What makes fiction different from other types of text? If you think that this is a plot, then you are mistaken, because lyric poetry is a fundamentally "plotless" area of ​​literature, and prose is often plotless (for example, a poem in prose). The initial "entertainment" is also not a criterion, since in different eras, fiction performed functions that were very far from entertainment (and even opposite to it).

"Artistic techniques in literature are, perhaps, the main attribute that characterizes fiction."

What are art techniques for?

Techniques in literature are designed to give the text

• various expressive qualities,
• originality,
• to reveal the attitude of the author to what is written,
• and also to convey some hidden meanings and connections between parts of the text.

At the same time, outwardly no new information as if it is not entered into the text, because the main role play different ways of combining words and parts of a phrase.

Artistic techniques in literature are usually divided into two categories:

• trails,
• figures.

Trail is the use of the word in an allegorical, figurative sense. The most common trails are:

• metaphor,
• metonymy,
• synecdoche.

Figures are ways of syntactic organization of sentences that differ from the standard arrangement of words and give the text one or another additional meaning. Examples of shapes are

• antithesis (opposition),
• inner rhyme,
• isocolon (rhythmic and syntactic similarity of parts of the text).

But there is no clear boundary between figures and paths. Techniques such as

• comparison,
• hyperbola,
• litota, etc.

Literary techniques and the emergence of literature

Most artistic techniques generally originate from primitive

• religious beliefs,
• will accept
• superstition.

The same can be said about literary devices. And here the distinction between tropes and figures takes on a new meaning.

The trails are directly related to ancient magical ideas and rituals. First of all, this is the imposition of a taboo on

• name of the item,
• animal,
• pronouncing the person's name.

It was believed that when a bear was designated by its direct name, one could bring it on to the one who utters this word. This is how

• metonymy,
• synecdoche

(bear - "brown", "muzzle", wolf - "gray", etc.). These are euphemisms (“decent” replacement for an obscene concept) and dysphemisms (“obscene” designation for a neutral concept). The first is also associated with a system of taboo on some concepts (for example, the designation of the genitals), and the prototypes of the second were used initially in order to avoid the evil eye (according to the ideas of the ancients) or etiquette to belittle the called object (for example, oneself in front of a deity or a representative of a higher class). With the passage of time, religious and social ideas "debunked" and underwent a kind of profanation (that is, the removal of the sacred status), and the tropes began to play an exclusively aesthetic role.

The figures seem to have a more "mundane" origin. They could serve the purpose of memorizing complex speech formulas:

• rules,
• laws,
• scientific definitions.

Until now, similar techniques are used in children's educational literature, as well as in advertising. And their most important function is rhetorical: to draw increased public attention to the content of the text by deliberately "violating" strict speech norms. Such are

• rhetorical questions,
• rhetorical exclamations,
• rhetorical appeals.

"The prototype of fiction in the modern sense of the word were prayers and spells, ritual chants, as well as performances by ancient orators."

Many centuries have passed, the "magic" formulas have lost their power, however, on a subconscious and emotional level, they continue to influence a person, using our inner understanding of harmony and order.

Video: Visual and expressive means in literature

ARTISTIC TALENT human ability, manifested in artistic creation, socially determined unique unity of emotional and intellectual features artist's artistic talent differs from genius (see Artistic genius), which opens up new directions in art. Artistic talent determines the nature and possibilities of creativity, the type of art chosen by the artist (or several types of art), the range of interests and aspects of the artist's relationship to reality. At the same time, the artistic talent of an artist is inconceivable without an individual method and style as stable principles of the artistic embodiment of an idea and design. The individuality of the artist is manifested not only in the work itself, but also exists as a prerequisite for the creation of this work. The artistic talent of an artist can be realized in specific socio-economic and political conditions. Separate eras in history human society create the most favorable conditions for the deployment and implementation of artistic talent (classical antiquity, the Renaissance, the Muslim Renaissance in the East).

Recognition of the decisive importance of socio-economic and political conditions, as well as the spiritual atmosphere in the implementation of artistic talent does not mean that they are absolutized. An artist is not only a product of an era, but also a creator of it. An essential property of consciousness is not only reflection, but also the transformation of reality. For the realization of artistic talent, subjective moments of ability to work, the ability to mobilize an artist of all his emotional, intellectual and volitional forces are of great importance.

PLOT(fr. sujet subject) a way of artistic understanding, organization of events (that is, artistic transformation of the plot). The specificity of a particular plot is clearly manifested not only when comparing it with a real life story that served as its basis, but also when comparing descriptions of human life in documentary and fictional literature, memoirs and novels. The delineation of the event basis and its artistic reproduction goes back to Aristotle, but the conceptual delineation of terms was undertaken only in the XX century. In Russia, the word "plot" has long been synonymous with the word "theme" (in the theory of painting and sculpture, even now it is often used in this sense).

As applied to literature, at the end of the last century, it began to mean a system of events, or, according to A.N. Veselovsky's definition, the sum of motives (that is, what is commonly called a plot in another terminological tradition). Scientists of the Russian "formal school" proposed to consider the plot as processing, shaping primary material- plot (or, as it was formulated in the later works of V. B. Shklovsky, plot is a way of artistic comprehension of reality).

The most common way to transform a plot is the destruction of the inviolability of a time series, rearrangement of events, parallel development of action. A more complex technique is using non-linear relationships between episodes. This is a "rhyme", associative roll-over of situations, characters, sequences of episodes. The text can be based on the collision of different points of view, the comparison of mutually exclusive options for the development of the narrative (the novel by A. Murdoch "The Black Prince", the film by A. Kayata "Married Life", etc.). The central theme can develop simultaneously in several planes (social, family, religious, artistic) in the visual, color, sound series.

Some researchers believe that the motivation, the system of internal connections of the work, the methods of storytelling do not belong to the area of ​​the plot, but to the composition in the strict sense of the word. The plot is viewed as a chain of depicted movements, gestures of spiritual impulses, spoken or "imaginable" words. In unity with the plot, he formalizes the relationship and contradictions of characters between themselves and the circumstances, that is, the conflict of the work. In modernist art, there is a tendency towards plotlessness (abstraction in painting, plotless ballet, atonal music, etc.).

Plot is essential in literature and art. In the system of plot connections, conflicts are revealed, the nature of the action, which reflects the great problems of the era.

METHODS OF AESTHETIC ANALYSIS (from the Greek methodos - the path of research, theory, teaching) - concretization of the basic principles of materialistic dialectics in relation to the study of nature artistic creation, aesthetic and artistic culture, various forms of aesthetic assimilation of reality.

The guiding principle of the analysis of various spheres of aesthetic assimilation of reality is the principle of historicism, most fully developed in the field of art studies. It presupposes, as a study of art in connection with its conditionality by reality itself, the comparison of phenomena of the artistic series with non-artistic ones, the identification social characteristics determining the development of art, and the disclosure of systemic and structural formations within art itself, a relatively independent logic of artistic creativity.

Along with the philosophical and aesthetic methodology, which has a certain categorical apparatus, modern aesthetics also uses a variety of methods, analytical approaches of particular sciences, which are of secondary importance mainly in the study of formalized levels of artistic creativity. Turning to private methods and tools of private sciences (semiotics, structural-functional analysis, sociological, psychological, informational approaches, math modeling etc.) corresponds to the character of the modern scientific knowledge, but these methods are not identical to the scientific methodology of the study of art, they are not "an analogue of the subject" (F. Engels) and cannot claim the role of a philosophical and aesthetic method, adequate to the nature of the aesthetic assimilation of reality.

CONCEPTUAL ART one of the types of artistic avant-garde of the 70s. It is associated with the third stage in the development of the so-called avant-garde. neo-avant-garde.

Supporters of conceptual art deny the need to create artistic images (for example, in painting they should be replaced with inscriptions of indefinite content), and they see the function of art in activating the process of purely intellectual co-creation with the help of operating concepts.

