I wrote a lot about Russian nature: Spring waters, Enchanted winter, I love thunderstorms at the beginning of May, Leaves that exist in early autumn. On July 15, 1873, Tyutchev died in the Tsar’s village. Svetlana Aleksandrovna Lyalina, primary school teacher, Kulebaki, Nizhny Novgorod region Estate MuseumF. I. Tyutchev in the village of Ovstug.

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Konstantin Dmitrievich Ushinsky Konstantin Dmitrievich Ushinsky was born on February 19, 1824 in Tula in the family of Dmitry Grigorievich Ushinsky, a retired officer, a small nobleman. Konstantin Dmitrievich's mother, Lyubov Stepanovna, died when he was 12 years old. Konstantin Dmitrievich was a teacher, he created books himself. He called them "Children's World" and " Native word" He taught me to love my native people and nature. His works: The Scientist Bear, Four Wishes, Geese and Cranes, Eagle, How a Shirt Grew in a Field. Svetlana Aleksandrovna Lyalina, primary school teacher, Kulebaki, Nizhny Novgorod region

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Afanasy Afanasyevich Fet Afanasy Afanasyevich - Russian lyric poet, translator. Born in the Novoselki estate, Oryol province. Since childhood I loved the poems of A.S. Pushkin. At the age of 14, he was taken to St. Petersburg to study. He showed his poems to Gogol. In 1840 the first book was published. His poems: A wonderful picture, The swallows are missing, Spring rain. For the last 19 years of his life, he officially bore the surname Shenshin. Svetlana Aleksandrovna Lyalina, primary school teacher, Kulebaki, Nizhny Novgorod region

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Anton Pavlovich Chekhov Svetlana Aleksandrovna Lyalina, primary school teacher, Kulebaki, Nizhny Novgorod region Anton Pavlovich Chekhov is an outstanding Russian writer, playwright, and doctor by profession. Born on January 17, 1860 in Taganrog, Ekaterinoslav province. Early childhood Anton's life took place in endless church holidays and name days. On weekdays after school, he guarded his father’s shop, and at 5 am every day he got up to sing in the church choir. At first, Chekhov studied at a Greek school in Taganrog. At the age of 8, after two years of study, Chekhov entered the Taganrog gymnasium. In 1879 he graduated from high school in Taganrog. In the same year, he moved to Moscow and entered the medical faculty of Moscow University, where he studied with famous professors: Nikolai Sklifosovsky, Grigory Zakharyin and others. His works: White-fronted, Kashtanka, In Spring, Spring Waters, etc.

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The century before last became interesting stage development of human history. The emergence of new technologies, faith in progress, the spread of educational ideas, the development of new public relations, the emergence of a new bourgeois class, which became dominant in many European countries - all this was reflected in art. 19th century literature reflected everything turning points development of society. All shocks and discoveries were reflected on the pages of novels by famous writers. Literature of the 19th century– multifaceted, varied and very interesting.

Literature of the 19th century as an indicator of social consciousness

The century began in the atmosphere of the Great French Revolution, the ideas of which captured all of Europe, America and Russia. Under the influence of these events, the greatest books of the 19th century appeared, a list of which you can find in this section. In Great Britain, with the coming to power of Queen Victoria, new era stability, which was accompanied by national growth, development of industry and art. Public peace has created best books 19th century, written in all kinds of genres. In France, on the contrary, there was a lot of revolutionary unrest, accompanied by a change in the political system and the development of social thought. Of course, this also influenced 19th century books. The literary age ended with an era of decadence, characterized by gloomy and mystical moods and a bohemian lifestyle of representatives of art. Thus, the literature of the 19th century presented works that everyone needs to read.

Books of the 19th century on the KnigoPoisk website

If you are interested in 19th century literature, the list of the KnigoPoisk website will help you find interesting novels. The rating is based on reviews from visitors to our resource. “Books of the 19th century” is a list that will not leave anyone indifferent.

The nineteenth century is called the golden age of Russian poetry. During this period, the classicism beloved by writers was replaced by romanticism and sentimentalism. A little later, realism arose, gradually replacing the idealization of the world. It was in the nineteenth century that literature reached its peak, and the contribution that Russian poets of the 19th century made to this is invaluable. The list of them is really large; among such famous names as Alexander Pushkin, Mikhail Lermontov, Afanasy Fet, there are also little-known but talented Vladimir Raevsky, Sergei Durov and many, many others.

Nineteenth century in literature

The nineteenth century was far from an easy period for Russia: a series of wars over trade routes erupted, Napoleon’s military campaign began, which was then followed by more wars. All this became a huge shock for the country. It was against the backdrop of such events that literature developed. The great Russian poets of the 19th century wrote in their works about love for the motherland, the beauty of Russia, the difficult fate of the common man and the idleness of noble life, they talked a lot about the place of man in this world, about the opposition of the individual to society. Classicism created an image, romanticism elevated it above the dullness of life, sentimentalism surrounded the lyrical hero with stunning landscapes - poetry of the early nineteenth century sought to idealize the world. They used a huge number of tropes, played with in foreign words, brought rhyme to perfection - everything to reflect the ideal. Later, realism began to appear, within the framework of which classical poets no longer disdained colloquial expressions and experiments with the form of a poem: the main task was to demonstrate reality with all its shortcomings. The nineteenth century is a century of contradictions; it amazingly combined the ideality and imperfection of the world in which the poets lived.

