The origin of religion and art in primitive society. The emergence of religious beliefs and art

§ 1 The Birth of Religion

The separation of man from living nature was due not only to the ability to use and create new tools. In many ways, the essence of man was predetermined by the emergence of a mind capable of not only perceiving the surrounding reality, but also reproducing it in the images of art, as well as explaining natural phenomena.

The first way available to humans to explain the phenomena of the surrounding world was religion, i.e. belief in fictional supernatural beings: gods, souls, spirits - and worship of them. The emergence of religion marked new period in the development of humanity. Among the reasons for the emergence of religious ideas are the following:

Human fear of the forces of nature;

The desire to explain the causes of certain natural phenomena - such as rain, volcanic eruption, lightning, etc.;

The desire to enlist the help of supernatural beings in a hunt or war;

The need to subordinate the forces of nature to your needs.

§ 2 Cave painting

A striking example of formed religious ideas can be considered cave painting, that is, images of animals and people on the walls of caves. These monuments of art of ancient people are concentrated mainly in Europe, between Atlantic Ocean And Ural mountains, although they are also found in Siberia, Asia and Africa. Researchers believe that cave painting developed from the 30th to the 9th millennium BC and went through several stages in its development:

1. When the very first schematic drawings appear (30 thousand years BC);

2. (Approximately from 20 to 15 thousand years BC), characterized by higher artistic skill images.

3. (About 15-11 thousand years BC), based on the realism of forms, the depiction of proportional figures and forms of people and animals;

4. (10-9 thousand years BC), characterized by the degradation of forms and the gradual disappearance of cave images.

Samples of cave painting were first discovered in 1879 by the Spanish lawyer and amateur archaeologist Marcelino Sanz de Sautuola in the Altamira cave, located in Northern Spain. Sautuola, accompanied by his 9-year-old daughter Maria, went into a newly discovered cave in search of tools left by ancient people. The carried away archaeologist did not notice how his little daughter went deeper into the cave, and after a while exclaimed: “Dad, look, painted bulls!” The discovery, however, was greeted very coolly by the scientific community. Almost no one believed in the authenticity of the images. It was believed that Sautuola invited some artist to paint the walls of the cave, these drawings were so beautiful. And only much later, at the beginning of the 20th century, examples of cave painting were found in other caves in Europe.

Drawings are found at great depths; often the caves with the images turned out to be uninhabited, which allows us to consider these places as unique sanctuaries. There are three main motifs in the images found in the caves:

Firstly, the motif of “hunting magic”, which is characterized by the tradition of piercing the image of an animal - the object of hunting with spears and arrows. It was believed that by killing the spirit of an animal before a hunt, it would be easier to drive the animal into a trap.

Secondly, the motive for transforming a person into an animal (werewolf). The drawing, called the Sorcerer from the Cave of the Three Brothers located in southwestern France, depicts a creature with the head of a chamois, large antlers, owl eyes, a beak and wolf ears. He has a long horse tail and bear claws on his hands. The creature has legs, and he stands in the pose of a dancer, this, without a doubt, proves that this is a person.

Thirdly, the so-called “X-ray” drawings, which depict animal skeletons and their internal organs. Such drawings primitive people created to control animals, to subjugate them to their will, not only to track and kill during the hunt, but also to tame them.

§ 3 Custom of burial of the dead

Another example of the existence of religious ideas among primitive people is the custom of burying the dead. Such burials are found in all places where primitive people lived.

The body of the deceased was placed in a deep hole, the legs were pressed to the chest and the arms were wrapped around them (possibly tying them together). It is not known exactly for what purpose the dead were given such a pose. There are two theories on this matter: some believe that primitive people were afraid that the dead could come to life, others, on the contrary, see in this position people’s hope for revival. The body of the deceased, placed in the grave, was oriented with its head to the east (the place where the sun was born - a symbol of rebirth), sprinkled with red ocher, symbolizing blood - a symbol of life. The personal belongings of the deceased were laid out around the body - jewelry, tools, clothing. It is assumed that people believed in the afterlife and believed that after death a person would do the same things as during life, so the objects placed in the grave almost certainly reflected the occupation of the deceased

§ 4 Social organization of primitive society

The religious ideas of our distant ancestors clearly reflect social organization primitive society. Power in the tribal communities of primitive people belonged to women, so it is not surprising that female images were widely used in religious beliefs of that time. Figurines from 5 to 25 cm in height made of stone and bone found in Eurasia were called “Paleolithic Venuses”. Scientists believe that these figurines may symbolize the protectors of the hearth, the embodiment of the Great Mother Goddess.

