Types of worldviews: concept and forms. Worldview - your own view of the world

Orientation in life, reflection, actions and behavior of a person are determined by the worldview. This is a rather complex philosophical concept that covers the psychological, cognitive, logical and social spheres of human existence. Different sciences define this phenomenon in their own way, philosophy seeks to combine all existing approaches, creating an integral concept.

Worldview concept

Human consciousness has a complex structure, the basic part of which is the worldview. The main types of worldview are formed as the personality develops and are an integral part of it along with character. It is a person's concentrated representations of the world, his experience, and cognitive reserve.

Worldview is a generalizing category that in philosophy denotes a person's acquisition of a theoretical basis in their ideas about life. It includes the results of a person's understanding of global issues of being: about the meaning of life, about the concept of happiness, about what is good and evil, what is truth, etc. These are the most general principles of the existence of an individual person.

Signs of a worldview

At the same time, the worldview, despite its pronounced subjective nature, has historical and social aspects, therefore this phenomenon is a sign of the human species as a whole and has objective, generalized features. The main characteristic of a worldview is its integrity, it is a complex formation, a form of social and individual human consciousness. It is also characterized by generalization, since a person draws universal conclusions from experience, explaining the universe.

Structure

Since a worldview is a complex formation, several levels are distinguished in it, at least two of them: these are types of worldviews of a theoretical and practical order. The first are the result of an abstract comprehension of the most general principles of the existence of the world, which is usually formed in the course of education, philosophical and scientific knowledge, the second are spontaneously formed ideas about the order of things in the world, they are conditioned by individual experience. The components of the structure of worldviews are knowledge, interests, aspirations, principles, ideals, stereotypes, norms, beliefs.

Worldview, its types and forms are the result of a person's understanding of the surrounding reality. The main structural elements are the perception of the world and the world outlook as the implementation of two basic ways of mastering reality.

The perception of the world is the result of cognition with the help of the senses, perception and emotions. World outlook is the result of logical, rational understanding of the facts of the objective and subjective worlds.

Complex formation process

A person does not receive all kinds of worldviews from birth, they can only be formed during their lifetime. Socialization is directly related to the formation of a worldview. When a person begins to ask universal and philosophical questions, then a worldview begins to take shape. This is a complex process that takes place in several planes at the same time. A person accumulates experience and knowledge, interests and skills are formed in him, all this will become components of his worldview.

The main point in the formation of a worldview is the search for one's place in society, here self-esteem and personality orientation play an important role. Gradually, the system of assessing the world and oneself in it is consolidated and passes into the category of beliefs and ideas, which form the basis of the worldview.

The process of forming a worldview is long, and perhaps even endless. It begins in childhood, when basic life ideas are laid and stereotypes are formed. In youth, a system of principles appears that will be the basis for a person's actions, and in adulthood, the crystallization of the worldview, its awareness and correction occurs. This process can take a lifetime. Education plays an important role. Various ways and types of the formation of a worldview lead to the fact that it takes on numerous forms and options.

Traditional types of worldviews

A broad outlook on the world is a worldview, in the early stages it can develop spontaneously, based on life experience, but it is usually exposed to social factors of influence, primarily the family has the most important influence.

Traditionally, it is customary to distinguish such types of worldviews as ordinary, philosophical, scientific, historical, religious, mythological. There are also attempts to identify types on various grounds, for example, optimistic and pessimistic worldview, rational and intuitive, systemic and chaotic, aesthetic. There can be countless such examples.

Mythological worldview

The primitive awareness and development of the world took different forms and types, the worldview of a person was formed on their basis. Syncretism and metaphorical form are characteristic of mythological ideas about the world. In an undivided form, they combine beliefs, knowledge, convictions. That is why science, religion, philosophy grew out of myths in their time.

Mythological perception of the world is based on direct experience, a person could not even penetrate deep into things at the time of his formation, but he needed answers to questions of being, and he creates a system of explanations that he puts into a mythopoetic form.

The mythological worldview is less characterized by knowledge, to a greater extent - ideas and beliefs. It reflects the insurmountable dependence of man on the forces of nature. Mythological concepts originate from primitive antiquity, but they do not disappear from the life of modern man - social mythology successfully uses the simplest explanatory mechanisms today. Each of us in his individual development goes through the stage of mythological cognition, and the elements of the mythological worldview are relevant in any historical epoch.

Religious worldview

The mythological worldview is being replaced by a religious picture of the world. They have a lot in common, but the religious worldview is a higher stage of human development. If the mythological was based only on sensory images and was expressed in the perception of the world, then the religious adds logical knowledge to sensory perception.

The main form of the existence of a religious worldview is faith, it is on it that the believer's picture of the world is based. She gives a person answers to the basic questions of life, relying not only on emotions, but also on logic. The religious worldview already contains an ideological component, establishes causal links between phenomena, people's actions and the world.

The main types of religious worldview - Judaism, Islam, Christianity, Buddhism - embody different worldviews and ideals. Religion, unlike myth, not only explains the world, but also dictates certain behavioral rules. The religious picture of the world contains moral ideals and norms, this worldview is already being built in the course of answering questions about the meaning of life and about the place and significance of an individual in the world.

The central place in the religious worldview is occupied by the person and the idea of ​​God, he is the source of all phenomena and the main explanatory argument. A person is offered the only form of realizing religiosity - this is faith, that is, despite the presence of logic in religious texts, a picture of the believer's world is nevertheless built on emotions and intuition.

Historical worldview

Humanity in the process of development is undergoing significant changes in the world outlook and world outlook. In this regard, we can talk about the worldview of various historical eras, which are associated with the dominant view of the world. So, antiquity is the time of the dominance of aesthetic and philosophical ideals. They are the main reference point of a person in the perception of the world.

In the Middle Ages, the religious worldview dominates, it is faith that becomes the source of worldview and answers to the main questions. In modern times, the scientific picture of the world becomes the basis for the formation of a worldview, natural sciences answer the main questions of being in line with their discoveries and hypotheses.

The 19th century is the time of the formation of a multipolar picture; in parallel, there are several philosophical and scientific concepts that become the main ideological principle for people. In the 20th century, the mosaicism of worldviews is only growing, and today you can see that they are formed on various grounds - from mythological to scientific.

Ordinary worldview

The simplest type of worldview is the ordinary, which unites ideas about everyday life. This is a part of consciousness that directly follows from the experience of a person. It is formed on the basis of the sensory and emotional perception of the world.

The main source of ideas of the everyday worldview is participation in practical activities, labor and social activity. A person observes the surrounding reality: nature, other people, himself. He establishes patterns that become the starting points of the everyday worldview. It is often also called common sense. A characteristic feature of the ordinary worldview is tradition. Today, the media are primarily responsible for its formation, and the main form of existence is stereotypes. Often it is realized in the form of superstition, since it is based on ideas passed down from generation to generation, not always confirmed by science or practice.

Philosophical worldview

Reflections on the meaning of life, on the foundations of being and the purpose of man lead us to the emergence of a philosophical worldview. It is constantly developing and expanding, like any theoretical knowledge, it is enriched with new thoughts. A characteristic feature of the philosophical worldview, in contrast to the mythological and religious, is based on knowledge. Philosophy proceeds from objective knowledge about the world, but interprets it through a subjective method - reflection. Also, philosophical reflection tends to rely on the laws of logic, while operating with its own categories and concepts. The philosophical worldview is characterized by systematicity; instead of sensory experience, the leading method of cognition is reflection.

The philosophical worldview has gone through three evolutionary stages of formation:

• cosmocentrism, when they were looking for answers to questions about the origin of the universe;
• theocentrism, God is recognized as the primary cause of everything;
• anthropocentrism, when human problems come to the fore, this stage lasts from the time of the Renaissance to the present.