Ivan Andreevich Krylov (1769-1844)

Krylov laid the foundation for fables in Russian literature. His name is so strongly associated with this genre that it has become something like “Aesop's fables.” Ivan Andreevich chose this form of poetry, unusual for that time, to demonstrate the vices of society, showing them through the images of various animals. The fables are so simple and interesting that some of their lines have become catchphrases, and the variety of topics allows you to find teaching for any occasion. Krylov was considered a role model by many Russian poets of the 19th century, the list of which would be far from complete without the great fabulist.

Ivan Zakharovich Surikov (1841-1880)

Nekrasov is most often associated with realism and the peasantry, and few people know that many other Russian poets glorified their people and their life. Surikov's poems are distinguished by their melody and simplicity. This is what made it possible to set some of his works to music. Here and there the poet deliberately uses words characteristic not of lyricists, but of peasants. The themes of his poems are close to every person, they are far from being as sublime as the idealized poetry of Pushkin, but at the same time they are in no way inferior to it. Amazing ability to demonstrate life ordinary people, show their feelings, talk about some everyday situations so that the reader is immersed in the atmosphere peasant life- these are the components of Ivan Surikov’s lyrics.

Alexey Konstantinovich Tolstoy (1817-1875)

And in the famous Tolstoy family there were Russian poets of the 19th century. The list of eminent relatives was supplemented by Alexei Tolstoy, who became famous for his historical plays, ballads and satirical poems. His works convey love for his native land and praise of its beauty. A distinctive feature of the poems is their simplicity, which gives the lyrics sincerity. The poet’s source of inspiration was the people, which is why his work contains so many references to historical themes and folklore. But at the same time, Tolstoy shows the world in bright colors, admires every moment of life, trying to capture all the best feelings and emotions.

Pyotr Isaevich Weinberg (1831-1908)

Many poets in the nineteenth century were engaged in translating poetry from other languages, Weinberg was no exception. They say that if in prose the translator is a co-author, then in poetry he is a rival. Weinberg translated a huge number of poems from German language. For translation from German drama Schiller's "Mary Stuart" was even awarded a prestigious prize from the Academy of Sciences. In addition, this amazing poet worked on Goethe, Heine, Byron and many other famous writers. Of course, call Weinberg a poet in his own right difficult. But in his transcription of the poems, he preserved all the features of the lyrics of the original author, which allows us to speak of him as a truly poetically gifted person. The contribution that Russian poets of the 19th century made to the development of world literature and translations is invaluable. The list of them would be incomplete without Weinberg.

Conclusion

Russian poets have always been integral part literature. But it was the nineteenth century that was especially rich the most talented people, whose names forever entered the history of not only Russian, but also world poetry.

The 19th century is called the “Golden Age” of Russian poetry and the century of Russian literature on a global scale. We should not forget that the literary leap that took place in the 19th century was prepared by the entire course of the literary process of the 17th and 18th centuries. The 19th century is the time of the formation of Russian literary language, which took shape largely thanks to A.S. Pushkin. At the beginning of the 19th century, such a movement as classicism began to gradually fade away.

Classicism– literary direction XVII – early XIX centuries, based on imitation of ancient images.

The main features of Russian classicism: appeal to the images and forms of ancient art; heroes are clearly divided into positive and negative; the plot is based, as a rule, on a love triangle: heroine - hero-lover, second lover; At the end of the classical comedy, vice is always punished, and good triumphs; the principle of three unities is observed: time (the action lasts no more than a day), place, action.

For example, we can cite Fonvizin’s comedy “The Minor.” In this comedy, Fonvizin tries to implement the main idea classicism– to re-educate the world with rational words. Positive heroes talk a lot about morality, life at court, and the duty of a nobleman. Negative characters become an illustration of inappropriate behavior. Behind the clash of personal interests, the social positions of the heroes are visible.

The 19th century began with a flourishing sentimentalism and formation romanticism. These literary trends found expression primarily in poetry.

● Sentimentalism− In the second half of the 18th century. V European literature a movement arises called sentimentalism (from the French word sentimentalism, which means sensitivity). The name itself gives a clear idea of ​​the essence and nature of the new phenomenon. The main feature, the leading quality human personality What was proclaimed was not reason, as was the case in classicism and the Enlightenment, but feeling, not mind, but heart...

● Romanticism− direction in European and American literature of the late XVIII - first half of the 19th century century. The epithet "romantic" in the 17th century served to characterize adventurous and heroic stories and works written in Romance languages ​​(as opposed to those written in classical languages)

The poetic works of poets E.A. come to the fore. Baratynsky, K.N. Batyushkova, V.A. Zhukovsky, A.A. Feta, D.V. Davydova, N.M. Yazykova. The creativity of F.I. Tyutchev's "Golden Age" of Russian poetry was completed. Nevertheless, central figure This time there was Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin.

A.S. Pushkin began his ascent to the literary Olympus with the poem “Ruslan and Lyudmila” in 1920. And his novel in verse “Eugene Onegin” was called an encyclopedia of Russian life. Romantic poems by A.S. Pushkin " Bronze Horseman"(1833), "Bakhchisarai Fountain", "Gypsies" ushered in the era of Russian romanticism.

Many poets and writers considered A.S. Pushkin their teacher and continued the traditions of creating literary works laid down by him. One of these poets was M.Yu. Lermontov. His romantic poem “Mtsyri”, the poetic story “Demon”, and many romantic poems are known.