All the examples listed above prove the presence of religious ideas among primitive people. But what religious system did people of the past adhere to?

§ 5 Basic beliefs of the primitive era

Scientists identify five main beliefs characteristic of the primitive era:

1. Magic - people’s belief in the ability to influence the forces of nature with human will, the ability to change the world for their own purposes when carrying out a special ritual action;

2. Totemism - people’s belief in their connection with the outside world through a family union with an animal, plant or inanimate object. Each tribal community had its own totem ancestor. For some it could be a wolf, for others a hare, for others a bear. The totem animal was supposed to be treated with respect, observing certain rituals;

3. Animism - belief in spirits living in people, animals and plants. According to animism, everything in the world is alive, so before the hunt, permission was sought from the spirit of the animal to kill it.

4. Fetishism - belief in objects that have supernatural powers. Such items can either protect their owner (amulets) or cause harm to enemies.

5.Shamanism - interaction with the world of spirits, which the shaman enters into. You can ask spirits for help or advice in business.

All these beliefs could live together in human consciousness. Thus, one of the community members could practice shamanism, consulting with the spirits about a successful hunt, and another was able to bewitch an animal before the hunt.

The religious ideas of primitive people were still very unstable. There were no clear rules and prohibitions. The emergence of art and religion contributed to further development human society.

To summarize the lesson, it should be noted:

Already in primitive society art was born - cave painting appeared, and people also learned to make figurines of women from stone and bone;

The idea of ​​an afterlife arose, in which a person continued to do the same things as during life;

The religious ideas of primitive people were very diverse - on the one hand, they considered themselves capable of influencing the world by means of magic, on the other hand, since everything in the world had a soul, which means it could become a friend or an enemy, people’s responsibility for their actions increased sharply.

List of used literature:

1. Mircea Eliade. History of faith and religious ideas. Volume I: From the Stone Age to the Eleusinian Mysteries, Translation by N.N. Kulakova, V.R. Rokityansky and Yu.N. Stefanov, M.: Criterion, 2002
2. Story Ancient world. The Ancient East. Egypt, Sumer, Babylon, Western Asia. – Mn.: Harvest, M.: AST, 2000. – 832 p.
3. Keram K. "Gods, tombs and scientists." Novel of Archeology
4. Ancient world history. 5th grade. 2011. 18th edition. Vigasin A.A., Goder G.I., Sventsitskaya I.S., M., Education

Images used:

The concepts of religion and art have always been closely interconnected. A person very often embodies his spiritual enlightenment in the material world by creating objects of art.

It happens, on the contrary: through art one comes to religion. Both religion and art elevate a person’s soul, help him get closer to spiritual world, to feel the essence of existence. Religion and art – two most important factors in the development of any civilization. They are very organically woven into the structure of society and are its main regulatory component.

The birth of religion and art coincided with the completion of physical and mental formation Homo Sapiens(smart person), in the late Paleolithic era 35-11 thousand years ago.

How did religion appear?

First religion existed in the form of animism and fetishism. Ancient people could not find an explanation for such simple natural phenomena as rain, thunder, lightning, wind, snow. This gave rise to a belief in an otherworldly world of spirits that control the nature around them. To appease the spirits of nature, people began to make sacrifices to them and perform certain shamanic rituals. During the Neanderthal period, belief in the human soul and its life after death appeared.

Neanderthals believed that the spirits of their deceased ancestors were watching over their lives. Animism was replaced by fetishism. Ancient people filled a material thing with magical meaning, and believed that it would bring them good luck and protect them from evil forces. They believed that the objects that surrounded them carried supernatural powers. Later Magi appeared I, thanks to whom people came to new stage religious development. They not only defended themselves from negative factors, but for the first time tried to influence with the help of magical rituals to events that took place in their lives.

How did art come about?

Gradually, ancient people, using natural paints (coal, clay, stones) started drawing animals and plants on the walls of their caves. This is how it appeared first art. The first drawings of ancient people have survived to this day in Russia and Europe. They amaze with their accuracy of observation of the world around them. Images of mammoths, bison, scenes Everyday life became the first manifestations creativity person. This speaks of spiritual growth ancient people, because it was no longer enough for them to simply get their own food and have a home, they needed a sublime expression of their feelings, which was reflected in drawing.