The main types of philosophical worldview: idealism and materialism. They appeared at the dawn of mankind. The idealistic worldview considers the ideal as the main principle of the world: spiritual, mental, mental phenomena. Materialism, on the contrary, calls matter the primary principle, that is, things, objects and bodies. Thus, philosophy not only comprehends questions about the place of man on Earth and his significance, but also reflects on the primary sources of the world.

Also, other types of worldview in philosophy are distinguished: agnosticism, skepticism, and more private ones: positivism, irrationalism and rationalism, existentialism and others.

Scientific worldview

In the course of the development of human thought, new types of worldview appear. The scientific explanation of the world is presented in the form of general knowledge about its organization and structure. It seeks to answer the main questions of being in a reasonable and rational way.

Distinctive features of the scientific worldview: consistency and integrity, based on logic, and not on faith or feeling. It is based solely on knowledge, moreover, tested and confirmed, or on logical hypotheses. The scientific worldview answers questions about the laws of the existence of the objective world, but, unlike other species, does not reflect on the attitude towards them.

Since the worldview is always realized in the form of values ​​and life guidelines, science creates a cognitive reserve, which becomes the basis for behavior.

Conventionally, all types of worldview are divided into two groups: socio-historical types and existential-personal.

It has already been described earlier. One has only to refresh the memory: a worldview is a set of concepts, beliefs, values ​​about life, about a person himself, about his position in life.

Types of worldview and life goals

From what kind of worldview we use - we set the corresponding life (), and, accordingly, according to the type of our idea of ​​the world - we choose the way of realizing such a goal.

Unhappy and unsuccessful people usually take the goal from one worldview context, and the path to it from another. For happy and successful people, the goal and the path to it are in the same coordinate system (in the same context of their worldview).

Types of worldview, historical and social

They were formed in chronological order. It is very good to understand what the difference is - knowing the history of all mankind. From the Stone Age to the present day. In each period of time, the principles that lay in each of these types of worldview were reflected.

Another curious fact: humanity has developed - and its thinking has developed, its worldview has changed. And exactly the same thing happens with the development of the child. That is, in fact, each person - growing up, develops his worldview by choosing appropriate goals.

Archaic type of worldview

This is the early concept of mankind about the world, about the man himself in it.

It is characterized by the fact that realism and fantasy are not separated from each other. These two concepts merged in the form of early beliefs: animism, fetishism, toteism. There is no clear division from your "I" and the world around you. How such an understanding of "Soul" does not exist at all. At the same time: all living things are endowed with life, like a person: from stone to sun.

Life goals are not formed consciously: this is to please yourself and other animate beings (sacrifice, rituals, idols ....)

Mythological type of worldview

At this turn of history, there is a clear separation of "oneself" from the surrounding world. And if there is "I", then there is "He", whose actions, thoughts may not coincide with mine. From such views, there is already confrontation (opposition).

This is the era of cults and pantheons of gods. Just as life itself is full of confrontation and competition for a place under the sun, so myths are born about exactly the same opposition between the gods.

Life goals are already acquiring a clearer structure and meaningfulness: to be with the Powerful of this world, to have power ... to achieve the favor of a certain god or person ...

Religious

Even bigger her division of the world. What is this world and the world... The concepts of soul, spirit and body appear. God of God, Caesar of Caesar.

The concept of faith appears - in the invisible, without critical analysis of the latter. Ideas common to all religions: about the creation of the world by God, about the concepts of good and evil, about the consequence of not fulfilling certain rules of behavior.

Life goals - according to the concept of faith, which a person professes - "correct" in her understanding of the actions and thoughts.

Philosophical type of worldview

With an increase in knowledge about the person himself and about the world around him, a collapse (critical mass) occurs, when this knowledge needs to be rethought. This is how various schools of philosophy are formed.

If the rethought knowledge in the context of such a school, then it is believed that the philosophy is the same, but it develops ... If the contradiction with the old school is obvious, a new philosophical trend is formed.

Life goals in this context are personal growth, self-development, self-actualization, the search for truth ...

Exponential personality types of worldview

It is formed according to the growing up of the person himself. From uncritical, not separating oneself from mother to adolescent existential crisis ... plus the external environment of influence is superimposed.

The worldview of each person is based on a collective image from many types of worldviews. It can be either a harmonious combination of philosophy, faith and traditions, or without much criticism various worldview laws are perceived as axioms.

Take the types described earlier - mix something from the bottom into a heap, and there you will be a modern person, such a person.

The goals will be different depending on which concept of the worldview dominates ... The most interesting thing happens: when the goals are in one plane, and the paths to them are in another ...

Dogmatic

Dogma is not critical, but conscious adherence to rules and laws, according to some kind of worldview.

Pursuit of goals - according to dogmas and rules.

Reflex

Reflexes are subconscious adherence to some rules. If the mind still takes part in dogmas, in reflection it is following the principles and rules without the participation of consciousness, reflexively, impulsively.

In the whole position, reflection plays a not noticeable but, sometimes, very significant role.

The correct choice of target, according to the type of alignment

Many concepts of the listed types are firmly intertwined in our consciousness.

Some examples are earlier and now.

Archaic type: earlier - open worship of idols (all living things), now - fenics, beads, talismans…. bringing good luck, the concept of many new - "the universe is alive" ...

Mythological type of worldview: earlier - worship of the pantheon of gods: Zeus, Veles, Iris ..., now - from chelling (obtaining sacred knowledge from unearthly forms of being) to the influence of stars, concepts of fate and karma, implicit and subtle worlds.

If a person does not succeed, he cannot achieve success, here is the answer why this happens:choosing a target not from your own type of worldview.

The fact is that it is quite difficult to change your vision of the world, but to choose the correct one corresponding to the type of worldview, the goal is quite simple. Only your goal will bring! From strangers, not your own, you will be - only unhappy ...

I wish you success and the right goals!

Worldview (German Weltanschauung) is a set of views, assessments, principles and imaginative representations that determine the most general vision, understanding of the world, a person's place in it, as well as life positions, programs of behavior, and actions of people. It gives human activity an organized, meaningful and purposeful character.

Types of worldview

From the point of view of the historical process, the following leading historical types of worldview are distinguished:

mythological;

religious;

philosophical;

commonplace;

humanistic.

Mythological

The mythological worldview (from the Greek μῦθος - legend, legend) is based on an emotionally figurative and fantastic attitude to the world. In myth, the emotional component of the worldview prevails over rational explanations. Mythology grows primarily from a person's fear of the unknown and incomprehensible - natural phenomena, illness, death. Since humanity did not yet have enough experience to understand the true causes of many phenomena, they were explained using fantastic assumptions, without taking into account cause-and-effect relationships.

The mythological type of worldview is defined as a set of ideas that were formed in a primitive society on the basis of a figurative perception of the world. Mythology is related to paganism and is a collection of myths, which is characterized by the spiritualization and anthropomorphization of material objects and phenomena.

The mythological worldview combines the sacred (secret, magic) with the profane (public). Based on faith.

The religious worldview (from Latin religio - piety, holiness) is based on belief in supernatural powers. Religion, in contrast to the more flexible myth, is characterized by rigid dogmatism and a well-developed system of moral precepts. Religion disseminates and maintains patterns from its point of view of correct, moral behavior. The importance of religion in uniting people is also great, but here its role is twofold: by uniting people of the same confession, it often separates people of different faiths.

Philosophical

The philosophical worldview is defined as system-theoretical. The characteristic features of the philosophical worldview are consistency and consistency, consistency, and a high degree of generalization. The main difference between the philosophical worldview and mythology is the high role of reason: if the myth is based on emotions and feelings, then philosophy is primarily on logic and evidence. Philosophy differs from religion in the admissibility of free-thinking: you can remain a philosopher, criticizing any authoritative ideas, while in religion this is impossible.

Philosophy (φιλία - love, striving, thirst + σοφία - wisdom → Old Greek φιλοσοφία (literally: love for wisdom)) is one of the forms of worldview, as well as one of the forms of human activity and a special way of knowing, theory or science. Philosophy, as a discipline, studies the most general essential characteristics and fundamental principles of reality (being) and cognition, human being, the relationship between man and the world.