Along with poetry, prose began to develop. Prose writers of the beginning of the century were influenced by English historical novels V. Scott, whose translations were extremely popular. The development of Russian prose of the 19th century began with prose works A.S. Pushkin and N.V. Gogol. Pushkin, under the influence of English historical novels, creates the story “The Captain's Daughter”, where the action takes place against the backdrop of grandiose historical events: during the Pugachev rebellion. A.S. A.S. Pushkin and N.V. Gogol outlined the main artistic types that would be developed by writers throughout the 19th century. This artistic type « extra person", the example of which is Eugene Onegin in the novel by A.S. Pushkin, and the so-called “little man” type, which is shown by N.V. Gogol in his story “The Overcoat”, as well as A.S. Pushkin in the story “ Stationmaster». 


Literature inherited its journalistic and satirical character from the 18th century. In the prose poem by N.V. Gogol's "Dead Souls" the writer in a sharp satirical manner shows a swindler who buys up dead souls, Various types landowners who are the embodiment of various human vices (the influence of classicism is evident). The comedy “The Inspector General” is based on the same plan. Literature continues to satirically depict Russian reality. The tendency to depict the vices and shortcomings of Russian society - characteristic all Russian classical literature. It can be traced in the works of almost all writers of the 19th century. At the same time, many writers implement the satirical tendency in a grotesque form. Examples of grotesque satire are the works of N.V. Gogol “The Nose”, M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin “Gentlemen Golovlevs”, “The History of a City”. Since the middle of the 19th century, the formation of Russian realistic literature, which is created against the backdrop of the tense socio-political situation that developed in Russia during the reign of Nicholas I.

● Realism- In any work of fine literature, we distinguish two necessary elements: objective - the reproduction of phenomena given in addition to the artist, and subjective - something put into the work by the artist on his own. Focusing on a comparative assessment of these two elements, theory in different eras - in connection not only with the course of development of art, but also with other various circumstances - attaches greater importance to one or the other of them.

A crisis is brewing in the feudal system; there are strong contradictions between the authorities and common people. There is an urgent need to create realistic literature that is acutely responsive to the socio-political situation in the country. Literary critic V.G. Belinsky denotes a new realistic direction in literature. His position is developed by N.A. Dobrolyubov, N.G. Chernyshevsky. A dispute arises between Westerners and Slavophiles about the ways historical development Russia. Writers turn to socio-political problems of Russian reality. The genre of the realistic novel is developing. His works are created by I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy, I.A. Goncharov. The socio-political, philosophical issues. Literature is distinguished by a special psychologism.

The development of poetry subsides somewhat. It is worth noting the poetic works of Nekrasov, who was the first to introduce into poetry social issues. His poem “Who Lives Well in Rus'?” is known, as well as many poems that reflect on the difficult and hopeless life of the people. The literary process of the late 19th century revealed the names of N.S. Leskov, A.N. Ostrovsky A.P. Chekhov. The latter proved himself to be a master of the small literary genre - the story, as well as an excellent playwright. Competitor A.P. Chekhov was Maxim Gorky.

The end of the 19th century was marked by the emergence of pre-revolutionary sentiments. The realistic tradition began to fade away. It was replaced by so-called decadent literature, distinctive features which included mysticism, religiosity, as well as a premonition of changes in the socio-political life of the country. Subsequently, decadence developed into symbolism. This opens a new page in the history of Russian literature.

35) Creativity A.S. Pushkin.

Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin is the greatest Russian poet, rightfully considered as the creator of the modern Russian literary language, and his works as the standard of the language.

Even during his lifetime, the poet was called a genius, including in print; from the second half of the 1820s, he began to be considered “the first Russian poet” (not only among his contemporaries, but also among Russian poets of all times), and a real cult.

Childhood

In his childhood, Pushkin was greatly influenced by his uncle, Vasily Lvovich Pushkin, who knew several languages, was familiar with poets, and was himself no stranger to literary studies. Little 851513 Alexander was raised by French tutors, he learned to read early and already in childhood began to write poetry in French.

Summer months 1805-1810 the future poet usually spent time with his maternal grandmother, Maria Alekseevna Gannibal, in the village of Zakharovo near Moscow, near Zvenigorod. Early childhood impressions were reflected in Pushkin’s first works: the poems “The Monk”, 1813; "Bova", 1814; and in the Lyceum poems “Message to Yudin”, 1815, “Dream”, 1816.

At the age of 12, having received the rudiments of home education, Alexander was taken to study at a new educational institution that had just opened on October 19, 1811 - the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum near St. Petersburg, the place where the summer residence of the Russian tsars was located. The program of classes at the Lyceum was extensive, but not so deeply thought out. The students, however, were destined for a high government career and had the rights of graduates of a higher educational institution

The small number of students (30 people), the youth of a number of professors, their humane character pedagogical ideas oriented, at least among the best part of them, - on attention and respect for the personality of students, the absence of corporal punishment, a spirit of honor and camaraderie - all this created special atmosphere. Pushkin retained the Lyceum friendship and the cult of the Lyceum throughout his life. Lyceum students published handwritten journals and paid a lot of attention to their own literary creativity. Here the young poet experienced the events of the Patriotic War of 1812, and also his poetic gift was discovered for the first time and was highly appreciated.

In July 1814, Pushkin made his first appearance in print, in the journal Vestnik Evropy, published in Moscow. In the thirteenth issue the poem “To a Poet Friend” was published, signed under the pseudonym Alexander N.k.sh.p.