The products of conceptual art are thought of as absolutely devoid of pictoriality, they do not reproduce K.-L. properties of real objects, being the results of mental interpretation. For the philosophical substantiation of conceptual art, an eclectic mixture of ideas borrowed from the philosophy of Kant, Wittgenstein, the sociology of knowledge, etc. is used.

CONSTRUCTIVISM (from Latin constructio - construction, construction) is a formalistic trend in Soviet art of the 1920s, which put forward a program for restructuring the entire artistic culture of society and art, focusing not on imagery, but on the functional, constructive expediency of forms.

Constructivism became widespread in Soviet architecture of the 1920s and 1930s, as well as in other types of art (cinema, theater, literature). Almost simultaneously with Soviet constructivism, the constructivist movement called. neoplasticism originated in Holland, similar trends took place in the German Bauhaus. For many artists, constructivism was only a stage in their work.

Constructivism is characterized by the absolutization of the role of science and the aestheticization of technology, the belief that science and technology are the only means of solving social and cultural problems.

The constructivist concept has gone through a number of stages in its development. Common to the Constructivists was: understanding a work of art as a material structure created by an artist; struggle for new forms artistic work and the desire to master the aesthetic possibilities of the design. At the final stage of its existence, constructivism entered the period of canonization of its formal-aesthetic methods. As a result, the aesthetic possibilities of technical structures, the discovery of which was undoubtedly the merit of the "design pioneers", were absolutized. Constructivists did not reckon with the fact that the dependence of form on construction is mediated by a set of cultural and historical facts. Their program "Public utility of art" as a result became a program of its destruction, reduction of an aesthetic object to a material-physical basis, to pure form-creation. The cognitive, ideological and aesthetic side of art, its national specifics and imagery as a whole disappeared, which led to objectlessness in art.

At the same time, attempts to identify the laws governing the form of the material, analysis of its combinatorial features (V. Tatlin, K. Malevich) contributed to the development of new approaches to the material and technological side of creativity.

COMPOSITION(lat. compositio arrangement, composition, addition) - a method of constructing a work of art, the principle of communication of the same type and dissimilar components and parts, coordinated with each other and with the whole. The composition is determined by the methods of shaping and the peculiarities of perception inherent in a particular type and genre of art, by the laws of constructing an artistic model (see) in canonized types of culture (for example, folklore, ancient Egyptian art, Eastern, Western European Middle Ages, etc.), as well as by individual originality artist, the unique content of a work of art in uncanonized types of culture (European art of New and Modern times, baroque, romanticism, realism, etc.).

In composition, works are embodied and defined artistic development themes, moral and aesthetic assessment of the author She, according to S. Eisenstein, is the bare nerve of the author's intention, thinking and ideology. Indirectly (in music) or more directly (in fine arts) the composition correlates with the laws of the life process, with the objective and spiritual world, reflected in the work of art. It makes the transition artistic content and its internal relations in relation to form, and the ordering of form - to the ordering of content. To distinguish between the laws of building these spheres of art, two terms are sometimes used: architectonics (the relationship between the components of content) and composition (principles of building a form). There is another type of differentiation: the general form of the structure and the interconnection of large parts of the work are called architectonics (for example, stanza in a poetic text), and the interconnection of more fractional components is called compositions (for example, the arrangement of poetic lines and the speech material itself). It should be borne in mind that in the theory of architecture and organization subject environment another pair of correlated concepts is used: construction (the unity of the material components of the form, achieved through the identification of their functions) and composition (artistic completion and emphasis on constructive-functional aspirations, taking into account the peculiarities visual perception and artistic expression, decorativeness and integrity of the form).

The concept of composition should be distinguished from that which became widespread in the 60s and 70s. the concept of the structure of a work of art as a stable, repeating principle, a compositional norm of a certain type, kind, genre, style and direction in art. Unlike structure, composition is a unity, fusion and struggle of normative-typological and individually-unique tendencies in the construction of a work of art. The degree of normativity and individual originality, the uniqueness of the composition is different in different types of art (cf. European classicism and "relaxed" romanticism), in various genres of the same type of art (compositional normativity in tragedy is expressed more vividly than in drama, and in a sonnet it is immeasurably higher than in a lyrical message). Compositional means are specific in certain types and genres of art, at the same time, their mutual influence is undoubtedly: the theater mastered the pyramidal and diagonal composition of plastic arts, and plot-thematic painting - the backstage construction of the stage. Different kinds art, directly and indirectly, consciously and unconsciously, absorbed compositional principles musical constructions(for example, sonata form) and plastic relations (see).

In the art of the XX century. complication occurs compositional constructions due to the increased inclusion of associative links, memories, dreams, through temporal changes and spatial shifts. Composition also becomes more complex in the process of convergence of traditional and "technical" arts. Extreme forms of modernism absolutize this tendency and impart an irrational and absurd meaning to it ("new novel", theaters of the absurd, surrealism, etc.).

In general, composition in art expresses an artistic idea and organizes aesthetic perception in such a way that it moves from one component of a work to another, from part to whole.

INTUITION artistic (from Lat.intuitio - contemplation) - the most important element of creative thinking, affecting such aspects of artistic

activity and artistic consciousness as creativity, perception, truth. In its most general form, when intuition is recognized as equally important in art and in science, it is nothing more than a special discernment of truth, which does not rely on rational forms of knowledge associated with one or another type of logical proof.

The most important is artistic intuition in creativity. This is especially evident at the initial stage. creative process, incl. "Problem situation". The fact that the result of creativity must be original forces a creative person to look for a solution that has not been encountered before at the very early stage of creativity. It presupposes a radical revision of the well-established concepts, mental schemes, ideas about a person, space and time. Intuitive knowledge, as knowledge of the new, usually exists in the form of an unexpected guess, a symbolic scheme, in which the contours of a future work are only guessed. However, according to many artists, this kind of insight is the basis of the entire creative process.

Aesthetic and especially artistic perception also includes elements of artistic intuition. Not just creation artistic image the creator of art, but the perception of artistic imagery by the reader, viewer, listener is associated with a certain mood for the perception of artistic value, which is hidden from superficial observation. At the same time, artistic intuition becomes a means by which the perceiver penetrates into the realm of the artistically significant. In addition, artistic intuition provides an act of co-creation between the perceiving work of art and its creator.

Until now, much in the operation of the intuitive mechanism seems mysterious and causes great difficulties in its study. Sometimes, on this basis, artistic intuition is attributed to the field of mysticism and is identified with one of the forms of irrationalism in aesthetics. However, the experience of many brilliant artists testifies to the fact that thanks to artistic intuition it is possible to create works that deeply and truthfully reflect reality. If the artist does not deviate from the principles of realism in creativity, then the artistic intuition, which he actively uses, can be considered as a special effective remedy knowledge that does not contradict the criteria of truth and objectivity.

INTRIGUE(from Lat. intricare - to confuse) - an artistic technique used to build a plot and plot in various genres of fiction, cinema, theatrical art (intricate and unexpected turns of action, interweaving and collisions of interests of the characters portrayed). The idea of ​​the importance of intrigue in the deployment of the action depicted in dramatic work, was first expressed by Aristotle: “The most important thing in which tragedy captivates the soul is the essence of a part of the plot - twists and turns and recognition.

Intrigue gives the unfolding action a tense and exciting character. With its help, the transfer of complex and conflicting (see) relations between people in their private and social life is achieved. The technique of intrigue is usually widely used in the works of the adventure genre. However, this is used by classic writers in other genres, which is evident from the creative heritage of the great realist writers - Pushkin, Lermontov, Dostoevsky, L. Tolstoy, etc. Often, intrigue is only a means of external amusement. This is typical of bourgeois, purely commercial art, designed for bad philistine taste. The opposite tendency of bourgeois art is the striving for plotlessness, when intrigue disappears as an artistic device.