Later, ancient people began to make figurines from wood and mammoth tusks. This is how the first sculpture was born. IN spiritual development primitive world art played as significant a role as the invention of the first tools in the field. The emergence of religion and art is closely connected with the expansion of the perception of the world of consciousness of the first people. After all, these are those integral things that are inherent in the life of every person. Thanks to their origin, a peculiar line was drawn that divided the development of man, brought him out of animal needs and made him a full-fledged personality.

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Slide captions:

History of the Discovery of Cave Painting Archaeologist Marcelino de Sautuola began exploring the Altamira Cave in Spain in 1875. Until 1879, he was able to find many tools ancient man. One day he took with him his daughter Maria, 9 years old, who noticed that the ceiling was covered with images of bison, the daughter exclaimed: “Dad, look, painted bulls!” Marcelino, seeing similar images, which were engraved on Paleolithic objects, rightly suggested that these paintings may belong to the Stone Age. This discovery attracted Juan Vilanova y Pierre, an archaeologist from the University of Madrid, who began to help Sautuola with further research work. Due to the fact that the paintings were of high artistic quality and were in an exceptional state of preservation, Sautuola was accused of forgery. Sautuola died on June 2, 1888, branded a deceiver; one of the causes of death was mental trauma. In 1902, new excavations in the cave proved that the paintings were painted between 11,000 and 19,000 years ago, that is, during the Stone Age. Maria and Marcelino Southwall were recognized as discoverers rock art Stone Age.

Art and religion of primitive people Purpose of the lesson: to demonstrate the initial connection between art and religion and the simultaneity of their emergence.

Timeline of the discovery of cave painting 1879 - the first discovery of painting in the Altamira cave, Spain. 1895 – discovery of painting in the La Moute cave, France. 1901 – discovery of painting in the caves of Combarel and Font-de-Gaume, France.

Chronology of the discovery of cave painting 1912 - discovery of painting in the Tuc de Audubert cave, France. 1914 – discovery of painting in the Trois-Freres cave, France. 1940 – discovery of painting in the Lascaux cave, Spain. 1959 – discovery of painting in Kapova Cave, Ural, Russia.

Magic is a form of witchcraft based on the idea that objects similar in appearance or those who have been in direct contact allegedly form a supernatural, magical connection with each other.

Rock paintings are a form of magical action

The custom of burying one's relatives speaks of a belief in the connection between the world of the living and the world of the dead.

The world is run higher power- perfume. Shamans, with the help of magic, according to the ideas of ancient people, can influence spirits and change the current state of affairs. All ideas of ancient people about mystical causes and phenomena are called religious beliefs.

Myth is a symbol of human existence, reflecting the correct order of things. Ritual is necessary to embody this order. The Eleusinian Mysteries were performed annually in honor of Demeter (goddess of fertility and agriculture) and Persephone (goddess of fertility and the kingdom of the dead) at Eleusis. Their main content is the myth of the abduction of Persephone. Demeter's daughter was kidnapped by Hades, the god underworld. After the kidnapping of her daughter, Demeter set out on a search. Having learned about her fate, she retired to Eleusis and swore an oath that until her daughter was returned to her, not a single sprout would break out of the ground. Worried about the crop failure, Zeus ordered Hades to return Persephone. After the return of her daughter, Demeter allowed the earth to bloom. But since Hades gave Persephone a pomegranate seed to eat before leaving the underworld so that she would return to him, Demeter’s daughter could not stay with her mother for long. The gods came to an agreement that Persephone would live in the Upper World for two thirds of the year, and devote the remaining time to the Underworld Lord.

Reflective screen Reasoned answers to questions: 1. What did you expect from the lesson and what happened? 2. Which stages of the lesson do you consider the most successful and why? 3. What events (actions, opinions, etc.) caused the most vivid sensations? 4. Where do you see your own development? 5. What did you succeed most during the lesson, what types of activities were completed most successfully? 6. List the main problems and difficulties that you experienced during the lesson. In what ways did you overcome them? 7. What did we do irrationally? Name one activity that we can add to make our lesson more successful next time.

Preview:

Development of lesson No. 5.12

Full name of teacher:Ignatenko Ekaterina Nikolaevna.

Subject: history.

Class: 5.

Type of lesson: learning new material.

Lesson topic: Art and religion of primitive people (1 hour).

Purpose of the lesson: demonstrate the initial connection between art and religion and the simultaneity of their emergence.

Lesson objectives:

educational:explain concepts art and religion.

developing: develop the ability to interpret works of art and the content of myths.

educational: show the long path of spiritual evolution of ancient man.