At the beginning of 1815, Pushkin reads his patriotic poem “Memoirs in Tsarskoe Selo” in the presence of Gabriel Derzhavin.

While still at the Lyceum, Pushkin was accepted into the Arzamas literary society, which opposed routine and archaism in literary matters. An atmosphere of free thought and revolutionary ideas largely determined later civil position poet.

Pushkin's early poetry conveyed a sense of the transience of life, which dictated the thirst for pleasure.

In 1816, the character of Pushkin's lyrics underwent significant changes. Elegy becomes his main genre.

Youth

Pushkin was released from the Lyceum in June 1817 with the rank of collegiate secretary and assigned to the College of Foreign Affairs. However, the bureaucratic service is of little interest to the poet, and he plunges into the turbulent life of St. Petersburg: he becomes a regular visitor to the theater, takes part in meetings of the Arzamas literary society, and in 1819 becomes a member of the literary and theatrical community " Green lamp" Without taking part in the activities of the first secret organizations, Pushkin nevertheless had friendly ties with many img_127active members of the Decembrist societies, wrote sharp political epigrams and composed poems “To Chaadaev” (“To Chaadaev” (“Love, Hope, Quiet Glory…”, 1818) imbued with the ideals of freedom) , “Liberty” (1818), “N. Ya. Pluskova" (1818), "Village" (1819). During these years, he was busy working on the poem “Ruslan and Lyudmila,” which began at the Lyceum and corresponded to the program guidelines of the literary society “Arzamas” on the need to create a national heroic poem. The poem was completed in May 1820 and upon publication provoked fierce responses from critics outraged by the decline of the high canon.

In the South (1820-1824)

In the spring of 1820, Pushkin was summoned to the military governor-general of St. Petersburg, Count M.A. Miloradovich, to explain the content of his poems, which were incompatible with the status of a government official. He was transferred from the capital to the south to the Chisinau office of I. N. Inzov.

On the way to his new duty station, Alexander Sergeevich falls ill with pneumonia after swimming in the Dnieper. To improve his health, the Raevskys took the sick poet with them to the Caucasus and Crimea at the end of May 1820. Only in September does he arrive in Chisinau. New boss treated Pushkin’s service leniently, allowing him to be away for a long time and visit friends in Kamenka (winter 1820-1821), go to Kyiv, travel with I.P. Liprandi in Moldova and visiting Odessa (end of 1821). In Chisinau, Pushkin enters into Masonic lodge“Ovid”, as he himself writes about in his diary.

In the meantime, in July 1823, Pushkin sought a transfer from service to Odessa in the office of Count Vorontsov. It was at this time that he recognized himself as a professional writer, which was predetermined by the rapid readership success of his works. An affair with the boss's wife and an inability to public service, leads to the poet submitting his resignation. As a result, in July 1824, he was removed from service and sent to the Pskov estate of Mikhailovskoye under the supervision of his parents.

Mikhailovskoe

While in the village, Pushkin often visits his nanny Arina Rodionovna, who tells him fairy tales. He wrote to his brother Lev: “I write notes before lunch, have lunch late... In the evening I listen to fairy tales.” The first Mikhailovsky autumn was fruitful for the poet. Pushkin completes the poems he began in Odessa, “A Conversation between a Bookseller and a Poet,” where he formulates his professional credo, “To the Sea,” a lyrical reflection on the fate of a man in the era of Napoleon and Byron, on the cruel power of historical circumstances over an individual, the poem “Gypsies” (1827), continues to write a novel in verse. In the fall of 1824, he resumed work on autobiographical notes, abandoned at the very beginning in the Kishinev era, and pondered the plot folk drama"Boris Godunov" (finished on November 7, 1825 (separate edition in 1831)), writes the comic poem "Count Nulin".

In 1825, Pushkin met Anna Kern in the neighboring Trigorsky estate, to whom he dedicated the poem “I Remember.” wonderful moment..." At the end of 1825 - beginning of 1826, he completed the fifth and sixth chapters of the novel "Eugene Onegin", which at that time seemed to him as the end of the first part of the work. IN last days During Mikhailovsky exile, the poet writes the poem “Prophet”.

On the night of September 3-4, 1826, a messenger from the Pskov governor B.A. arrived in Mikhailovskoye. Aderkasa: Pushkin, accompanied by a courier, must appear in Moscow, where the new emperor, Nicholas I, was awaiting his coronation.

On September 8, immediately after his arrival, Pushkin was taken to the Tsar for a personal audience. Upon his return from exile, the poet was guaranteed the highest personal patronage and exemption from ordinary censorship.

It was during these years that interest in the personality of Peter I, the transforming tsar, arose in Pushkin’s work. He becomes the hero of a novel about the poet’s great-grandfather, Abram Hannibal, and a new poem “Poltava”.

Without starting his own home, Pushkin stops in Moscow and St. Petersburg for a short time, rushes between them, sometimes stopping at Mikhailovskoye, rushing either to the theater of military operations with the beginning of the Turkish campaign of 1828, or to the Chinese embassy; left without permission for the Caucasus in 1829.

By this time, a new turn had emerged in the poet’s work. Sober historical and social analysis reality is combined with an awareness of the complexity of the surrounding world that often eludes rational explanation, which fills his work with a sense of anxious foreboding, leads to a widespread invasion of fantasy, gives rise to sad, sometimes painful memories and intense interest in death.