ANTITHESIS(Greek antithesis - opposite) - stylistic figure the contrast method of organizing both artistic and non-artistic speech, which is based on the use of words with opposite meanings (antonyms).
Antithesis as a figure of opposition in the system of rhetorical figures has been known since antiquity. So, for Aristotle, antithesis is a certain "way of presenting" thought, a means of creating a special - "opposite" - period.

In artistic speech, antithesis has special properties: it becomes an element of the artistic system, serves as a means of creating an artistic image. Therefore, the antithesis is called the opposite not only of words, but also of images of a work of art.

As a figure of opposition, antithesis can be expressed in both absolute and contextual antonyms.

And at the bright house it is alarming
I was left alone with the darkness
The impossible was possible
But the possible was a dream.
(A. Blok)

ALLEGORY(Greek allegoria - allegory) is one of the allegorical artistic devices, the meaning of which is that an abstract thought or phenomenon of reality appears in a work of art in the form of a concrete image.

By its nature, allegory is two-part.

On the one hand, this is a concept or phenomenon (cunning, wisdom, good, nature, summer, etc.), on the other, a concrete object, a picture of life, illustrating an abstract thought, making it visual. However, this picture of life itself plays only a service role - it illustrates, decorates the idea, and therefore is deprived of "any definite individuality" (Hegel), as a result of which the idea can be expressed by a number of "picture illustrations" (AF Losev).

However, the connection between the two planes of the allegory is not arbitrary, it is based on the fact that the common exists, manifests itself only in a specific single object, the properties, the functions of which serve as means of creating an allegory. We can cite as an example the allegory "Fertility" by V. Mukhina or "Dove" by Picasso - an allegory of the world.

Sometimes the idea exists not only as an allegorical plan of allegory, but is expressed directly (for example, in the form of fable "morality"). In this form, allegory is especially characteristic of works of art that pursue moral and didactic goals.

Genres (types) of literature

Ballad

Lyro-epic poetic work with a pronounced plot of a historical or everyday character.

Comedy

Type of dramatic work. Displays everything ugly and ridiculous, funny and absurd, ridicules the vices of society.

Lyric poem

A type of fiction that emotionally and poetically expresses the feelings of the author.

Peculiarities: poetic form, rhythm, no plot, small size.

Melodrama

A kind of drama, the characters of which are sharply divided into positive and negative.

Novella

A narrative prose genre characterized by brevity, a sharp plot, a neutral style of presentation, the absence of psychologism, an unexpected denouement. Sometimes it is used synonymously with a story, sometimes it is called a kind of story.

A poetic or musical-poetic work, distinguished by solemnity and sublimity. Notable odes:

Lomonosov: "Ode to the capture of Khotin," Ode to the day of her Majesty Empress Elizabeth Petrovna's accession to the All-Russian throne. "

Derzhavin: "Felitsa", "To Rulers and Judges", "Grandee", "God", "Vision of Murza", "On the Death of Prince Meshchersky", "Waterfall".

Feature article

The most authentic kind of narrative, epic literature that displays facts from real life.

Song, or song

The oldest form of lyric poetry. A poem consisting of several verses and a chorus. Songs are divided into folk, heroic, historical, lyrical, etc.

The story

Middle between story and novel epic genre, which presents a number of episodes from the life of the hero (s). In terms of volume, the story is larger than a story and depicts reality more broadly, drawing a chain of episodes that make up a certain period in the life of the main character. There are more events and characters in it than in the story. But unlike a novel, a story, as a rule, has one storyline.

Poem

Type of lyrical epic work, poetic plot narration.

Play

Common name dramatic works (tragedy, comedy, drama, vaudeville). Written by the author for performance on stage.

Story

Small epic genre: a small-scale prose, which usually depicts one or more events in the life of the hero. The circle of characters in the story is limited, the described action is short in time. Sometimes a storyteller may be present in a work of this genre. The masters of the story were A.P. Chekhov, V.V. Nabokov, A.P. Platonov, K.G. Paustovsky, O.P. Kazakov, V.M. Shukshin.

novel

A great epic work, which comprehensively depicts the life of people at a certain period of time or during an entire human life.

Characteristic properties novel:

The multilinearity of the plot, covering the fate of a number of characters;

The presence of a system of equivalent characters;

Covering a wide range of life phenomena, posing socially significant problems;

Significant time duration of action.

Examples of novels: "The Idiot" by FM Dostoevsky, "Fathers and Sons" by IS Turgenev.

Tragedy

A type of dramatic work telling about the unfortunate fate of the protagonist, who is often doomed to die.

Epic

The largest genre of epic literature, an extensive narration in verse or prose about outstanding national historical events.

Distinguish:

1. ancient folklore epics of different peoples - works on mythological or historical subjects, telling about the heroic struggle of the people against the forces of nature, foreign invaders, witchcraft, etc.

2. a novel (or a cycle of novels) depicting a large period of historical time or a significant, fateful event in the life of a nation (war, revolution, etc.).

The epic is characterized by:
- wide geographical coverage,
- a reflection of the life and life of all strata of society,
- nationality of the content.

Examples of the epic: "War and Peace" by Leo Tolstoy, "Quiet Don" by MA Sholokhov, "The Living and the Dead" by KM Simonov, "Doctor Zhivago" by BL Pasternak.