Philosophy (as a special type of social consciousness, or worldview) arose in parallel in Ancient Greece, Ancient India and Ancient China in the so-called "Axial Time" (Jaspers' term), from where it subsequently spread throughout the world.

If we consider the structure of the worldview at the present stage of its development, we can talk about the ordinary, religious, scientific and humanistic types of worldview.

Commonplace

The ordinary worldview is based on common sense and everyday experience. Such a worldview is formed spontaneously, in the process of everyday experience, and it is difficult to present it in its pure form. As a rule, a person forms his views on the world, relying on clear and harmonious systems of mythology, religion, science.

The scientific worldview is based on the desire to build the most objective picture of the world. Over the past few centuries, science has moved further and further from the "vague" philosophy in an attempt to achieve accurate knowledge. However, in the end, it also moved far away from the person with his needs [source not specified 37 days]: the result of scientific activity is not only useful products, but also weapons of mass destruction, unpredictable biotechnologies, methods of manipulating the masses, etc. [neutrality?]

Humanistic

The humanistic worldview is based on the recognition of the value of every human person, his right to happiness, freedom and development. The formula of humanism was expressed by Immanuel Kant, saying that a person can only be a goal, and not a simple means for another person. It is immoral to use people to your advantage; one should do everything possible to ensure that each person can reveal and fully realize himself.

6. Neopositivism as a kind of Western European philosophy.

NEOPOSITIVEism is one of the main directions of Western philosophy of the 20th century. Neopositivism arose and developed as a philosophical trend, claiming to analyze and solve urgent philosophical and methodological problems put forward by the development of science, in particular the relationship between philosophy and science in conditions of discrediting traditional speculative philosophy, the role of symbolic means of scientific thinking, the relationship between the theoretical apparatus and the empirical oasis science, nature and the function of mathematization and formalization of knowledge, etc. This orientation towards the philosophical and methodological problems of science made neopositivism the most influential trend in modern Western philosophy of science, although already in the 1930s – 40s. (and especially since the 1950s) the inconsistency of his initial attitudes is clearly beginning to be realized. At the same time, in the works of prominent representatives of neo-positivism, these attitudes were closely intertwined with specific scientific content, and many of these representatives have significant merits in the development of modern formal logic, semiotics, methodology and the history of science.

Being a modern form of positivism, neopositivism shares its original philosophical and worldview principles - first of all, the idea of ​​denying the possibility of philosophy as theoretical knowledge, considering the fundamental problems of worldview and performing special functions in the cultural system that are not carried out by special scientific knowledge. Fundamentally opposing science to philosophy, neopositivism believes that the only possible knowledge is only special scientific knowledge. Thus, neopositivism appears as the most radical and consistently substantiated form of scientism in 20th century philosophy. This predetermined to a large extent the sympathy for neopositivism among wide circles of the scientific and technical intelligentsia in the 1920s and 1930s, during the period of its emergence and spread. However, the same narrowly scientistic orientation of it became a stimulus for disillusionment with neopositivism after World War II, when philosophical currents came to the fore, responding to the deep existential problems of our time, and when criticism of the scientist cult of science begins. At the same time, neopositivism is a kind of stage in the evolution of positivism and scientism. Thus, he reduces the tasks of philosophy not to the summation or systematization of special scientific knowledge, as classical positivism of the 19th century did, but to the development of methods for the analysis of knowledge. This position reveals, on the one hand, the greater radicalism of neopositivism in comparison with classical positivism in the rejection of traditional ways of philosophical thinking, on the other hand, a certain reaction to the real demands of modern theoretical thinking. At the same time, unlike the directions of positivism that preceded it, in particular Machism, which also claimed to study scientific knowledge, but focused on the psychology of scientific thinking and the history of science, neopositivism tries to analyze knowledge through the possibility of expressing it in language, using the methods of modern logic and semiotics. This appeal to the analysis of language also finds expression in the peculiarities of criticism of "metaphysics" in neopositivism, when the latter is viewed not simply as a false doctrine (as classical positivism did), but as, in principle, impossible and devoid of meaning from the point of view of the logical norms of language. Moreover, the sources of this senseless "metaphysics" are seen in the disorienting influence of language on thought. All this allows us to speak of neopositivism as a kind of logical-linguistic form of positivism, where the given, going beyond which was declared illegal "metaphysics", is no longer the so-called. positive facts or sensually given, and linguistic forms. Thus, neopositivism closely approaches analytical philosophy, as a variety of which it begins to be considered in the later years of its existence.

For the first time, the ideas of neopositivism were clearly expressed in the activities of the so-called Vienna Circle, on the basis of which the current of logical positivism was formed. It was in logical positivism that the main ideas of the neo-positivist philosophy of science were formulated with the greatest consistency and clarity. significant popularity in the circles of the Western scientific intelligentsia. These and similar views formed the basis of the ideological and scientific-organizational unity of neo-positivism that took shape in the 1930s. and to which, in addition to logical positivists, a number of American representatives of the philosophy of science of the positivist-pragmatist direction (Morris, Bridgemen, Margenau, etc.), the logical Lvov-Warsaw school (A. Tarsky, K. Aydukevich), the Uppsala school in Sweden, the Muenster logical group in Germany, etc. The ideas of neopositivism are spreading in Western sociology (the so-called sociological positivism of Lazarsfeld, etc.). During this period, a number of international congresses on the philosophy of science were regularly convened, at which the ideas of neo-positivism were widely promoted. Neopositivism has a noticeable ideological impact on the scientific community as a whole, under its influence a number of positivist concepts are formed in the interpretation of the discoveries of modern science.

The popularity of neo-positivism in wide circles of the scientific intelligentsia of the West was determined mainly by the fact that it created the appearance of a simple, clear, associated with the use of modern scientific methods for solving complex and urgent philosophical and methodological problems. However, it was precisely primitivism and straightforwardness that inevitably had to lead and did lead neo-positivism to discredit and a deep crisis. Already in the 1950s. It was revealed quite clearly that the "revolution in philosophy" proclaimed by neo-positivism does not justify the hopes that were placed on it. The classical problems, the overcoming and removal of which neopositivism promised, were reproduced in a new form in the course of its own evolution. From the beginning. 1950s more and more clearly the insolvency of the so-called. the standard concept of the analysis of science, put forward by logical positivism (see Logical empiricism) and there is a sharp criticism of this concept from representatives of the philosophy of science of a different orientation. Neopositivism, therefore, is losing its position in the methodology of science, the development of which has traditionally been the main source of authority since the time of the Vienna Circle.

In Western philosophy of science in the 1960s and 70s. the current develops, the so-called. post-positivism, which, while maintaining a certain connection with the general ideological and worldview attitudes of neopositivism, at the same time opposes the neo-positivist interpretation of the tasks of the methodological analysis of science (Kuhn, Lakatos, Feyerabend, Toulmin, etc.). Supporters of this trend, in particular, reject the absolutization of the methods of logical formalization, emphasize, in contrast to neopositivism, the importance of studying the history of science for its methodology, the cognitive significance of "metaphysics" in the development of science, etc. This trend is largely influenced by the ideas of Popper, who since mid. 1930s came out with his concept of the philosophy of science, in many respects close to neo-positivism, but made it effective competition during the period of weakening of its influence. The subject of strong criticism is also the radical scientism of neopositivism, its ignorance of the role of various forms of extra-scientific consciousness, including their significance for science itself. In this regard, in the context of analytical philosophy, which put forward the analysis of language as the main task of philosophy, the current of English analysts (the so-called philosophy of linguistic analysis), followers of J. Moore (and later L. Wittgenstein), who shared the fundamental anti-metaph orientation of neopositivism, but made the subject of their research first natural language.