In 1827, an investigation began into the poem “Andrei Chenier” (written back in Mikhailovsky in 1825), which was seen as a response to the events of December 14, 1825, and in 1828 the Kishinev poem “Gavriiliada” became known to the government. These cases were to the highest command stopped after Pushkin’s explanations, but secret police surveillance was established over the poet.

Pushkin feels the need for everyday changes. In 1830, his repeated wooing to Natalya Nikolaevna Goncharova, an 18-year-old Moscow beauty, was accepted, and in the fall he went to the Nizhny Novgorod estate of his father Boldino to take possession of the nearby village of Kistenevo, donated by his father for the wedding. Cholera quarantines detained the poet for three months, and this time was destined to become the famous Boldin autumn, highest point Pushkin's creativity, when a whole library of works poured out from under his pen: “Tales of the late Ivan Petrovich Belkin” (“Belkin’s Stories”, “Experience in Dramatic Studies”, “Little Tragedies”), last chapters“Eugene Onegin”, “House in Kolomna”, “The History of the Village of Goryukhin”, “The Tale of the Priest and His Worker Balda”, several drafts of critical articles and about 30 poems.

“Belkin’s Tales” was the first completed work of Pushkin’s prose that has come down to us, the creation of which he undertook several times. In 1821, he formulated the basic law of his prose narrative: “Accuracy and brevity are the first advantages of prose. It requires thoughts and thoughts - without them brilliant expressions serve no purpose.” These stories are also kind of memoirs an ordinary person, who, not finding anything significant in his life, fills his notes with a retelling of stories he heard that struck his imagination with their unusualness.

February 18 (March 2), 1831 Pushkin marries Natalya Goncharova in the Moscow Church of the Great Ascension at the Nikitsky Gate.

In the spring of the same year, he moved with his wife to St. Petersburg, renting a dacha in Tsarskoe Selo for the summer. Here Pushkin writes “Onegin’s Letter,” thereby finally completing work on the novel in verse, which became his “faithful companion” for eight years of his life.

The new perception of reality that emerged in his work at the end of the 1820s required in-depth studies of history: the origins of the fundamental issues of our time should be found in it. In 1831, he received permission to work in the archives and enlisted again as a “historiographer,” receiving the highest assignment to write “The History of Peter.” The cholera riots, terrible in their cruelty, and the Polish events that brought Russia to the brink of war with Europe, appear to the poet as a threat to Russian statehood. Strong power in these conditions seems to him the key to the salvation of Russia - this idea inspired his poems “Before the Holy Tomb...”, “Slanderers of Russia”, “Borodin Anniversary”: the last two, together with the poem by V. A. Zhukovsky, were published in a special brochure “To take Warsaw” and caused accusations of political renegade, causing a decline in Pushkin’s popularity in the West and, to some extent, in Russia. At the same time, F.V. Bulgarin, associated with the III department, accused the poet of adherence to liberal ideas.

From the beginning of the 1830s, prose in Pushkin’s work began to prevail over poetic genres. "Belkin's Tales" were not successful. Pushkin is planning a broad epic canvas, a novel from the era of Pugachevism with a hero-nobleman who went over to the side of the rebels. This idea was abandoned for a while due to insufficient knowledge of that era, and work began on the novel “Dubrovsky” (1832-33), its hero, avenging his father, from whom the family estate was unjustly taken away, becomes a robber. Although the plot basis of the work was drawn by Pushkin from modern life, as the work progressed, the novel increasingly acquired the features of a traditional adventure narrative with a collision that was generally atypical for Russian reality. Perhaps, also foreseeing insurmountable censorship difficulties with the publication of the novel, Pushkin left work on it, although the novel was close to completion. The idea of ​​a work about the Pugachev rebellion again attracts him, and true to historical accuracy, he interrupts his studies of the Peter the Great era for a while, studies printed sources about Pugachev, and seeks to familiarize himself with documents on the suppression peasant uprising(the “Pugachev Case” itself, strictly classified, turns out to be inaccessible), and in 1833 he made a trip to the Volga and the Urals to see with his own eyes the places of terrible events and hear living legends about Pugachevism. Pushkin travels through Nizhny Novgorod, Kazan and Simbirsk to Orenburg, and from there to Uralsk, along ancient river Yaik, renamed after the peasant uprising to the Urals.

On January 7, 1833, Pushkin was elected a member Russian Academy simultaneously with P. A. Katenin, M. N. Zagoskin, D. I. Yazykov and A. I. Malov.

In the autumn of 1833 he returned to Boldino. Now Pushkin’s Boldino Autumn is half as long as it was three years ago, but in significance it is commensurate with the Boldino Autumn of 1830. In a month and a half, Pushkin completes work on “The History of Pugachev” and “Songs of the Western Slavs”, begins work on the story “The Queen of Spades”, creates the poems “Angelo” and “The Bronze Horseman”, “The Tale of the Fisherman and the Fish” and “The Tale of the Dead the princess and about the seven heroes", a poem in octaves "Autumn".

Petersburg

In November 1833, Pushkin returned to St. Petersburg, feeling the need to radically change his life and, first of all, get out from under the tutelage of the court.

On the eve of 1834, Nicholas I promoted his historiographer to the junior court rank of chamber cadet. The only way out The only way out of the ambiguous position in which Pushkin found himself was to achieve immediate resignation. But the family grew (the Pushkins had four children: Maria, Alexander, Grigory and Natalya), social life required large expenses, Pushkin’s last books were published more than a year ago and did not bring much income, historical studies consumed more and more time, the historiographer’s salary was insignificant , and only the tsar could authorize the publication of new works by Pushkin, which could strengthen his financial position. At the same time, the poem “The Bronze Horseman” was banned.