Literary trends Classicism Art style and direction in European literature and art of the 17th - early 19th centuries. The name is derived from the Latin "classicus" - exemplary. Features: 1. Appeal to images and shapes antique literature and art as an ideal aesthetic standard. 2. Rationalism. A work of art, from the point of view of classicism, should be built on the basis of strict canons, thereby revealing the harmony and consistency of the universe itself. 3. Interest for classicism is only eternal, unchanging. He discards individual signs and traits. 4. The aesthetics of classicism attaches great importance to the social and educational function of art. 5. A strict hierarchy of genres has been established, which are divided into "high" and "low" (comedy, satire, fable). Each genre has strict boundaries and clear formal features. The leading genre is tragedy. 6. Classicist drama approved the so-called principle of "unity of place, time and action", which meant: the action of the play should take place in one place, the time of action should be limited by the time of the performance, one central intrigue should be reflected in the play, not interrupted by side effects ... Classicism originated and got its name in France (P. Corneille, J. Racin, J. La Fontaine, etc.). After the Great French Revolution, with the collapse of rationalistic ideas, classicism fell into decay, and romanticism became the dominant style of European art. Romanticism One of the largest trends in European and American literature of the late 18th - first half of the 19th century. In the 18th century, everything that was factual, unusual, strange, found only in books, and not in reality, was called romantic. The main features: 1. Romanticism is the most vivid form of protest against the vulgarity, routine and prosaic nature of bourgeois life. Socio-ideological prerequisites - disillusionment with the results of the Great French Revolution and the fruits of civilization in general. 2. General pessimistic orientation - the ideas of "cosmic pessimism", "world sorrow". 3. Absolutization of the personal principle, philosophy of individualism. In the center of a romantic work there is always a strong, exceptional personality opposed to society, its laws and moral and ethical standards. 4. "Duality", that is, the division of the world into real and ideal, which are opposed to each other. For a romantic hero subject to spiritual illumination, inspiration, thanks to which he penetrates into this ideal world. 5. "Local flavor". A person opposing society feels a spiritual closeness to nature, its elements. That is why romantics so often have exotic countries and their nature as a place of action. Sentimentalism Current in European and American literature and art of the second half of the 18th - early 19th centuries. Starting from educational rationalism, he declared the dominant of "human nature" not reason, but feeling. I looked for the path to an ideal-normative personality in the release and improvement of "natural" feelings. Hence the great democratism of sentimentalism and the discovery by it of the rich spiritual world of ordinary people. Close to pre-romanticism. Main features: 1. Loyal to the ideal of the normative personality. 2. In contrast to classicism with its educational pathos, feeling, not reason, declared the main thing in human nature. 3. He considered the liberation and improvement of “natural feelings” to be the condition for the formation of an ideal personality. 4. Sentimentalism was discovered by the rich spiritual world commoner. This is one of his conquests. 5. Unlike romanticism, sentimentalism is alien to the "irrational": the contradictory moods, the impulsiveness of emotional impulses, he perceived as accessible to rationalistic interpretation. Characteristics Russian sentimentalism: a) Rationalistic tendencies are clearly expressed; b) The moralizing attitude is strong; c) Educational tendencies; d) Improving literary language, Russian sentimentalists turned to colloquial norms, introduced vernacular. The favorite genres of sentimentalists are elegy, message, epistolary novel (novel in letters), travel notes, diaries and other types of prose, in which confessional motives prevail. Naturalism Literary direction, which took shape in the last third of the 19th century in Europe and the United States. Characteristic features: 1. Striving for an objective, accurate and dispassionate depiction of reality and human character. The main task of naturalists was to study society with the same completeness with which a scientist studies nature. Artistic knowledge was likened to scientific knowledge. 2. A work of art was considered as a "human document", and the completeness of the act of cognition carried out in it was considered the main aesthetic criterion. 3. Naturalists refused to moralize, believing that the reality depicted with scientific impartiality is itself quite expressive. They believed that for a writer there are no unsuitable plots or unworthy topics. Hence, plotlessness and social indifference often arose in the works of naturalists. Realism A true representation of reality. A literary trend that developed in Europe at the beginning of the 19th century and remains one of the main directions of modern world literature. The main features of realism: 1. The artist depicts life in images that correspond to the essence of the phenomena of life itself. 2. Literature in realism is a means of a person's knowledge of himself and the world around him. 3. Cognition of reality proceeds with the help of images created by typing the facts of reality. The typification of characters in realism is carried out through the "truthfulness of details" of the specific conditions of the characters' existence. 4. Realistic art is life-affirming art, even with a tragic resolution of the conflict. Unlike romanticism, the philosophical foundation of realism is gnosticism, the belief in the cognizability of the surrounding world. 5. Realistic art is characterized by the desire to consider reality in development. It is capable of detecting and recording the emergence and development of new social phenomena and relationships, new psychological and social types. Symbolism Literary and artistic direction of the late 19th - early 20th century. The foundations of the aesthetics of symbolism took shape in the late 70s. biennium 19th century in the works of the French poets P Verlaine, A. Rembo, S. Mallarmé and others. Symbolism arose at the turn of the epochs as an expression of the general crisis of civilization of the Western type. He had a great influence on all subsequent development of literature and art. Main features: 1. Continuous connection with romanticism. The theoretical roots of symbolism go back to the philosophy of A. Schopenhauer and E. Hartmann, to the work of R. Wagner and some of the ideas of F. Nietzsche. 2. Symbolism was predominantly directed towards the artistic commemoration of "things in themselves" and ideas that are beyond sensory perception. Poetic symbol was considered as a more effective artistic tool than the image. The Symbolists proclaimed the intuitive comprehension of world unity through symbols and the symbolic discovery of correspondences and analogies. 3. The musical element was declared by the Symbolists to be the basis of life and art. Hence - the dominance of the lyric-poetic principle, belief in the overreal or irrational-magical power of poetic speech. 4. Symbolists turn to ancient and medieval art in search of genealogical relationships. Acmeism A trend in Russian poetry of the 20th century, which was formed as an antithesis to symbolism. Acmeists opposed the mystical aspirations of symbolism to the "unknowable" "the element of nature", declared a concrete-sensory perception of the "material world", the return to the word of its original, non-symbolic meaning. it literary movement established in the theoretical works and artistic practice of N.S. Gumilyov, S.M. Gorodetsky, O.E. Mandelstam, A.A. Akhmatova, M.A. Zenkevich, G.V. Ivanov and other writers and poets. All of them united in the group "Workshop of Poets" (operated from 1911 - 1914, resumed in 1920 - 22). In 1912 - 13gg. published the journal "Hyperborey" (editor ML Lozinsky). Futurism (Derived from the Latin futurum - future). One of the main avant-garde movements in European art early 20th century. The greatest development received in Italy and Russia. The general basis of the movement is a spontaneous feeling of "the inevitability of the collapse of old stuff" (Mayakovsky) and the desire to anticipate, through art, to realize the coming "world revolution" and the birth of a "new humanity". Main features: 1. Break with traditional culture, the approval of the aesthetics of modern urban civilization with its dynamics, impersonality and amoralism. 2. The desire to convey the chaotic pulse of the technized "intense life", the instant change of events-experiences, fixed by the consciousness of the "crowd man". 3. The Italian futurists were characterized not only by aesthetic aggression and outrageous conservative taste, but also by the general cult of strength, an apology for war as "the hygiene of the world", which later led some of them to Mussolini's camp. Russian Futurism arose independently of Italian and, as an original artistic phenomenon, had little in common with it. The history of Russian futurism was formed from the complex interaction and struggle of four main groups: a) "Gilea" (cubo-futurists) - V.V. Khlebnikov, D.D. and ND Burlyuki, VV Kamensky, VV Mayakovsky, BK Lifshits; b) "Association of ego-futurists" - I. Severyanin, I. V. Ignatiev, K. K. Olimpov, V. I. Gnedov and others; c) "Poetry Mezzanine" - Khrisanth, VG Shershenevich, R. Ivnev and others; d) "Centrifuge" - SP Bobrov, BL Pasternak, NN Aseev, KA Bolshakov and others. Imagism Literary trend in Russian poetry of the XX century, whose representatives stated that the purpose of creativity is creating an image. The main expressive means of the Imagists is metaphor, often metaphorical chains, juxtaposing various elements of two images - direct and figurative. The creative practice of the Imagists is characterized by shocking, anarchic motives. The style and general behavior of Imagism was influenced by Russian Futurism. Imagism as a poetic movement arose in 1918, when the "Order of the Imagists" was founded in Moscow. The creators of the "Order" were Anatoly Mariengof, who came from Penza, the former futurist Vadim Shershenevich, and Sergei Yesenin, who was previously a member of the group of New Peasant poets. Imagism actually disintegrated in 1925. In 1924, Sergei Yesenin and Ivan Gruzinov announced the dissolution of the Order, other imagists were forced to abandon poetry, turning to prose, drama, cinema, largely for the sake of earning money. Imagism was criticized in the Soviet press. Yesenin, according to the generally accepted version, committed suicide, Nikolai Erdman was repressed

Literary and poetic techniques

Allegory

Allegory is the expression of abstract concepts through specific artistic images.

Allegory examples:

The stupid and stubborn are often called the Donkey, the coward - the Hare, the cunning - the Fox.

Alliteration (sound writing)

Alliteration (sound writing) is the repetition of identical or homogeneous consonants in a verse, giving it a special sound expressiveness (in versification). Wherein great importance has a high frequency of these sounds in a relatively small speech section.

However, if whole words or word forms are repeated, as a rule, we are not talking about alliteration. Alliteration is characterized by an irregular repetition of sounds, and this is precisely the main feature of this literary technique.

Alliteration differs from rhyme primarily in that the repetitive sounds are concentrated not at the beginning and end of the line, but absolutely derivative, albeit with a high frequency. The second difference is the fact that, as a rule, consonants are alliterated. The main functions of the literary technique of alliteration include onomatopoeia and the subordination of the semantics of words to associations that evoke sounds in a person.

Examples of alliteration:

"Where the grove neighs with guns."

"Up to a hundred years
grow
us without old age.
Year to year
grow
our cheerfulness.
Praise,
hammer and verse,
the land of youth. "

(V.V. Mayakovsky)

Anaphora

Repetition of words, phrases, or sound combinations at the beginning of a sentence, line, or paragraph.