The principled position of estrangement from the vital worldview, social and ideological problems of our time that concern humanity, substantiated by the concept of de-ideologization of philosophy, scientistic limitation, withdrawal into the sphere of private problems of logic and methodology of science - all this caused a decline in the popularity of neopositivism, accompanied by a relative increase in the influence of anti-positivist currents in the West. philosophy (existentialism, philosophical anthropology, neo-Thomism). The main trend in the evolution of neo-positivism in these conditions consisted in attempts to liberalize its position, to reject broadcasting programs. From the 2nd floor. 1950s neopositivism ceases to exist as a philosophical trend. The neo-positivist “revolution in philosophy” came, thus, to its sad end, which was predetermined by the failure of its initial attitudes both in relation to philosophical consciousness and in relation to the nature of science itself. At the same time, it would be wrong to ignore the historical significance of neopositivism, which stimulated attention to the problem of the criteria of rational thinking, the application of scientific research methods in philosophy, not to mention the merits of its representatives in the development of the theory of modern logic and special questions of the methodology of science.

1. Worldview concept. Types of worldview and its importance in public life.

Worldview- outlook on the world - the most general idea of ​​a person about the world around him and a person's place in it.

Types of worldview:

1.Mythological - it is characterized by imagery, descriptiveness, illogicality, integrity of space, non-segregation of the individual "I".

2.Religious - associated with the recognition of the supernatural principle, supports in people the hope that they will receive what they are deprived of in everyday life. The basis is religious movements (Buddhism, Christianity, Islam). Representation of the supernatural, individualism.

3. Philosophical-rationalism, explanatory, individualistic.

The meaning of the worldview:

Each person has his own worldview, and it is formed in the process of socialization of a person, his communication with the world around him. In the process of our development, we assign to ourselves certain value attitudes, moral, moral signs, we have our own “picture of life”. With the help of norms and principles, we can interact in society - this is how various classes, groups, estates are formed.

2. The problem of the genesis of philosophy.

Philosophy arises as a resolution of the contradiction between the mythological picture of the world, built according to the laws of imagination and new knowledge, elements of the initial empirical knowledge about nature, built according to the laws of thinking. Philosophy separates from mythology as concepts are formed.

3. The subject of philosophy. The main problems and sections of philosophy.

The subject of philosophy is a system of general theoretical views on the world, man, social structure, understanding the different forms of man's relationship to the world (way of seeing an object).

Philosophy sections:

1. Ethics - the doctrine of morality, morality.

2. Aesthetics - the doctrine of beauty, beauty, the laws and principles of beauty.

3. Gnoseology - the science of cognition, methods of cognition.

4.ontology-the doctrine of being.

5.anthropology-the doctrine of man.

6.Logic-laws of thinking.

7.axiology - the doctrine of spiritual values.

Philosophy problems:

1. The problem of being is the problem of finding what "really exists" as independent of man and mankind, which itself does not need anything, but what the world and man need. Therefore, the category "being" is an ontological category. Ontology is a philosophical teaching about being as such, and not about the being of certain things and phenomena.

4. The nature of philosophical problems.

Every person is faced with the problems discussed in philosophy. How does the world work? Is the world developing? Who or what determines these laws of development? What is the place of the law, and what is the case? Man's position in the world: mortal or immortal? How can a person understand his destiny. What are the cognitive capabilities of a person? What is truth and how to distinguish it from falsehood? Moral and moral problems: conscience, responsibility, justice, good and evil. These questions are posed by life itself. This or that issue determines the direction of human life. Philosophy is called upon to correctly solve these issues, to help transform spontaneously formed views in the world outlook, which is necessary in the formation of a personality. These problems were solved long before philosophy - in mythology, religion.

5. Philosophy of Ancient China. Taoism.

Three great teachings originated in China: Confucianism, Taoism, Chinese Buddhism.

The revival of philosophy began with the book of changes. The universe is threefold: heaven + man + earth.

By man is meant the emperor. The earth is a square with China in the center.

The energy of the universe is tsy. In which there are 2 principles, yin and yang.

Confucius commented on the book of changes, his treatise "ten wings". The main focus is on the past, attention is paid to practical problems - government management. Characteristics of a noble man who must have philanthropy, observe etiquette (norms of behavior). Knowledge is compared with the knowledge of ancient texts. Loyalty is valued, everyone should know their place.

Confucius paid great attention to the problems of ethics and politics.

Taoism is a treatise "The Book of Tao and Te". The founder of the movement is Lao Dzu, an archivist. The main category is Tao (path). Tao is understood as the universal law of the world, which is the driving force behind everything.

Philosophical principle wow (non-action)

The Tao De principle is a method of philosophizing.

The doctrine of immortality is the cult of immortality.

The foundations of Taoism and the philosophy of Lao-tzu are set forth in the treatise "Tao Te Ching" (IV-III centuries BC). At the center of the doctrine is the doctrine of the great Tao, the universal Law and the Absolute. Tao is multi-valued, it is an endless movement. Tao is a kind of law of being, the cosmos, the universal unity of the world. Tao reigns everywhere and in everything, always and without limits. Nobody created it, but everything comes from it, so that then, having completed the circuit, it will return to it again. Invisible and inaudible, inaccessible to the senses, constant and inexhaustible, nameless and formless, it gives rise, name and form to everything in the world. Even the great Heaven follows the Tao.

Each person, in order to become happy, must take this path, try to cognize the Tao and merge with it. According to the teachings of Taoism, the microcosm man is eternal as well as the macrocosm universe. Physical death means only that the spirit is separated from the person and dissolves in the macrocosm. The task of a person in his life is to achieve that his soul merges with the world order of Tao. How can such a merger be achieved? The answer to this question is contained in the teachings of Tao.

The power of De is inherent in the Path of Tao. It is through the power of “Wu Wei” that Tao manifests itself in every person. This force should not be interpreted as an effort, but on the contrary, as a desire to avoid all effort. “Wu wei” means “non-action,” the denial of purposeful activity that runs counter to the natural order. In the process of life, it is necessary to adhere to the principle of non-action - the principle of uvei. This is not inaction. This is human activity that is consistent with the natural course of the world order. Any action that contradicts Tao means a waste of energy and leads to failure and destruction. Thus, Taoism teaches a contemplative attitude towards life.

Bliss is achieved not by the one who seeks to win the favor of Tao with good deeds, but the one who, in the process of meditation, immersion in his inner world, seeks to listen to himself, and through himself to listen and comprehend the rhythm of the universe. Thus, the goal of life was interpreted in Taoism as a return to the eternal, a return to one's roots.

The moral ideal of Taoism is a hermit who, with the help of religious meditation, breathing and gymnastic exercises, achieves a high spiritual state that allows him to overcome all passions and desires, to immerse himself in communion with the divine Tao.

Tao manifests itself through everyday life and is embodied in the actions of trained people, although few of them completely "follow the Path." Moreover, the practice of Taoism itself is built on a complex system of symbolism of mutual correspondences and unity of the common, cosmic, and inner, human world. Everything, for example, is permeated with a single chi energy. A child is born from the mixing of the original qi (yuan qi) of the father and mother; a person lives only by continuing to nourish the body with some external qi (wai qi), transferring it to an internal state with the help of a system of breathing exercises and proper nutrition. Everything truly "great" is connected with the beyond, Tao, which at the same time is instantly manifested in things, phenomena, and actions. The cosmic here is constantly projected onto the human and appears in a special vital "energetism", the energy potential of both the Tao itself and the people who were able to fully comprehend it. The path of Tao itself is perceived as an energetic, spiritualizing principle, for example, in "Chuang Tzu" it is said: "He spiritualized deities and kings, gave birth to Heaven and Earth."

6. Philosophy of Ancient China. Confucianism.

To govern the state, according to Confucius, noble men are called upon, headed by the sovereign - "the son of heaven." A noble husband is an example of moral perfection, a person who, with all his behavior, affirms the norms of morality.