In order to somehow get out of urgent debts, Pushkin at the beginning of 1834 quickly completed another, prosaic St. Petersburg story, “The Queen of Spades” and published it in the magazine “Library for Reading,” which paid Pushkin immediately and at the highest rates. It was started in Boldin and was then, apparently, intended for the almanac “Troichatka”, jointly with V.F. Odoevsky and N.V. Gogol.

In 1834, Pushkin resigned with a request to retain the right to work in the archives, necessary for the execution of “The History of Peter”. His resignation was accepted, but he was prohibited from working in the archives. Pushkin was forced to resort to the mediation of Zhukovsky to resolve the conflict. For his loyalty, he was given the previously requested cash loan against a five-year salary. This amount did not cover even half of Pushkin’s debts; with the cessation of salary payments, one had to rely only on literary income. But a professional writer in Russia was too unusual a figure. His income depended on reader demand for his works. At the end of 1834 - beginning of 1835, several final editions of Pushkin’s works were published: full text“Eugene Onegin” (in 1825-32 the novel was published in separate chapters), collections of poems, stories, poems - all these books were sold with difficulty. Criticism is already in full voice spoke about the erosion of Pushkin's talent, about the end of his era in Russian literature. Two autumns - 1834 (in Boldin) and 1835 (in Mikhailovsky) were less fruitful. The poet came to Boldino for the third time in the fall of 1834 on complicated matters of the estate and lived there for a month, writing only “The Tale of the Golden Cockerel.” In Mikhailovskoe, Pushkin continued to work on “Scenes from the Times of Knights”, “Egyptian Nights”, and created the poem “I Visited Again”.

The general public, lamenting the decline of Pushkin’s talent, did not know that his best works were not published, that in those years there was constant, intense work on extensive plans: “The History of Peter”, a novel about Pugachevism. Fundamental changes were ripe in the poet's work. Pushkin the lyricist during these years became primarily “a poet for himself.” He is now persistently experimenting with prose genres that do not completely satisfy him; they remain in plans, sketches, and drafts, and are looking for new forms of literature.

"Contemporary"

Under these conditions, he finds a way out that solves many problems at once. He founded a magazine called Sovremennik. It published works by Nikolai Gogol, Alexander Turgenev, V. A. Zhukovsky, P. A. Vyazemsky.

Nevertheless, the magazine did not have reader success: towards a new type of serious periodical dedicated to current problems, interpreted as necessary by hints, the Russian public still had to get used to. The magazine only had 600 subscribers, which made it ruinous for the publisher, since neither printing costs nor staff fees were covered. Pushkin fills more than half of the last two volumes of Sovremennik with his works, mostly anonymous.

The novel “The Captain's Daughter” was finally published in the fourth volume of Sovremennik.

The same aspiration for future generations inspired Pushkin’s final poem, going back to Horace, “I erected a monument to myself not made by hands...” (August 1836).

Duel and death of the poet

In the winter of 1837, a conflict arose between the poet and Georges Dantes, who was accepted into service in the Russian guard thanks to the patronage of the Dutch envoy Baron Louis Heeckeren, who adopted him. A quarrel, the cause of which was Pushkin’s insulted honor, led to a duel.

On January 27, the poet was mortally wounded in the thigh. The bullet broke the neck of the thigh and entered the stomach. For that time the wound was fatal. He knew the end was approaching and endured the suffering steadfastly.

Before his death, Pushkin, putting his affairs in order, exchanged notes with Emperor Nicholas I. The notes were conveyed by two outstanding people:

V. A. Zhukovsky is a poet, at that time the teacher of the heir to the throne, the future Emperor Alexander II.

N. F. Arendt - personal physician of Emperor Nicholas I, physician to Pushkin.

The poet asked for forgiveness for violating the royal ban on dueling: “... I’m waiting for the king’s word so that I can die in peace...”

Sovereign: “If God does not order us to meet again in this world, I send you my forgiveness and my last advice to die as a Christian. Don’t worry about your wife and children, I take them into my arms.”

Nikolai saw in Pushkin a dangerous “leader of freethinkers” and subsequently assured that he “forcibly brought Pushkin to the death of a Christian,” which was not true: even before receiving the royal note, the poet, having learned from the doctors that his wound was mortal, sent for a priest to take communion. On January 29 (February 10) at 14:45, Pushkin died of peritonitis. Nicholas I fulfilled his promises to the poet.

Order of the Sovereign: Pay debts, clear the mortgaged estate of the father from debt, pension for the widow and daughters upon marriage, sons as pages and 1,500 rubles for the education of each upon entry into the service, publish essays to the public account in favor of the widow and children, pay a lump sum of 10 000 rubles.

Alexander Pushkin is buried in the cemetery of the Svyatogorsk Monastery in the Pskov province.

36) Creativity M.Yu. Lermontov.

Lermontov’s creative development is unique not only because he died at the very beginning of his “great career.” The first poems by Lermontov that have reached us are dated 1828 (then he was 14 years old). Most of Lermontov’s works were written in 1826-1836, but the poet Lermontov actually appeared in literature only in 1837, after he responded to the death of Pushkin with an angry poem “The Death of a Poet.” The public reaction to this poem, the expulsion of Lermontov - exile to the Caucasus, the change in the themes and style of his poetry, the publication of poems that were previously written “on the table” - all this allowed us to say that a new poet had appeared in Russia.