For example:

« Not intentionally the winds were blowing

Not intentionally there was a thunderstorm "

(S. Yesenin).

Black eye girl

Black maned horse!

(M.Lermontov)

Quite often anaphora like literary device, forms a symbiosis with such a literary device as gradation, that is, an increase in the emotional character of words in the text.

For example:

"The cattle dies, the friend dies, the man himself dies."

Antithesis (opposition)

Antithesis (or opposition) is a comparison of words or phrases that are sharply different or opposite in meaning.

The antithesis makes it possible to produce especially strong impression on the reader, to convey to him the strong excitement of the author due to the rapid change of the opposite in meaning concepts used in the text of the poem. Also, the opposing emotions, feelings and experiences of the author or his hero can be used as an object of opposition.

Examples of antithesis:

I swear the first day of creation, I swear it the last in the afternoon (M. Lermontov).

Who was nothing, he will become to all.

Antonomasia

Antonomasia is an expressive means, when using which the author uses a proper name instead of a common noun for a figurative disclosure of the character's character.

Examples of antonomasia:

He is Othello (instead of "He's a big jealous man")

The stingy is often called Plyushkin, the empty dreamer - Manilov, the person with excessive ambitions - Napoleon, etc.

Apostrophe, address

Assonance

Assonance is a special literary device that involves repeating vowel sounds in a given utterance. This is the main difference between assonance and alliteration, where consonants are repeated. There are two slightly different uses of assonance.

1) Assonance is used as an original tool that gives a literary text, especially a poetic one, a special flavor. For example:

Our ears are on top of our heads
A little morning lit up the cannons
And the forests are blue tops -
The French are right there.

(M.Yu. Lermontov)

2) Assonance is widely used to create imprecise rhymes. For example, "the hammer city", "the princess is incomparable."

One of the textbook examples of the use of both rhyme and assonance in one quatrain is an excerpt from the poetic work of V. Mayakovsky:

I will turn not into Tolstoy, so into fat -
I eat, I write, from the heat of the bald.
Who has not philosophized over the sea?
Water.

Exclamation

An exclamation can appear anywhere in a poem, but, as a rule, authors use it, intonationally highlighting especially emotional moments in a verse. At the same time, the author focuses the reader's attention on the moment that particularly excited him, communicating his experiences and feelings to him.

Hyperbola

Hyperbole is a figurative expression containing an exaggerated exaggeration of the size, strength, meaning of any object or phenomenon.

Hyperbole example:

Some houses are as long as the stars, others are as long as the moon; to the skies of baobabs (Mayakovsky).

Inversion

From lat. inversio - permutation.

Changing the traditional order of words in a sentence to give the phrase a more expressive shade, intonational highlighting of a word.

Inversion examples:

The lonely sail is whitening
In the fog of the blue sea ... (M.Yu. Lermontov)

The traditional order requires a different construction: A lone sail in the blue mist of the sea gleams white. But this will no longer be Lermontov and not his great creation.

Another great Russian poet Pushkin considered inversion to be one of the main figures of poetic speech, and often the poet used not only contact, but also remote inversion, when other words wedged in between words: "Old man obedient to Perun alone ...".

Inversion in poetic texts performs an accent or semantic function, a rhythm-forming function for building a poetic text, as well as the function of creating a verbal-figurative picture. V prose works inversion serves to place logical stresses, to express the author's attitude towards the heroes and to convey their emotional state.

Irony

Irony is a powerful means of expression that has a tinge of mockery, sometimes light mockery. When using irony, the author uses words with the opposite meaning in meaning so that the reader himself guesses about the true properties of the described object, object or action.

Pun

Play on words. A witty expression, a joke based on the use of words that sound similar, but different in meaning, or different meanings of the same word.

Examples of puns in literature:

In a year for three clicks you on the forehead,
Give me boiled spelled.
(A.S. Pushkin)

And who served me before poem,
Torn by a string, poem.
(D.D. Minaev)

Spring will drive anyone crazy. Ice - and that started off.
(E. Meek)

Litotes

The opposite of hyperbole, a figurative expression containing an exorbitant understatement of the size, strength, value of any object or phenomenon.

Litota example:

The horse is led by the bridle by a peasant in large boots, in a sheepskin coat, in large mittens ... with a marigold! (Nekrasov)

Metaphor

Metaphor is the use of words and expressions in a figurative sense based on some kind of analogy, similarity, comparison. The metaphor is based on similarity or similarity.

Transferring the properties of one object or phenomenon to another according to the principle of their similarity.

Examples of metaphors:

Sea problems.

Eyes are burning.

Boils desire.

Noon blazed.

Metonymy

Examples of metonymy:

Everything flags will visit us.

(flags replace countries here).

I am three plates ate.

(here the plate replaces the meal).

Address, apostrophe

Oxymoron

A deliberate combination of conflicting concepts.

See her fun to be sad

Such smartly nude

(A. Akhmatova)

Impersonation

Impersonation is the transfer of human feelings, thoughts and speech to inanimate objects and phenomena, as well as to animals.

These signs are selected according to the same principle as when using a metaphor. Ultimately, the reader has a special perception of the described object, in which the inanimate object has the image of a living being or is endowed with the qualities inherent in living beings.

Examples of impersonation:

What, dense forest,

Thoughtful,
Sadness dark
Fogged out?

(A.V. Koltsov)

Caution the wind
From the gate came out,

Knocked through the window
Ran on the roof ...

(M.V. Isakovsky)

Parcelling

Parcelling is a syntactic technique in which a sentence is intonationally divided into independent segments and highlighted in writing as independent sentences.

Parcel example:

“He went too. To the store. Buy cigarettes "(Shukshin).

Periphrase

A periphery is an expression that descriptively conveys the meaning of another expression or word.

Examples of paraphrase:

King of beasts(instead of a lion)
Mother of Russian rivers(instead of Volga)

Pleonasm

Verbosity, the use of logically redundant words.

Examples of pleonasm in everyday life:

In May month(suffice it to say: in May).

Local aboriginal (suffice it to say: aboriginal).

White albino (suffice it to say: albino).

I was there personally(suffice it to say: I was there).

In the literature, pleonasm is often used as stylistic device, means of expressiveness.

For example:

Sadness-melancholy.

Sea ocean.

Psychologism

An in-depth image of the hero's mental and emotional experiences.

Refrain

A repeating verse or group of verses at the end of a song verse. When a refrain grows into an entire stanza, it is usually called a chorus.

A rhetorical question

A proposal in the form of a question that is not expected to be answered.

Example:

Or is it new for us to argue with Europe?

Or has the Russian lost the habit of victories?

(A.S. Pushkin)

Rhetorical appeal

An appeal addressed to an abstract concept, inanimate object, to the absent person. A way to enhance the expressiveness of speech, to express an attitude towards a particular person, object.

Example:

Russia! where are you rushing?

(N.V. Gogol)

Comparisons

Comparison is one of the expressive techniques, when used, certain properties most characteristic of an object or process are revealed through similar qualities of another object or process. At the same time, such an analogy is made so that the object, the properties of which are used in comparison, is better known than the object described by the author. Also, inanimate objects, as a rule, are compared with animate ones, and the abstract or spiritual with the material.

Comparison example:

then my life sang - howl -

Buzzed - like autumn surf –

And she cried over herself.

(M. Tsvetaeva)

Symbol

Symbol- an object or word that conventionally expresses the essence of a phenomenon.

The symbol contains a figurative meaning, and in this it is close to the metaphor. However, this closeness is relative. Symbol contains a kind of secret, a hint, allowing only to guess what is meant, what the poet wanted to say. The interpretation of the symbol is possible not so much by reason as by intuition and feeling. The images created by symbolist writers have their own characteristics, they have a two-dimensional structure. In the foreground - a certain phenomenon and real details, in the second (hidden) plane - the inner world of the lyric hero, his visions, memories, pictures generated by his imagination.