It was on these criteria that Confucius proposed to nominate people for public service. The main task of noble men is to educate in themselves and spread universal philanthropy. Philanthropy included: parental care for children, filial piety to elders in the family, as well as fair relations between those who are not related by kinship. Transferred to the sphere of politics, these principles were supposed to serve as the foundation of the entire management system.

The upbringing of subjects is the most important state matter, and it must be carried out by the force of personal example. "To govern is to do the right thing." In turn, the people are obliged to show filial piety to the rulers, to obey them unquestioningly. The prototype of the organization of state power for Confucius served as management in family clans and tribal communities (patronymies).

Confucius was a staunch opponent of rule of law. He condemned the rulers who relied on intimidating legal prohibitions, and advocated the preservation of traditional religious and moral methods of influencing the behavior of the Chinese. “If you lead the people through laws and maintain order through punishments, the people will tend to evade [punishment] and feel no shame. If you lead the people through virtue and maintain order through ritual, the people will know shame, and they will correct themselves. "

7. Ancient Indian philosophy. Vedanta.

The Vedas (literally - "knowledge") are religious and philosophical treatises that were created by those who came to India after the 15th century. BC NS. from Central Asia, the Volga region and Iran by the Aryan tribes.

The Vedas typically included:

"scripture", religious hymns ("samhits");

Description of rituals ("brahmanas"), composed by brahmanas (priests) and used by them in the administration of religious cults;

Books of hermits in the forest ("aranyaki");

Philosophical commentaries on the Vedas ("Upanishads"). Only four Vedas have survived to this day:

Rig Veda;

Samaveda;

Yajurveda;

Atharvaveda.

8. Ancient Indian philosophy. Buddhism.

Buddhism emerged in the 7th-6th centuries. BC. The main meaning of Buddhism is expressed in the teachings of the Buddha, the founder of the doctrine, about the "four noble truths", or in the "truths about suffering." The first truth: "life is suffering." Second: "suffering follows desire." Third: "the way to get rid of suffering - the way to get rid of desires." Fourth: "The way to get rid of desires is to follow the teachings of Buddhism."

Chinese Buddhism is a mix of concepts.

Buddhism began to penetrate into China at the turn of the century. NS. There were legends about the appearance of Buddhist preachers there as early as the 3rd century BC. e., however, they cannot be considered reliable.

The first distributors of Buddhism were merchants who came to China along the Great Silk Road from the Central Asian states. Missionary monks, first from Central Asia and later from India, appear in China until the 2nd-3rd centuries.

Already by the middle of the II century, the imperial court became acquainted with Buddhism, as evidenced by the sacrifices of Lao Tzu (the founder of Taoism) and the Buddha, made by the emperor Huan Di in 165. According to legend, the first Buddhist sutras were brought on a white horse to Luoyang, the capital of the Late Empire. Han, during the reign of Emperor Ming-di (58-76); here later the first Buddhist monastery in China appeared - Baimasy.

At the end of the 1st century, the activity of Buddhists was registered in another city of the late Han empire - Pengcheng. In the beginning. II century was compiled "Sutra 42 Articles" - the first attempt at presentation on a whale. the language of the foundations of Buddhist teachings.

As far as can be judged from the first translated Buddhist. texts, originally in China, Buddhism of a transitional type from Hinayana to Mahayana is preached, and special attention is paid to the practice of meditation. Later, Buddhism in the form of Mahayana was established in China.

Initially, Buddhism was perceived in China as one of the forms of the national Chinese religion - Taoism. This led to the emergence of the legend of the "enlightenment of the barbarians", the meaning of which is that the founder of Taoism, Lao Tzu, who went to the West, allegedly became the teacher of Buddha and the true founder of Buddhism in India. This legend was used by Taoists in their polemics with Buddhists. A similar perception of Buddhism was reflected in the first translations of Buddhist sutras into Chinese: in them, the Indian term was often transmitted through one or another concept of Taoist philosophy, which had a significant impact on the transformation of Buddhism in China. For example, bodhi (enlightenment) was conveyed by the term "Tao" - the path, and nirvana - by the Taoist concept of "wuwei" - non-action.

9. The main stages of development and directions of ancient philosophy.

Ancient philosophy includes ancient Greek and Roman philosophy from the 6th century BC. to the VI century. AD

Characteristic:

1.democracy

2. competitiveness as a trait of national character

3. highlighting individuality.

1. Natural philosophy - In the first, natural philosophical, period of development, ancient philosophers are looking for the beginning. The main schools and representatives of this period are the Miletus school (Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes, Heraclitus), the Pythagorean Union (Pythagoras), the Eleian school (Parmenides, Zeno), the school of atomism (Leucippus, Democritus). Natural philosophers considered the basis of all things water, air, fire, earth (from water everything happens to water everything turns).

2. Sophistry - Reasoning based on deliberate violation of the laws and principles of formal logic, on the use of false arguments and arguments presented as correct.

10 early Greek philosophy.

Greece was at the crossroads of trade routes: flows of trade and cultural exchanges. Greece is like a dead end, a Scythian corridor. It begins in the steppes of Manchuria, then - southern Siberia - the Scandinavian peoples. The shifting of tongues is under pressure. An extraordinary diversity of the geographical landscape - various trades, the development of horizons. Constantly under the threat of invasion, attack, there is a need for protection. The Greeks could not support a mercenary army. In Greece, a policy arose, the Greek was relatively free. The transformation of the Greek community, but it did not overwhelm the individual. For free thinking, there should be no problems of everyday life. The Greeks solved this problem by slavery. In Greece, slavery was not the basis of the productive forces, but at the level of the household, slaves got rid of everyday problems. The basis of the Greek economy, unlike Rome, is free workers. The beginning of the development of European philosophy was laid in Ancient Greece in the 5-4 centuries BC. It arose and developed in accordance with the rudiments of specific knowledge about nature. The first ancient Greek philosophers were also natural scientists. They made attempts to scientifically explain the origin of the Earth, stars, animals, plants and humans. The main question of ancient Greek philosophy was the question of the origin of the world. And in this sense, philosophy echoes with mythology, inherits its worldview problematics. But in myths, the question is: who gave birth to existence, and among the philosophers of Greece: where did everything come from? Naive materialism - the Hellenic school — Parmenides, Zeno, Xenophanes — is a further stage on the path of rationalizing knowledge. For the first time, the Eleatics passed from concrete natural elements to being as such. Elemental dialectics - Heraclitus, Cratyl. Democritus-being-something simple, then indivisible, impenetrable - an atom. Natural philosophers saw a single diversity of the world in its material basis. They failed to explain social and spiritual phenomena. The Socrates-Plato school developed the concept of ideas, on the basis of which it was possible to explain not only nature, but also man and society. Aristotle developed the doctrine of form, which made it possible to better understand the essence of a single thing. Cynics, Stoics, Epicureans, skeptics were busy looking for the destiny, the meaning of human life. Their common message is: be wise.

11. Life and teachings of Socrates.

Socrates - (lived in 469-399 BC), an ancient Greek philosopher from Athens, one of the ancestors of dialectics. He sought the truth by asking leading questions (Socratic method). He expounded his teaching orally; the main source of information about his teaching is the works of his students Xenophon and Plato. She used the method of dialectics to find the truth by asking leading questions - the so-called Socratic method (Maieutics-philosophizing in the form of a conversation). The goal of Socrates' philosophy is self-knowledge as a way to comprehend the good; virtue is knowledge or wisdom. For subsequent eras, Socrates became the embodiment of the ideal of the sage. The main task of cognition is cognition of oneself. Dialogue is the main method of finding the truth.

12. Philosophical system of Plato.

Plato was born in Athens in 428-427. BC. His real name is Aristocles, Plato is a pseudonym meaning "broad-shouldered", which was given to him in his youth for his strong constitution by the wrestling teacher Ariston of Argos. At the age of 20, Plato met Socrates and remained with him until the death of his teacher - only 8 years. At the age of 28, after the death of Socrates, Plato, along with other students of the great philosopher, left Athens and moved to Megara. In 360, Plato returned to Athens and did not part with the Academy until his death in 347 BC.