Lermontov's creativity is a forward movement, the essence of which is the rise to new round and at the same time in returning to what has already been discovered. At each new turn of the creative spiral, a rethinking of the figurative “drawings” created in the previous one took place. Considering the “spiral-shaped” nature of Lermontov’s creative development, three periods can be distinguished in it.

The youthful period (1828-1831) is the time of the first literary experiments.

Lermontov's parents - retired infantry captain Yuri Petrovich Lermontov and Maria Mikhailovna, nee Arsenyeva, did not have their own home in Moscow. Their place permanent residence was the village of Tarkhany, Penza province, which belonged to the poet’s grandmother Elizaveta Alekseevna Arsenyeva. The family returned to Tarkhany in the spring of 1815, when Maria Mikhailovna recovered from a difficult birth. In 1816, the parents separated. In the winter of 1817, Maria Mikhailovna began to experience an exacerbation of her illness - “either consumption or tabes.” She died on February 24 of the same year. Lermontov practically did not remember the face of his living mother; it was replaced by a portrait, which his grandmother never parted with. But he remembered the day of her funeral, although he was not even three years old, describing it in the poem “Sashka”:

He was a child when he was in a plank coffin

His family was killed with a bang.

He remembered that there was a black priest above her

Read big book that they burned incense

And so on... and what, covering the entire forehead

With a large handkerchief, the father stood in silence...

In 1828-1830 the young man studied at the Noble boarding school at Moscow University, and from 1830 to 1832 - at the moral and political department of Moscow University.

The peak of the first period of creativity is 1830-1831. - intense time creative activity poet, when about 200 poems were written. Lermontov created 6 poems over the same two years - “ Last Son liberties", "Angel of Death", "People and Passions" and others. Most of Lermontov's works were student-made and artistically imperfect. That is why he was in no hurry to publish them. The first publication - the poem "Spring" in the magazine "Athenaeus" - went unnoticed and had no significance for the young author. But from his first steps in literature, Lermontov did not limit himself to “studying” with his eminent predecessors. In his attitude towards any literary authorities, be it Byron, Pushkin or Ryleev, a position of attraction and repulsion was manifested. Lermontov not only assimilated, but also transformed and rethought poetic traditions.

Lermontov's creativity 1828-1831. had a pronounced autobiographical character. The lyrics reflected childhood impressions, first friendships, love interests. Autobiography was the most important creative principle of Lermontov, although this principle contradicted another - the desire of the romantic poet to include his “genuine”, “reliable” thoughts and feelings in the context of general romantic literary motifs.

Transition period (1832-1836) - from youth creativity to mature.

The poet himself assessed this period as a time of shake-up, “action.” In biographical terms, the beginning of a new stage of creativity coincided with Lermontov’s departure from Moscow University, moving with his grandmother to St. Petersburg, where he entered the School of Guards Ensigns and Cavalry Junkers. Two-year stay in closed military educational institution ended in 1835. Lermontov was released as a cornet in the Life Guards Hussar Regiment. The sharp change in life, the military career that Lermontov chose, largely determined his future fate and influenced the nature of his development.

In four years, Lermontov wrote relatively little lyric poems: they gave way epic genres, as well as dramaturgy. In Lermontov's poetry there are motifs of spiritual restlessness, a passionate thirst for change, movement, and new impressions. Images of a stormy sea, a thunderstorm, a rebellious sail were created in many poems of 1832. These are not only echoes of the romantic tradition of Byron - they expressed Lermontov’s impulse to action, to the transformation of his human and creative destiny. The antithesis of rebellion and peace, freedom and bondage determine the meaning of the poems “Sail”, “I want to live!” I want sadness...", "Sailor" (1832).

Autobiographicalism in lyrics is weakened. Lermontov is looking for new ways to express the state of the lyrical hero. One of the fruitful ways found by the poet is the creation of an objective parallel image that correlates with inner world lyrical hero. For example, in “Sail,” a psychological parallel underlies the image of the symbol of a lonely sail sailing on the sea of ​​life. The subject image, saturated with psychological content, absorbs the movement of the poet’s thoughts. The image of the sail unfolds as an act of self-awareness of the “rebellious” lyrical hero: rejecting traditional life values, he chooses restlessness, storm, rebellion. The poetic principle of psychologization in the lyrics of the mature period of creativity (poems “Three Palms”, “Dispute”, “Cliff”, etc.)

In 1832-1836. Lermontov the romantic first touched upon the problem of the relationship between the individual and social environment. In the unfinished novel “Vadim” (1832-1834) and in the poem “Ishmael Bey” (1832-1833), he reflects on the connection between the fate of an individual, “private” person and the course of history. In 1835-1836 The question of depicting a person in everyday life becomes relevant. The artistic result of Lermontov's creative searches in 1832-1836. - drama “Masquerade” (1835-1836).

The period of creative maturity (1837-1841) - the time of creation of lyrical masterpieces, highest achievements in the genre of poetry and prose.

In February 1837, for the poem “The Death of a Poet,” which was distributed in lists, Lermontov was arrested and placed in a garrison guardhouse. After the end of the investigation in March 1837, by order of Nicholas I, he was transferred from the guard to the Nizhny Novgorod Dragoon Regiment and sent to the Caucasus to a new duty station. However, the first Caucasian exile, during which Lermontov met and became close to the exiled Decembrists, was short-lived. Already in January 1838, thanks to the efforts of his grandmother and the personal intercession of A.H. Benkendorf, the poet returned to St. Petersburg to continue serving in the Life Guards Grodno Regiment.