Examples of symbols:

dawn, morning - symbols of youth, the beginning of life;

night is a symbol of death, the end of life;

snow is a symbol of cold, cold feeling, alienation.

Synecdoche

Replacing the name of an object or phenomenon with the name of a part of this object or phenomenon. In short, replacing the name of a whole with the name of a part of that whole.

Examples of synecdoches:

Native hearth (instead of "home").

Floats sail (instead of "sailing boat is sailing").

“... and it was heard until dawn,
how jubilant Frenchman... "(Lermontov)

(here "French" instead of "French soldiers").

Tautology

Repetition in other words of what has already been said, which means that it does not contain new information.

Examples of:

Car tires are tires for a car.

We have come together.

Trope

Trope is an expression or a word used by the author in a figurative, allegorical sense. Thanks to the use of tropes, the author gives the described object or process a vivid characteristic that evokes certain associations in the reader and, as a result, a sharper emotional reaction.

Types of trails:

metaphor, allegory, personification, metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbole, irony.

Default

Silence is a stylistic device in which the expression of thought remains unfinished, is limited to a hint, the speech started is interrupted in the expectation of the reader's guess; the speaker, as it were, declares that he will not talk about things that do not require detailed or additional explanation. Quite often the stylistic effect of silence is that an unexpectedly interrupted speech is complemented by an expressive gesture.

Default examples:

This fable could be better explained -

Yes, so as not to tease the geese ...

Gain (gradation)

Gradation (or strengthening) is a series of homogeneous words or expressions (images, comparisons, metaphors, etc.) that consistently intensify, increase or, conversely, lower the semantic or emotional significance of the transmitted feelings, the expressed thought or the described event.

An example of upward gradation:

Not sorry not I call not crying ...

(S. Yesenin)

In sweetly hazy care

Not an hour, not a day, not a year will go away.

(E. Baratynsky)

Downward gradation example:

He promises half the world, And France only himself.

Euphemism

A word or expression that is neutral in meaning, which in conversation replaces other expressions that are considered indecent or inappropriate in in this case.

Examples of:

I'm going to powder my nose (instead of going to the toilet).

He was asked to leave the restaurant (instead of being kicked out).

Epithet

Figurative definition of an object, action, process, event. The epithet is a comparison. Grammatically, an epithet is most often an adjective. However, other parts of speech can also be used in its capacity, for example, numerals, nouns or verbs.

Examples of epithets:

velvet leather, crystal ringing.

Epiphora

Repetition of the same word at the end of adjacent segments of speech. The opposite of anaphora, in which words are repeated at the beginning of a sentence, line, or paragraph.

Example:

"Festoons, all festoons: pelerinka from scallops, on the sleeves festoons, epaulettes from scallops... "(N. V. Gogol).

Poetic meter Poetic meter is a certain order in which stressed and unstressed syllables are placed in the foot. A foot is a unit of verse length; a repetitive combination of stressed and unstressed syllables; a group of syllables, one of which is stressed. Example: The storm conceals the darkness of the sky 1) Here, after the stressed syllable, one unstressed one follows - in total, two syllables are obtained. That is, it is a two-syllable size. After a stressed syllable, two unstressed ones can follow - then this is a three-syllable size. 2) There are four groups of stressed-unstressed syllables in a line. That is, it has four feet. SINGLE SIZE Brachycolon is a monocotyledonous poetic size. In other words, a verse consisting of only stressed syllables. An example of a brachycolon: Forehead - Chalk. Bel Coffin. Sang Pop. Sheaf of Arrows - Holy Day! Crypt is Blind. Shadow - To hell! (V.Khodasevich) DOUBLE DIMENSIONS Khorey Two-syllable poetic foot with stress on the first syllable. That is, the first, third, fifth, etc. syllables are stressed in a line. Basic dimensions: - 4-stop - 6-stop - 5-stop An example of a four-foot chorea: The storm covers the sky with darkness ∩́ __ / ∩́ __ / ∩́ __ / ∩́ __ Snow twisting twists ∩́ __ / ∩́ __ / ∩ __ / ∩́ (A.S. Pushkin) Yamb Two-syllable poetic foot with stress on the second syllable. That is, the second, fourth, sixth, etc. syllables are stressed in a line. The stressed syllable can be replaced by a pseudo-stressed syllable (with a secondary stress in the word). Then stressed syllables are separated by not one, but three unstressed syllables. The main dimensions are: - 4-foot (lyrics, epic), - 6-foot (poems and dramas of the 18th century), - 5-foot (lyrics and dramas of the 19-20th centuries), - free multi-foot (fable of the 18-19th centuries ., comedy of the 19th century) An example of iambic tetrameter: My uncle of the most honorable rules, __ ∩́ / __ ∩́ / __ ∩́ / __ ∩́ / __ When it’s not a joke, __ ∩́ / __ ∩́ / __ ∩ / __ ∩́ / He Respected himself __ ∩ / __ ∩́ / __ ∩́ / __ ∩́ / __ I couldn't think of it better. __ ∩́ / __ ∩́ / __ ∩ / __ ∩́ / (A.S. Pushkin) An example of an iambic pentameter (with pseudo-stressed syllables, they are in capital letters): We are busy to lead the city together, __ ∩́ / __ ∩ / __ ∩́ / __ ∩́ / __ ∩́ / __ But, it seems, we should not look at HIM ... __ ∩́ / __ ∩ / __ ∩́ / __ ∩ / __ ∩́ (A.S. Pushkin) THREE-SYMBOL SIZES Dactyl Three-syllable poetic foot with an accent on the first syllable. Main dimensions: - 2-foot (in the 18th century) - 4-foot (from the 19th century) - 3-foot (from the 19th century) Example: Sky clouds, everlasting strangers! ∩́ __ __ / ∩́ __ __ / ∩́ __ __ / ∩́ __ __ / With an azure step, a pearl chain ... ∩́ __ __ / ∩́ __ __ / ∩́ __ __ / ∩́ __ __ / (M.Yu Lermontov) Amphibrachiy Three-syllable poetic foot with stress on the second syllable. Main dimensions: - 4-foot (early 19th century) - 3-foot (from mid-19th century) Example: Not wind rages over the pine forest, __ ∩́ __ / __ ∩́ __ / __ ∩́ __ / Brooks did not run from the mountains - __ ∩́ __ / __ ∩́ __ / __ ∩́ / Moroz-voivod dozome __ ∩́ __ / __ ∩́ __ / __ ∩́ __ / Bypasses his own. __ ∩́ __ / __ ∩́ __ / __ ∩́ / (N.A. Nekrasov) Anapest Three-syllable poetic foot with stress on the last syllable. Basic dimensions: - 4-foot (from the middle of the 19th century) - 3-foot (from the middle of the 19th century) Example of a 3-foot anapest: Oh, spring without end and without edge - __ __ ∩́ / __ __ ∩́ / __ __ ∩́ / __ Endless and endless dream! __ __ ∩́ / __ __ ∩́ / __ __ ∩́ / I recognize you, life! I accept! __ __ ∩́ / __ __ ∩́ / __ __ ∩́ / __ And greet with the sound of the shield! __ __ ∩́ / __ __ ∩́ / __ __ ∩́ / (A. Blok) How to remember the features of two-syllable and three-syllable sizes? You can remember with the help of this phrase: Dombay is walking! Lady, in the evening lock the calitus! (Dombay is not only a mountain; in translation from some Caucasian languages ​​it means "lion"). Now let's move on to three-syllable feet. The word DAMA was formed from the first letters of the names of three-syllable feet: D- dactyl AM- amphibrach A- anapest And in the same order, the following words of the sentence belong to these letters: You can also imagine this:

Plot. Plot elements

Plot a literary work is a logical sequence of actions of the heroes.