The state, according to Plato, like the soul, has a three-part structure. In accordance with the main functions (management, protection and production of material goods), the population is divided into three classes: farmers-artisans, guards and rulers (wise men-philosophers). A fair government should ensure their harmonious coexistence. The first estate is formed from people in whom the lustful principle prevails. If the virtue of moderation prevails in them, a kind of love for order and discipline, then these are the most worthy people. The second estate is formed from people in whom the volitional principle prevails, the duty of the guard is vigilance in relation to both internal and external danger. According to Plato, only aristocrats are called to govern the state as the best and wisest citizens. The rulers should be those who know how to love their City more than others, who are able to fulfill their duty with the greatest zeal. And most importantly, if they know how to cognize and contemplate the Good, that is, the rational principle prevails in them and they can rightfully be called sages. So, a perfect state is such a state, in the first estate moderation prevails, in the second - courage and strength, in the third - wisdom.

The concept of justice is that everyone does what he is supposed to do; it concerns the citizens in the City and the soul parts in the soul. Justice in the outside world is manifested only when it is in the soul. Therefore, in a perfect City, education and upbringing must be perfect, and for each class it has its own characteristics. Plato attaches great importance to the education of guards as an active part of the population, from which rulers emerge. An upbringing worthy of rulers was to combine practical skills with mastery of philosophy. The goal of education is, through the cognition of the Good, to give a model to which the ruler should become like in his striving to embody the Good in his state.

13. Formation and specificity of medieval philosophy.

Medieval is the period of historical development of Western Europe and the Middle East from the time of the fall of the Roman Empire to the XIV-XV centuries .. Philosophy of this time:

The main 2 sources:

1.ancient Greek philosophy

2. Holy Scriptures, which turned philosophy into the mainstream of Christianity.

A distinctive feature of the philosophy of the Middle Ages was its pronounced religious character. The religious worldview is theocentric.

Theocentrism is such an understanding of the world in which historicism and the cause of everything that exists was God, he is the center of the universe, an asset. and create. Start. At the heart of epistemology is the idea of ​​deities. revelations.

The worldview in accordance with which God personally created living and inanimate nature, which is in constant change, is called creationism. The system of views in accordance with which all the world events are controlled. God is called providentialism.

From the IV century. religion extends its influence on everything, the formation of social life and, above all, spiritual life.

The philosophy of this time entered the history of the scholasticism (the symbol is divorced from real life). Representatives of medieval scholasticism - Thomas Aquinas.

Milking the philosophy of this time, the struggle between materialism and idealism was characteristic; it was expressed in a dispute between realists and nominalists about what a social concept was, i.e. universal.

Conclusion: the main feature of medieval philosophy is creationism, i.e. pronounced religious character.

14.Patristics. Philosophy of Aurelius Augustine.

PATRISTICS is a term denoting the totality of theological and religious-philosophical works of Christian writers of the II-VIII centuries. - Church Fathers.

Augustine (Aurelius) - one of the most famous and influential fathers of the Christian church, was born on November 13, 354 in the African province of Numidia.

15. Scholasticism. Philosophy of Thomas Aquinas.

Scholasticism is a type of religious philosophy that seeks to provide a rational theoretical foundation for a religious worldview by applying logical methods of proof. Scholasticism is characterized by an appeal to the Bible as the main source of knowledge.

TOMISM is a philosophical movement based on the teachings of Thomas Aquinas.

Thomas Aquinas went down in history as a major theological philosopher of the Middle Ages, as well as a systematizer of scholasticism and the founder of Thomism, an important trend in the Catholic Church. During his lifetime he was a Dominican monk. His ideas are used in modern philosophical as well as theological teachings.

The philosophy of Thomas Aquinas makes it possible to understand some complex theological issues. His most famous works are The Sum of Theology and The Sum of Philosophy.

The Philosophy of Thomas Aquinas: Briefly

This philosopher considered the ontological existence of God to be insufficient. He compiled five proofs of the existence of a higher mind:

Traffic. Everything moved by someone moves, which means there is some kind of prime mover. This engine is called God;

Cause. Everything that exists around has its own reason. God is the first cause;

Randomness and necessity. These concepts are interconnected. The original cause is God;

The degree of quality. Everything that exists has varying degrees of quality. God is supreme perfection;

Target. Everything around has a purpose. The goal has the meaning that God gives it. Without God, goal setting would be completely impossible.

Aquinas' philosophy is connected with the problems of being, God, and all that exists. In particular, the philosopher:

Draws the line between essence and existence. This division is included in the key ideas of Catholicism;

As an essence, the philosopher represents the "pure idea" of a phenomenon or thing, a set of signs, features existing in the divine mind;

The very fact of the existence of a thing he calls the proof of the existence of a thing;

Everything that we see around exists only because this existence was approved by God;

God can give the essence existence, and can deprive it of this existence;

God is eternal and irreversible.

The philosophy of Thomas Aquinas contains the ideas that:

Everything consists of an idea (form) as well as matter;

The unity of matter and form is the essence of any thing;

Idea is a defining principle, matter is a container;

Any idea is threefold - that is, it exists in the mind of God, in this very thing, as well as in the consciousness of man.

The philosophy of Thomas Aquinas contains the following ideas:

Reason and revelation are not the same;

Reason and faith are always involved in the process of knowledge;

Reason and faith give true knowledge;

Untrue knowledge can appear for the reason that reason is contrary to faith;

Everything around is divided into what can be known and what cannot be known;

Reason is capable of knowing only the very fact of the existence of God;

The existence of God, the creation of the world, the immortality of the soul, as well as other similar questions, a person can understand only through divine revelation;

Theology and philosophy are not the same thing at all;

Philosophy explains only what is cognized by reason;

The divine cognizes theology.

The Philosophy of Thomas Aquinas: Historical Significance

These include:

Evidence for the existence of God;

Systematization of scholasticism;

Drawing the boundaries between existence and essence;

Significant contribution to the development of the ideas of materialism;

The discovery of divine ideas that precede the beginning of the existence of a thing;

The idea that knowledge can be obtained only when reason unites with faith and ceases to contradict it;

An indication of the spheres of being, which can be comprehended only through divine revelation;

The separation of theology and philosophy, as well as the presentation of philosophy as something subordinate to theology;

Logical proof of a number of provisions of scholasticism, as well as theology.

The teachings of this philosopher were recognized by the Pope (1878), and accepted as the official ideology of Catholicism. Today, such a doctrine as neo-Thomism is based on his ideas.

16. Philosophy of Italian humanism.

17. Philosophy of N. Machiavelli.

Nicolo Machiavelli (1469-1527), Italian thinker

The main work - "Sovereign"

Machiavelli's political philosophy

Key ideas:

1. The existence of the state is an objective law and necessity (fate).

2. However, fate only half determines our actions. The rest depends on ourselves, on personal qualities.

3. The state is constantly changing depending on the balance of the struggling forces: the aristocracy and the people.

4. The forms of the state can be cyclically repeated under similar conditions (monarchy, republic).

5. The goal of politics is to have power. The state is an autonomous system, independent of morality, religion or philosophy. The sovereign must take care of the prosperity and power of the state by any means, not caring about the observance of moral norms. Hence - the admissibility in politics of any methods, including violence, the murder of political opponents (cf. Lenin, Stalin, Hitler).

6. The needs of power are more important than morality, the state (as a general) is more important than a person (individual) - by analogy with the ideal state of Plato.