In Lermontov’s work a complex of themes, motifs and images that had arisen earlier developed, but the romantic writer was worried acute crisis. He became increasingly aware of the limitations of romantic individualism and sought to understand his connection with historical activity: in 1837-1841. The theme of the modern generation in its specific Lermontov interpretation came to the fore. In 1837-1841 the best romantic poems “Mtsyri” and “Demon” were created. The poems “Tambov Treasurer” and “Fairy Tale for Children” were written in a different key: they showed Lermontov’s movement towards realism. "Song…. about the merchant Kalashnikov" amazed contemporaries not only with its perfect mastery of the forms of folk poetry, but also with an understanding of its very spirit. The highest achievement of Lermontov’s prose, a kind of “encyclopedia of favorite themes and motifs of his work,” was the novel “A Hero of Our Time” (1838-1839). Work on separate stories, who composed the work, the formation of its general concept was intertwined with lyrical creativity and the creation of the best poems.

1. “Anna Karenina” by Leo Tolstoy

Roman about tragic love married lady Anna Karenina and the brilliant officer Vronsky against the backdrop of the happy family life of the nobles Konstantin Levin and Kitty Shcherbatskaya. A large-scale picture of the morals and life of the noble environment of St. Petersburg and Moscow in the second half of the 19th century, combining philosophical reflections author's alter ego Levin with advanced psychological sketches in Russian literature, as well as scenes from the life of peasants.

2. “Madame Bovary” by Gustave Flaubert

The main character of the novel is Emma Bovary, a doctor's wife who lives beyond her means and starts extramarital affairs in the hope of getting rid of the emptiness and ordinariness of provincial life. Although the plot of the novel is quite simple and even banal, the true value of the novel lies in the details and forms of presentation of the plot. Flaubert as a writer was known for his desire to bring each work to perfection, always trying to find the right words.

3. “War and Peace” by Leo Tolstoy

An epic novel by Leo Nikolaevich Tolstoy, describing Russian society during the era of the wars against Napoleon in 1805-1812.

4. “The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn” Mark Twain

Huckleberry Finn, who escaped from his cruel father, and the runaway black man Jim raft on the Mississippi River. After some time, they are joined by the rogues Duke and King, who eventually sell Jim into slavery. Huck and Tom Sawyer, who has joined him, organize the release of the prisoner. Nevertheless, Huck frees Jim from captivity in earnest, and Tom does it simply out of interest - he knows that Jim’s mistress has already given him freedom.

5. Stories by A.P. Chekhov

Over 25 years of creativity, Chekhov created about 900 various works(short humorous stories, serious stories, plays), many of which have become classics of world literature. Particular attention was paid to “Steppe”, “A Boring Story”, “Duel”, “Ward No. 6”, “Story unknown person", "Men" (1897), "Man in a Case" (1898), "In the Ravine", "Children", "Drama on the Hunt"; from the plays: “Ivanov”, “The Seagull”, “Uncle Vanya”, “Three Sisters”, “The Cherry Orchard”.

6. "Middlemarch" George Eliot

Middlemarch is the name of the provincial town in and around which the novel takes place. Many characters inhabit its pages, and their destinies are intertwined by the will of the author: these are the bigot and pedant Casaubon and Dorothea Brooke, the talented doctor and scientist Lydgate and the bourgeois Rosamond Vincey, the bigot and hypocrite banker Bulstrode, Pastor Farebrother, the talented but poor Will Ladislav and many, a lot others. Unsuccessful marriages and happy marital unions, dubious enrichment and fuss over inheritance, political ambitions and ambitious intrigues. Middlemarch is a town where many human vices and virtues are manifested.

7. "Moby Dick" Herman Melville

Moby Dick by Herman Melville is considered the greatest American novel of the 19th century. At the center of this unique work, written contrary to the laws of the genre, is the pursuit of the White Whale. A fascinating plot, epic sea scenes, descriptions of bright human characters in harmonious combination with the most universal philosophical generalizations make this book a true masterpiece of world literature.

8. Great Expectations by Charles Dickens

“The novel “Great Expectations” - one of Dickens’s last works, the pearl of his work - tells the life story of young Philip Pirrip, nicknamed Pip in childhood. Pip's dreams of a career, love and prosperity in the “world of gentlemen” are shattered in an instant, as soon as he finds out terrible secret his unknown patron, pursued by the police. Money, stained with blood and marked with the seal of crime, as Pip is convinced, cannot bring happiness. And what is it, this happiness? And where will his dreams and great hopes lead the hero?

9. “Crime and Punishment” Fyodor Dostoevsky

The plot revolves around the main character, Rodion Raskolnikov, in whose head a theory of the crime is ripening. Raskolnikov himself is very poor; he cannot pay not only for his studies at the university, but also for his own accommodation. His mother and sister are also poor; he soon learns that his sister (Dunya Raskolnikova) is ready to marry a man she does not love for money to help her family. This was the last straw, and Raskolnikov commits the deliberate murder of the old pawnbroker and the forced murder of her sister, a witness. But Raskolnikov cannot use the stolen goods, he hides them. From this time on, the terrible life of a criminal begins.

The daughter of a wealthy landowner and a big dreamer, Emma tries to diversify her leisure time by organizing someone else's personal life. Confident that she will never get married, she acts as a matchmaker for her friends and acquaintances, but life gives her surprise after surprise.