Plot elements:

exposition, setting, culmination, denouement.

Exposition- introductory, initial part of the plot, preceding the outset. Unlike the plot, it does not affect the course of subsequent events in the work, but outlines the initial situation (time and place of action, composition, character relationships) and prepares the reader's perception.

Tie- the event from which the development of the action in the work begins. Most often, there is a conflict in the tie.

Climax- the moment of the highest tension of the plot action, in which the conflict reaches critical point its development. The culmination can be a decisive clash of heroes, a turning point in their fate, or a situation that fully reveals their characters and especially clearly reveals a conflict situation.

Interchange- the final scene; the position of the actors, which has developed in the work as a result of the development of the events depicted in it.

Drama elements

Remark

The explanation given by the author in dramatic work, describing how he imagines his appearance, age, behavior, feelings, gestures, intonations of the characters, the situation on the stage. Remarks are guidelines for the performers and the director who directs the play, as an explanation for the readers.

Replica

Utterance, a phrase of a character that he utters in response to the words of another character.

Dialogue

Communication, conversation, statements of two or more actors, whose remarks follow alternately and have the meaning of actions.

Monologue

The speech of the actor, addressed to himself or to others, but, unlike dialogue, does not depend on their cues. A way to reveal the state of mind of a character, to show his character, to acquaint the viewer with the circumstances of the action, which have not received stage embodiment.

Similar information.

TROPE

Trope is a word or expression used in a figurative sense to create artistic image and achieving greater expressiveness. Trails include tricks such as epithet, comparison, personification, metaphor, metonymy, sometimes they include hyperbole and litoty... No piece of fiction is complete without tropes. An artistic word is polysemantic; the writer creates images, playing with the meanings and combinations of words, using the environment of the word in the text and its sound - all this constitutes the artistic possibilities of the word, which is the only tool of the writer or poet.
Note! When creating a trail, the word is always used in a figurative meaning.

Consider different types trails:

EPITHET(Greek Epitheton, attached) - this is one of the tropes, which is an artistic, figurative definition. The epithet can be:
adjectives: gentle face (S. Yesenin); these poor villages, this meager nature ... (F. Tyutchev); transparent Virgo (A. Blok);
participles: edge abandoned(S. Yesenin); frenzied dragon (A. Blok); takeoff beamed(M. Tsvetaeva);
nouns, sometimes in conjunction with their surrounding context: Here it is, leader without squads(M. Tsvetaeva); My youth! My little dove is dark!(M. Tsvetaeva).

Any epithet reflects the uniqueness of the author's perception of the world, therefore it necessarily expresses some kind of assessment and has a subjective meaning: a wooden shelf is not an epithet, so there is no artistic definition, wooden face - an epithet expressing the impression of the speaker about the expression on the face of the interlocutor, that is, creating an image.
There are stable (permanent) folklore epithets: remote burly kind well done, clear sun, as well as tautological, that is, repetitive epithets, with the same root with the word being defined: Eh you, bitter grief, boring boredom, mortal! (A. Blok).

In a work of art an epithet can perform various functions:

• figuratively describe the subject: shining eyes, eyes- diamonds;
• create an atmosphere, mood: gloomy morning;
• convey the attitude of the author (narrator, lyric hero) to the subject being characterized: "Where will our prankster? "(A. Pushkin);
• combine all the previous functions in equal proportions (in most cases of using the epithet).

Note! Everything color coding in a literary text are epithets.

COMPARISON- This is an artistic device (trope), in which an image is created by comparing one object with another. Comparison differs from other artistic comparisons, for example, assimilations, in that it always has a strict formal feature: a comparative construction or turnover with comparative unions. as if, as if, as if, as if and the like. Expressions like he looked like ... cannot be considered a comparison as a trail.

Examples of comparisons:

Comparison also plays certain roles in the text: sometimes authors use the so-called detailed comparison, revealing various signs of a phenomenon or conveying their attitude to several phenomena. Quite often a work is entirely based on comparison, as, for example, V. Brusov's poem "Sonnet to Form":

PERSONALIZATION- an artistic device (trope), in which human properties are given to an inanimate object, phenomenon or concept (do not confuse, it is human!). Impersonation can be used narrowly, in one line, in a small fragment, but it can be a technique on which the entire work is built ("You are my abandoned land" by S. Yesenin, "Mom and the evening killed by the Germans", "Violin and a little nervously" V. Mayakovsky, etc.). Impersonation is considered a type of metaphor (see below).

Impersonation task- to correlate the depicted object with a person, to make it closer to the reader, to figuratively comprehend the inner essence of the object, hidden from everyday life. Impersonation is one of the oldest figurative means of art.

HYPERBOLA(Greek Hyperbole, exaggeration) is a technique in which an image is created through artistic exaggeration. Hyperbola is not always included in the set of tropes, but the nature of the use of the word in a figurative sense to create an image of hyperbole is very close to tropes. A technique opposite to hyperbole in content is LITOTES(Greek Litotes, simplicity) - an artistic understatement.

Hyperbola allows the author to show the reader in an exaggerated form the most specific traits depicted object. Often, hyperbole and litota are used by the author in an ironic manner, revealing not just characteristic, but negative, from the author's point of view, aspects of the subject.

METAPHOR(Greek. Metaphora, transfer) - a kind of so-called complex path, speech turnover, in which the properties of one phenomenon (object, concept) are transferred to another. The metaphor contains a hidden comparison, a figurative assimilation of phenomena using the figurative meaning of words, what the subject is compared with is only implied by the author. No wonder Aristotle said that "to compose good metaphors means to notice similarities."

Examples of metaphors:

METONYMY(Greek Metonomadzo, rename) - type of path: a figurative designation of an object according to one of its characteristics.

Examples of metonymy:

When studying the topic "Means of artistic expression" and completing assignments, pay special attention to the definitions of the above concepts. You must not only understand their meaning, but also know the terminology by heart. This will protect you from practical mistakes: knowing that the comparison technique has strict formal features (see the theory on topic 1), you will not confuse this technique with a number of other artistic techniques, which are also based on comparing several objects, but are not a comparison. ...

Please note that you must start your answer either with the suggested words (rewriting them), or with your own answer to the beginning of the full answer. This applies to all such tasks.

Recommended reading:

• Literary criticism: Reference materials. - M., 1988.
• Polyakov M. Rhetoric and Literature. Theoretical aspects. - In the book: Questions of poetics and artistic semantics. - M .: Sov. writer, 1978.
• Dictionary literary terms... - M., 1974.

As you know, the word is the basic unit of any language, as well as the most important component of it. The correct use of vocabulary largely determines the expressiveness of speech.

In context, a word is a special world, a mirror of the author's perception and attitude to reality. It has its own, metaphorical, accuracy, its own special truths, called artistic revelations, the functions of vocabulary depend on the context.

The individual perception of the world around us is reflected in such a text with the help of metaphorical statements. After all, art is primarily the self-expression of an individual. The literary fabric is woven from metaphors that create an exciting and emotionally influencing image of this or that. Additional meanings appear in words, a special stylistic coloring that creates a kind of world that we discover when we read the text.

Not only literary, but also oral, colloquial speech we use, without hesitation, various techniques of artistic expression to give it emotionality, persuasiveness, imagery. Let's see what artistic techniques are in the Russian language.

The use of metaphors especially contributes to the creation of expressiveness, so let's start with them.

Metaphor

Artistic techniques in literature it is impossible to imagine without mentioning the most important of them - the way of creating a linguistic picture of the world on the basis of the meanings already existing in the language itself.