18. Reformation and its influence on the formation of new philosophical thinking.

Reformation - a social movement in Western and Central Europe of the 16th century. It was mostly anti-feudal in nature, took the form of a struggle against the Catholic Church. The beginning of the Reformation was served by M. Luther's speech in Germany in 1517. The ideologists of the Reformation put forward theses that actually denied the need for the Catholic Church with its hierarchy and the clergy in general, rejected the Catholic Sacred Tradition, denied the church's rights to land wealth, etc. other The main directions of the Reformation: burgher (M. Luther, J. Calvin, W. Zwingli); popular, combining the demand for the abolition of the Catholic Church with the struggle for the establishment of equality (T. Münzer); royal-princely, reflecting the interests of the secular government, which sought to strengthen the power, to seize the land holdings of the church. The Peasant War of 1524-1526 took place under the ideological banner of the Reformation. in Germany, the Dutch and English revolutions. The Reformation laid the foundation for Protestantism (in a narrow sense, the reformation is the conduct of religious transformations: in its spirit).

Movements directed against the inert medieval social environment, for the elimination of the vices of the religious system, are rooted in needs that correspond to the external (hyun-san) and internal aspects (sung-san) of the original human nature. The Reformation grew out of the inner desire of man to return to God, to devote his life to Him. Thus, she was directed towards God, reviving the traditions of spirituality characteristic of the biblical Israelites, here called Hebraism, in contrast to the Renaissance, focused on the revival of the humanistic ideals of Hellenism, addressed to man.

Stages of the Reformation:

1517 - Luther's speech with 95 theses against the sale of indulgences. The beginning of the Reformation;

1518 - Luther refuses to renounce his views;

1520 Luther publishes major reformatory works;

1521 Pope Leo X anathematizes Luther, which is announced at the Reichstag in Worms;

1522 - The New Testament is published in German, translated by Luther;

1523 - Speech by Ulrich Zwingli with 67 theses.

On the one hand, the Reformation was not directly related to the development of science, however, in addition to personal connections and influence, for example, Luther on Copernicus, in addition to the influence of the positions of the leaders of the Reformation on certain scientific issues, it created a completely different intellectual climate, the influence of which on scientific thinking it is difficult to overestimate.

19. Formation of philosophy of modern times.

17th century opens a special period in the development of philosophical thought, which is commonly called classical philosophy. In the development of European spiritual culture, this age is defined as the age of "reason": it is worshiped, addressed to it as the "supreme judge" in human affairs; the idea of ​​the "rationality" of the world is affirmed. A new, so-called educational-modernist philosophical paradigm is being formed.

In this era, a belief in the limitless possibilities of reason is formed - unlimited rationalism. There is nothing that a person cannot investigate and understand. Science knows no boundaries. Modern times asserted the role of science that was different from ancient and medieval values. Science is not an end in itself, you need to do it not for the sake of a fun pastime, not for the love of discussion and not for the sake of glorifying your name. It should benefit the human race, increase its power over nature.

One of the important features of this paradigm is the desire to establish a new understanding of reality, being. The development of manufacturing production, the bourgeois way of life was oriented towards the knowledge of nature, natural life as a real reality. It is nature (“nature”), and not the divine spirit, that is the true “world substance”, “real being” from the point of view of the thinkers of this era. Accordingly, the "main" knowledge becomes knowledge about nature - natural science. At the same time, there is a "purification" of philosophy from a humanistic orientation, its direction towards "pure" (without a specifically human, social aspect), objective nature.

The aspiration of the philosophers of the 17th century. to improve philosophical knowledge, to overcome scholastic attitudes and prejudices of medieval philosophy, relied on the comprehension and generalization of the results and methods of new science, science aimed at knowing nature, and not the divine spirit. This created the preconditions for the establishment of philosophical materialism in the proper sense of the word.

A feature of the science of modern times is, on the one hand, reliance on experimental and experimental knowledge as the main means of achieving new, practically effective truths, on knowledge free from any orientation towards any authorities. On the other hand, in the development of science of this time, a significant role was played by the successes of mathematics, which led to the emergence of algebra, analytical geometry, to the creation of differential and integral calculus, etc.

Thanks to the scientific revolution of the 16th and 17th centuries, mechanics, the science of the movement of bodies observed directly or with the help of instruments, became the leader of natural science in modern times. This science, based on the experimental mathematical study of nature, had a significant impact on the formation of a new picture of the world and a new paradigm of philosophizing. Under its influence, a mechanistic and metaphysical picture of the world is formed. All natural phenomena are interpreted as machines (machina mundi) or systems of machines created by an infinite creator. True, the creativity of God is reduced in this picture to a minimum - the creation of matter and giving it some initial impulse, as a result of which it all comes into chaotic motion. The unraveling of this chaos and its transformation into space occurs already spontaneously in accordance with the laws of mechanical motion and is subject to a rigid unambiguous determination. God becomes an external "click" in relation to the world he created. This understanding of the world distinguishes the natural science of modern times not only from ancient and medieval science, but also from natural philosophy of the XV-XVI centuries, which considered the concepts of "nature" and "life" as identical (this position can be called organicism).

The development of science, and above all new natural science, the assertion of its special role in the development of mankind, encourages philosophers to constantly reconcile their ideas and speculations with the data and methods adopted in exact natural science. Philosophical and methodological works are among the main works in which many of the principles of a new, anti-scholastic philosophy are formulated.

And if in the Middle Ages philosophy acted in alliance with theology, and in the Renaissance - with art and humanitarian knowledge, then in the 17th century. philosophy acts in union with the science of nature. It began to become like natural science, adopting from it the style of thinking, and principles, and methods, and ideals, and values.

20. Philosophy of F. Bacon.

The philosophical direction - empiricism (from the Greek empiria experience) claims that all knowledge arises from experience and observation. At the same time, it remains unclear how scientific theories, laws and concepts arise that cannot be obtained directly from experience and observations.

The founder of empiricism was the English philosopher Bacon (1561-1626), who was convinced that philosophy was capable of becoming a science and must become it. He considers science and knowledge as the highest value with practical significance. "Knowledge is power". "We can do as much as we know."

Bacon developed a classification of sciences. History is based on memory, poetry, literature and art in general are based on imagination. Reason is at the heart of theoretical sciences or philosophy. The main difficulty in cognizing nature is in the human mind. For Bacon, the right method is the best guide to discoveries and inventions, the shortest path to truth. There are 4 obstacles to objective knowledge of the world, idols (delusions of reason, distorting knowledge):

1. "ghosts of the genus." It is a consequence of the imperfection of the senses, which deceive, but they themselves indicate their mistakes.

2. "ghosts of the cave". It does not come from nature, but from education and conversations with others.

3. "ghosts of the market". From the characteristics of a person's social life, from false wisdom. The most difficult of all.

4. "ghosts of the theater". Associated with blind faith in authorities, false theories, philosophical teachings.

Having cleared the mind of ghosts, you need to choose a method of cognition. Bacon figuratively characterizes the methods of cognition as the paths of the spider, ant and bee. The spider deduces truths from the mind, and this leads to neglect of facts. The ant's path is narrow empiricism, the ability to collect facts, but not the ability to generalize them. The path of the bee consists in the mental processing of experimental data. The path of true knowledge is induction, i.e. movement of knowledge from the single to the general. A feature of the inductive method is analysis. The empirical philosophy of Bacon had a strong influence on the formation of experimental natural science.

21. Rationalist philosophy of R. Descartes.

Rene Descartes (1596 - 1650), a prominent French philosopher and learned mathematician, is considered the founder of rationalism. Descartes' merit before philosophy is that he:

substantiated the leading role of reason in cognition;

put forward the doctrine of substance, its attributes and modes;

put forward a theory about the scientific method of cognition and about "innate ideas."

Descartes' proof of the primacy of reason in relation to being and cognition - the main idea of ​​rationalism.