Lesson structure:

Notebook layout:

Art and religion of primitive people

1879 – the first discovery of painting in a cave in Altamira, Spain.

Magic - a form of witchcraft based on the idea that objects that are similar in appearance or have been in direct contact allegedly form a supernatural, magical connection with each other.

Rock paintings are a form of magical action. The custom of burying one's relatives speaks of a belief in the connection between the world of the living and the world of the dead. The world is controlled by higher powers - perfume . Shamans using magic , according to the ideas of ancient people, can influence spirits and change the current state of affairs. All ideas of ancient people about mystical causes and phenomena are calledreligious beliefs. Myth - a symbol of human existence, reflecting the correct order of things. Ritual necessary to implement this order.

The topic of the relationship between religion and art is very important both for atheistic theory and for the practice of atheistic education.

It is known that over a long period of time historical era art was closely connected with religion. His stories and images to a large extent borrowed from religious mythology, his works (sculptures, frescoes, icons) were included in the system of religious cult. Many defenders of religion claim that it contributed to the development of art, fertilized it with its ideas and images. In this regard, the question arises about the true relationship between art and religion, about the nature of their interaction in the history of culture.

Even in the era of the dominance of religion in the spiritual life of society, art often acted as a force hostile to religion and opposed to it. The history of free thought and atheism is inextricably linked with the history of art. The progressive art of the past and now can be successfully used in the system of atheistic education of working people. It is called upon to play an important role in the formation of a scientific worldview among workers of a developed socialist society. soviet art. The power of art lies in its clarity, in its emotional and psychological impact. With the help of art, atheistic ideas can penetrate into various segments of the population. Development plays a significant role in the formation of a new person. aesthetic creativity masses, more and more complete satisfaction of their aesthetic needs. This implies the importance of studying the issue of the role of art in the system of atheistic education.

At the origins of religion and art

A scientific understanding of the relationship between religion and art is impossible without studying their genesis. The problem of the origin of religion and art has caused and is currently causing heated debate. The debates going on between scientists of different specialties (archaeologists, ethnographers, etc.) on the origin of art and religion are partly caused by the fact that scientists have at their disposal only fragmentary, scattered facts related to primitive era, and also by the fact that the interpretation of archaeological sources (rock paintings that have reached us, small plastic objects, ornaments, etc.) is, as a rule, not unambiguous and creates the possibility of several hypothetical judgments. However, this is only one side of the matter. Another - and much more important - is that the problem of the origin of religion and art has been and remains an arena of intense ideological struggle, the struggle of idealism and religion against the scientific, materialistic worldview. Therefore, both the methodological premises and the conclusions of many bourgeois scientists are determined by their general philosophical, ideological positions, which inevitably leaves an imprint on their interpretation known to science facts.

Primitive art was discovered only in the second half of the 19th century. In archeology at that time, there was an opinion about primitive man as a “troglodyte”, who stood at a very low level of cultural development and whose life was limited only to satisfying basic material needs. Therefore, the first discoveries in Europe of deer bone engravings with superbly executed images of animals were initially dated by researchers to the beginning of our era, while in reality they were created at least ten thousand years earlier. The discovery of color paintings of animals in the Spanish Altamira cave in 1879 was met with disbelief by most archaeologists. Brightness, vitality and perfection primitive images contrasted so much with the usual ideas about “troglodytes” that it took a quarter of a century (and the discovery of similar images in a number of other caves in the south of France) to recognize the authenticity of Altamiran primitive painting. Only at the beginning of the 20th century. It was generally accepted that the primitive man of the era Upper Paleolithic actively engaged artistic creativity and left us a number of rock paintings, sculptures and engravings, distinguished by artistic maturity and perfection. In this regard, the question arose: what were the motives that forced primitive man engage in artistic creativity?

Most foreign researchers, relying on the so-called magical concept of the emergence of art, believed that rock paintings and sculptures found in caves were created by primitive people for magical purposes. Magical rituals were organized around these images and sculptures, which were intended to ensure successful hunting of animals, as well as their reproduction, which guaranteed successful hunting in the future. From here it was done general conclusion, according to which art supposedly grows from magic, from religion. For example, the famous West German researcher of primitive art Herbert Kühn wrote: “Pictorial images have always been associated with cult, not only in the Ice Age, but also later, in the Mesolithic, in the Neolithic, Bronze Ages, and, finally, throughout the Middle Ages, right up to until now". Art, like religion, according to G. Kühn, is “a person’s path to discovering the eternal secret of the deity”; it is one of the ways to get closer to God.