The types of metaphors are as follows:

1. Fossilized, worn out, dry or historic (boat bow, eye of a needle).
2. Phraseologisms are stable figurative combinations of words that have emotionality, metaphor, reproducibility in the memory of many native speakers, expressiveness (death grip, vicious circle, etc.).
3. Single metaphor (e.g. homeless heart).
4. Unfolded (heart - "porcelain bell in yellow China" - Nikolai Gumilyov).
5. Traditionally poetic (morning of life, fire of love).
6. Individually-author's (hump of the sidewalk).

In addition, a metaphor can simultaneously be an allegory, personification, hyperbole, periphrase, meiosis, litota and other tropes.

The word "metaphor" itself means "transfer" in translation from Greek. In this case, we are dealing with the transfer of the name from one subject to another. For it to become possible, they must certainly have some kind of similarity, they must be related in some way. A metaphor is a word or expression that is used figuratively due to the similarity of two phenomena or objects in some way.

As a result of this transfer, an image is created. Therefore, the metaphor is one of the brightest artistic, poetic speech. However, the absence of this trope does not mean the lack of expressiveness of the work.

The metaphor can be either simple or detailed. In the twentieth century, the use of the expanded in poetry is revived, and the nature of the simple changes significantly.

Metonymy

Metonymy is one of the varieties of metaphor. Translated from Greek, this word means "renaming", that is, it is the transfer of the name of one object to another. Metonymy is the replacement of a certain word with another on the basis of the existing contiguity of two concepts, objects, etc. This is an imposition on the direct meaning of the figurative. For example: "I ate two plates." Mixing of meanings, their transfer are possible because objects are contiguous, and the contiguity can be in time, in space, etc.

Synecdoche

Synecdoche is a kind of metonymy. Translated from Greek, this word means "correlation". Such a transfer of meaning takes place when, instead of the larger, the smaller is called, or vice versa, instead of the part, the whole, and vice versa. For example: "According to Moscow reports."

Epithet

Artistic techniques in literature, the list of which we are now compiling, cannot be imagined without an epithet. This is a figure, trope, figurative definition, phrase or word denoting a person, phenomenon, object or action from the subjective author's position.

Translated from Greek, this term means "attached, attachment", that is, in our case, one word is attached to some other.

Epithet from simple definition differs in its artistic expressiveness.

Permanent epithets are used in folklore as a means of typing, and also as one of the most important means of artistic expression. In the strict sense of the term, only those of them belong to the paths, the function of which has words in a figurative meaning, in contrast to the so-called exact epithets, which are expressed in words in a direct meaning (red berry, beautiful flowers). Figuratives are created by using words in a figurative sense. Such epithets are usually called metaphorical. Metonymic transfer of the name can also underlie this trail.

Oxymoron is a type of epithet, the so-called contrasting epithets, which form combinations with the nouns defined by the words opposite to them in meaning (hating love, joyful sadness).

Comparison

Comparison is a trope in which one object is characterized through comparison with another. That is, this comparison various subjects by similarity, which is both obvious and unexpected, distant. It is usually expressed using certain words: "exactly", "like", "like", "like". Also, comparisons can take the form of the instrumental case.

Impersonation

Describing artistic techniques in literature, it is necessary to mention personification. This is a kind of metaphor, which is the assignment of properties of living things to objects of inanimate nature. It is often created by referring to such natural phenomena as conscious living beings. Impersonation is also the transfer of human properties to animals.

Hyperbola and litota

Let us note such techniques of artistic expression in literature as hyperbole and litota.

Hyperbole (translated as "exaggeration") is one of the expressive means of speech, which is a figure with the meaning of exaggeration of what in question.

Litota (translated as "simplicity") is the opposite of hyperbole - an excessive understatement of what is being discussed (a boy with a finger, a little man with a fingernail).

Sarcasm, irony and humor

We continue to describe artistic techniques in literature. Our list will be supplemented by sarcasm, irony and humor.

• Sarcasm means "tear meat" in Greek. This is an evil irony, a stinging mockery, a caustic remark. When using sarcasm, a comic effect is created, but at the same time there is a clearly ideological and emotional assessment.
• Irony in translation means "pretense", "mockery". It arises when one thing is said in words, but something completely different is meant, the opposite.
• Humor is one of the lexical means of expressiveness, which in translation means "mood", "disposition". In a comic, allegorical vein, sometimes whole works can be written in which a mockingly good-natured attitude towards something is felt. For example, the story "Chameleon" by A. P. Chekhov, as well as many fables by I. A. Krylov.

The types of artistic techniques in literature do not end there. We present to your attention the following.

Grotesque

The most important artistic techniques in literature include the grotesque. The word "grotesque" means "intricate", "bizarre". This artistic technique is a violation of the proportions of phenomena, objects, events depicted in the work. It is widely used in the works of, for example, M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin ("The Golovlevs", "The History of a City", fairy tales). This is an artistic technique based on exaggeration. However, its degree is much greater than that of hyperbole.

Sarcasm, irony, humor and grotesque are popular artistic devices in literature. Examples of the first three - and NN Gogol. The works of J. Swift are grotesque (for example, "Gulliver's Travel").

What artistic technique does the author (Saltykov-Shchedrin) use to create the image of Judas in the novel "The Lord Golovlevs"? Grotesque, of course. Irony and sarcasm are present in V. Mayakovsky's poems. The works of Zoshchenko, Shukshin, Kozma Prutkov are filled with humor. These artistic techniques in literature, the examples of which we have just cited, as you can see, are very often used by Russian writers.

Pun

A pun is a figure of speech that is an involuntary or deliberate ambiguity that occurs when two or more meanings of a word are used in the context or when their sound is similar. Its varieties are paronomasia, false etymologization, zeugma and concretization.

In puns, puns are based on homonymy and ambiguity. Jokes arise from them. These artistic techniques in literature can be found in the works of V. Mayakovsky, Omar Khayyam, Kozma Prutkov, A. P. Chekhov.

Figure of speech - what is it?

The word "figure" itself is translated from Latin as "appearance, shape, image". This word has many meanings. What does this term in relation to artistic speech? Syntactic means of expressiveness related to figures: rhetorical exclamations, questions, addresses.

What is a "trope"?

"What is the name of an artistic technique that uses a word in a figurative sense?" - you ask. The term "trope" combines various techniques: epithet, metaphor, metonymy, comparison, synecdoche, litota, hyperbole, personification and others. In translation, the word "trope" means "turnover". Artistic speech differs from ordinary speech in that it uses special turns that decorate speech, making it more expressive. Different styles use different expressive means... The most important thing in the concept of "expressiveness" for artistic speech is the ability of a text, a work of art to have an aesthetic, emotional impact on the reader, to create poetic pictures and vivid images.

We all live in a world of sounds. Some of them evoke positive emotions in us, while others, on the contrary, excite, alert, cause anxiety, soothe or induce sleep. Different sounds evoke different images. With the help of their combination, you can emotionally affect a person. Reading works of art literature and Russian folk art, we are especially sensitive to their sound.

Basic techniques for creating sonic expressiveness

• Alliteration is the repetition of similar or identical consonants.
• Assonance is the intentional harmonious repetition of vowels.

Alliteration and assonance are often used in works at the same time. These techniques are aimed at evoking various associations in the reader.

Acceptance of sound writing in fiction

Sound writing is an artistic technique, which is the use of certain sounds in a specific order to create a certain image, that is, the selection of words that imitate sounds the real world... This technique is used in fiction both in poetry and in prose.

Varieties of sound writing:

1. Assonance - translated from French means "consonance". Assonance is the repetition of the same or similar vowel sounds in a text to create a specific sound image. It contributes to the expressiveness of speech, it is used by poets in the rhythm, rhyme of poems.
2. Alliteration - from This technique is the repetition of consonants in a literary text to create some sound image, in order to make poetic speech more expressive.
3. Onomatopoeia - transmission special words, reminiscent of the sounds of the phenomena of the surrounding world, auditory impressions.

These artistic techniques in poetry are very common; without them, poetic speech would not be so melodic.

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