Indeed, many of the cave paintings and sculptures found in them were created and used for magical purposes.

However, it cannot be assumed that everything primitive art associated with magic. Many works of primitive art are known (engravings, figurines), which are made on tools and objects household items. For example, spear throwers were found with elegant figures of a goat, partridge, and other animals carved on the handles. Many household items of the Paleolithic era are decorated with ornaments. All such items were used for industrial or household, but not religious needs. Here, the aesthetic exploration of the world was not associated with primitive religion.

But it's not only that. The very fact of the connection of primitive art with magic does not at all indicate that it arose from magic. As many researchers point out, primitive consciousness was syncretic, united, undifferentiated in nature. It intertwined and merged mythological and magical images and ideas, the beginnings of the aesthetic exploration of the world, the initial norms that regulated people's behavior, and, finally, the first empirical knowledge about the objects and phenomena surrounding people. Research by Soviet scientists (A.P. Okladnikova and others) showed that works of art are inextricably linked with all the life activities of primitive people, that they are multifunctional, that is, they simultaneously satisfy several of their vital needs. The unity, undifferentiation, syncretism of primitive consciousness does not mean that some of its elements (aesthetic) arose from others (magical). It should, on the contrary, be emphasized that the social needs that gave rise to primitive art and primitive magic are not only different from each other, but also opposite.

An aesthetic attitude to the world and its aesthetic development arise on the basis and in the process of labor, production activities of people. The labor process is not only the process of appropriation by man of the products of nature. At the same time, as Marx showed, it is a process of “humanization” of nature, during which a person imprints his goals, abilities, experience and skills in objects of labor. Using the properties and patterns of natural things, a person transforms and shapes these things according to his plan, his purpose. He reveals their internal capabilities, realizes them in the direction he needs, and at the same time embodies his abilities and strengths in objects. By creating objects for utilitarian purposes, a person at the same time strives to realize in them the “measure” inherent objectively in each object, the best way identify in them such properties as symmetry, harmony, rhythm. At the same time, a person enjoys the creative process itself, the ability to master every object and subordinate it to his own goals. Yes, in the process labor activity The aesthetic attitude to the world appears for the first time as a side of this process. Subsequently, this relationship develops, becomes more complex, covers an ever-increasing range of objects and, finally, separating from the utilitarian process of production, acts as a specific form of activity, an independent form of exploration of the world. Art is born.

Thus, the aesthetic exploration of the world and its highest form- art - appear in the process of creative, free labor of man, based on his subordination of the forces of nature, in the process of ever more complete realization of human abilities, skills and knowledge. We can say, therefore, that art is one of the manifestations of human freedom.

As is known, social origins religion in general and magic as one of its first forms are directly opposed. Religion arises as a product and reflection of the powerlessness of primitive people in the face of nature; it is born of fear of unknown and alien phenomena of the surrounding world, of the inability to master them. Primitive magic is closely connected with the labor process, but this connection is very peculiar. Magic is a set of fantastic, illusory ideas and witchcraft actions, with the help of which primitive people try to Achieve practical results (successful hunting, fishing, victories over foreign enemies, etc.) in cases where they lack confidence in the ability to achieve these results through real practice. The English ethnographer B. Malinovsky successfully defined the socio-psychological basis of magic, characterizing it as “oscillations between hope and fear.” When undertaking a magical ritual, primitive people, on the one hand, fear the impact on their lives of forces unknown to them and uncontrollable by them (for example, the disappearance of game in the forest, fish in the river or ocean, a sudden mass disease of relatives, attacks by enemies, etc.) , and on the other hand, they hope that this ritual will protect them from disasters and misfortunes that they fear. From here it is clear that the social basis of primitive magic is the practical powerlessness of people, their dependence on natural and social forces, which they are not able to master and the nature of which they do not understand. Consequently, religion and magic, as one of its forms, are a reflection and manifestation of the lack of freedom of people.

The most ancient forms of religion in origin include: magic, fetishism, totemism, erotic rituals, and funeral cult. They are rooted in the living conditions of primitive people.

Totemism is the belief in the existence of a close connection between relatives and their totem, which could be some kind of animal, less often plants, objects or natural phenomena. The clan bore the name of a totem, for example, a kangaroo or a bulb, and believed that they were related to it by blood. It was believed that the totem helped its relatives, so it could not be killed, harmed or eaten. Totemism ideologically reflected the connection of the clan with the natural environment.

Animism is the belief in supernatural beings enclosed in some kind of body (souls) or acting independently (spirits). Animistic beliefs are associated with the animation of nature. Scientists emphasize the fact that ideas about the intangible (or the bifurcation of the material) indicated the relative development abstract thinking in primitive man, and this is a long stage in the evolution of his intellect, the accumulation life experience. Therefore, the original species religious views were most likely totemism and magic.

Fetishism - belief in the supernatural properties of some inanimate objects, for example, caves, stones, trees, certain tools or household items, and later, specially made religious objects. The cave that saved people from a storm, the tree that fed them after a hunger strike, the spear that obtained food, etc. became a fetish.

Magic is faith in human ability in a special way influence other people, animals, plants, even natural phenomena. Man believed that with the help of certain actions and words, he could help or harm people, ensure production or failure in fishing, cause or stop a storm. There are industrial or commercial, healing, love and other magic. At the same time, magic can be “white” (protective) and “black” (harmful). Over time religious ideas and cults become more complex and become eclectic. They mix with each other, forming the veneration of both family, tribal and tribal patrons, agricultural and cosmic spirits. Gradually, a hierarchy of cult objects emerges - from ordinary spirits to several especially powerful deities (cosmic, natural phenomena, fertility, war). A new stage in human spiritual culture is the establishment of polytheism, i.e. belief in many gods and worship of them.

Fine art originated during the Upper Paleolithic period 40-35 thousand years ago. Among the archaeologically represented monuments that have survived from those times are plastic arts, graphics and painting. For several millennia, primitive art experienced technical evolution: from finger drawing on clay and handprints to multicolor painting; from scratches and engraving to bas-relief; from the fetishization of a rock, a stone with the outlines of an animal - to sculpture. It consolidated people's social experience in an aesthetically mediated form, in specific and realistic images.

The bulk of the subjects of rock art in the Paleolithic era were images of animals, usually made in life size primitive single contours: mammoth, rhinoceros, wild horse, deer, fallow deer, bull, bison, bison, elk. Paleolithic drawings also preserved traces of the beginnings of writing in the form of pictography. Geometric figures(sticks, triangles, trapezoids), indicating the direction of the path, the number of killed animals or the layout of the area, served as a kind of informational addition to the image. Natural and mineral paints were used for painting. Specially burned iron ore to produce ocher, which was then mixed with blood or fat. Expressive cave frescoes and multi-figure compositions hunting and everyday life (hunting and war scenes, dances and religious ceremonies). The primitive artist learned to generalize, abstract, acquired the skills of rational distribution of drawing elements on a plane, and experimented with color and volume. Evidence of the development of abstract thinking was the departure from the principle of naturalism, schematism and a decrease in the size of images during the Neolithic period. The main purpose of the drawings stemmed from the practical needs of people and was of a magical nature. The painting was supposed to attract game animals to the territory of the tribe or promote their reproduction, bring good luck in hunting, etc.

During the Neolithic period, in connection with the development of ceramic production, the art of ornamentation acquired unprecedented proportions. Different tribes have their own specific characteristics of painting ceramic products, which allows scientists to accurately determine the direction of their migration.

Plastic art is widely represented by sculptural images of animals (or their heads), female figurines - the so-called Paleolithic Venus, which symbolized fertility, the feminine principle of the earth. Monumental sculpture is a later phenomenon, reflecting the social differentiation of society. Tombstone statues of Tylor E. were built for leaders and outstanding warriors. Primitive culture. M., 2009. P. 63..

With development public relations, in particular, the flourishing of crafts is associated with applied arts. Craftsmen created jewelry, expensive weapons, household utensils, and decorated clothes. Artistic casting, embossing, gilding of metal products, the use of enamel, and inlay have become widespread. precious stones, mother of pearl, bone, horn, etc. The famous Scythian and Sarmatian products, decorated with realistic or conventional images of people, animals, and plants, indicate a high level of artistic metal processing.

Monuments of proto-architecture include megalithic structures known already in the Neolithic (from the Greek - big Stone). They were erected in many regions of the world, had various shapes and purpose. Monoliths-menhirs are free-standing stones up to 20 m high; their parallel rows are called alinyemans. A dolmen is two or more large stones covered with a huge slab and forming a burial chamber. The most complex megalithic structure - the cromlech - consists of multi-ton vertical stones arranged in a circle, covered with carefully processed stone crossbars. During the period of decomposition of primitive communal relations, monumental architecture appears. Adobe fortifications, temples, and tombs appeared, built, as, for example, in Ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt, for the needs of major leaders. Unique megalithic structure is Stonehenge.