That reason is the basis of being and cognition, Descartes proved as follows:

in the world there are many things and phenomena that are incomprehensible to man (are they there? what are their properties? For example: is there God? is the universe finite?);

but absolutely in any phenomenon, any thing, one can doubt (does the surrounding world exist? does the sun shine? is the soul immortal? etc.);

therefore, doubt really exists, this fact is obvious and does not need proof;

doubt is a property of thought, which means that a person, doubting, thinks;

a really existing person can think;

therefore, thinking is the basis of both being and cognition;

since thinking is the work of reason, then only reason can lie at the basis of being and cognition.

3. The doctrine of Descartes on substance.

Studying the problem of being, Descartes tries to derive a basic, fundamental concept that would characterize the essence of being. As such, the philosopher deduces the concept of substance.

Substance is everything that exists, needing nothing for its existence except itself. Only one substance possesses such a quality (the absence of necessity for its existence in anything other than oneself), and it can only be God, who is eternal, uncreated, indestructible, omnipotent, is the source and cause of everything.

As the Creator, God created the world, also consisting of substances. Substances created by God (single things, ideas) also have the main quality of a substance - they do not need anything in their existence except themselves. Moreover, the created substances are self-sufficient only in relation to each other. In relation to the highest substance - God, they are derivative, secondary and dependent on him (since they were created by him).

Descartes divides all created substances into two types:

material things);

spiritual (ideas).

At the same time, he highlights the fundamental properties (attributes) of each kind of substances:

stretch - for material;

thinking is for the spiritual.

This means that all material substances have a common feature for all - extension (in length, in width, in height, in depth) and are divisible to infinity.

Yet spiritual substances have the property of thinking and, on the contrary, are indivisible.

The rest of the properties, both material and spiritual, are derived from their root properties (attributes) and were called modes by Descartes. (For example, the modes of extension are form, movement, position in space, etc.; modes of thinking are feelings, desires, sensations.).

A person, according to Descartes, consists of two, distinct from each other substances - material (bodily-extended) and spiritual (thinking).

Man is the only being in which both (material and spiritual) substances unite and exist, and this allowed him to rise above nature.

Descartes's scientific method is deduction.

When studying the problem of cognition, Descartes places special emphasis on the scientific method.

The essence of his idea is that the scientific method, which is used in physics, mathematics, and other sciences, has practically no application in the process of cognition, it is possible to significantly advance the cognitive process itself (according to Descartes: “to turn knowledge from handicraft into industrial production”) ...

Deduction is proposed as this scientific method (but not in a strictly mathematical sense - from general to particular, but in a philosophical one).

The meaning of Descartes's philosophical epistemological method is that in the process of cognition, rely only on absolutely reliable knowledge and with the help of reason, using completely reliable logical methods, to obtain deduction as a method, according to Descartes, the mind can achieve reliable knowledge in all spheres of knowledge.

Also Descartes, when using the rationalistic-deductive method, proposes to apply the following research techniques:

admit in the study as starting points only true, absolutely reliable, proven by reason and logic, and without any doubt knowledge;

dismember a complex problem into separate, simpler tasks;

consistently move from known and proven issues to unknown and unproven;

strictly observe the sequence, the logical chain of research, do not miss a single link in the logical chain of research.

22. Subjective idealism D. Berkeley.

The English philosopher George Berkeley (1685–1753) criticized the concepts of matter as the material basis (substance) of bodies, as well as I. Newton's theory of space as the repository of all natural bodies and J. Locke's doctrine of the origin of the concepts of matter and space.

Berkeley remarked, not without subtlety: the concept of matter is based on the assumption that we can, abstracting ourselves from the particular properties of things, form an abstract idea of ​​a substance common to all of them as a kind of substrate. However, according to Berkeley, this is impossible: we do not and cannot have a sensory perception of matter as such; our perception of each thing is decomposed without any residue into the perception of a certain amount of individual sensations or "ideas." And in fact, in this case, nothing remains of matter: it seems to dissolve in some "nebulous" uncertainty, which cannot affect anything at all. Hence Berkeley's aphoristic postulate: “To be means to be perceived”. And if, say, this birch is not perceived by anyone, why does it cease to exist !? Berkeley objected to this something like this: then it is perceived by other people or living beings in general. What if they all fell asleep and were disconnected from perception? Berkeley objected to this as follows: God, as an eternal subject, always perceives everything.

But reasoning from an atheistic standpoint leads to the following conclusion. If there is no God, then what we consider to be material objects must have an abrupt existence: having suddenly appeared at the moment of perception, they would immediately disappear as soon as they fell out of the field of vision of perceiving subjects. But, Berkeley argued, it just so happened: that thanks to the constant vigilance of God, evoking ideas in us, everything in the world (trees, rocks, crystals, etc.) exists constantly, as common sense suggests.

23. Philosophy of the French Enlightenment.

John Locke (1632 - 1704) developed many of the philosophical ideas of Bacon and Hobbes, put forward a number of his own theories, and continued the empirical and materialistic tradition of modern English philosophy.

The following basic provisions of the philosophy of J. Locke can be distinguished:

The world is materialistic;

Cognition can only be based on experience ("there is nothing in the thoughts (mind) of a person, which was not previously in the feelings");

Consciousness is an empty cabinet, which is filled with experience throughout life (in this regard, Locke's world-famous statement about consciousness as a "blank board" on which experience is written - tabula rasa);

The source of experience is the outside world;

The goal of philosophy is to help people achieve success in their activities;

The ideal of a person is a calm, law-abiding, respectable gentleman who improves his level of education and achieves good results in his profession;

The ideal of the state is a state built on the basis of the division of powers into legislative, executive (including judicial) and federal (foreign policy). Locke was the first to put forward this idea, and this is his great merit.

24. theory of knowledge and Kant

One of the greatest minds of mankind, the founder of German classical philosophy is Immanuel Kant (1724-1804). Not only in philosophy, but also in concrete science, Kant was a deep, insightful thinker.

Man, ethics and law are the main themes of Kant's philosophical teaching.

Kant believed that the solution of such problems of philosophy as the problem of the existence of man, soul, morality and religion should be preceded by the study of the possibilities of human knowledge and the establishment of its boundaries. The necessary conditions for knowledge are laid, according to Kant, in the mind itself and constitute the basis of knowledge. It is they who give knowledge the character of necessity and universality. But they are also the essence and impassable boundaries of reliable knowledge. Rejecting the dogmatic method of cognition, Kant believed that instead of it a different one should be taken as a basis - the method of critical philosophizing, consisting in the study of the methods of reason itself, in the dismemberment of the general human ability of cognition and in the study of how far its boundaries can extend. Kant distinguish between the phenomena of things perceived by a person and things as they exist by themselves. We know the world not as it really is, but only as it appears to us. Our knowledge is accessible only to the phenomena of things (phenomena) that make up the content of our experience: the world is cognized by us only in its manifest forms.

In his doctrine of cognition, Kant assigned a large place to dialectics: he regarded contradiction as a necessary moment of cognition. But dialectics for him is only an epistemological principle, it is subjective, since it reflects the contradictions not of things themselves, but only the contradictions of mental activity. Precisely because it contrasts the content of knowledge and their logical form, these forms themselves become the subject of dialectics.

In the logical aspect of the theory of knowledge, Kant introduced the idea and the term "synthetic sip of judgment", which allows for the synthesis of reason and data of sensory perception, experience.

Kant introduced imagination into the theory of knowledge, calling it the Copernican revolution in philosophy. Our knowledge is not a dead cast of things and their connections. This is a spiritual construction erected by the imagination from the material of sensory perceptions and the framework of pre-experienced (a priori) logical categories. A person uses the help of his imagination in every link of his reasoning. To his characterization of man, Kant adds: it is a creature endowed with a productive capacity for imagination.

In his theory of knowledge, Kant often considers anthropological problems as such. He distinguishes in cognition such a phenomenon of the spirit as transcendental apperception, i.e. unity of consciousness, which constitutes the condition for the possibility of all knowledge. This unity is not the result of experience, but a condition for its possibility, a form of cognition, rooted in the cognitive ability itself. Kant distinguished transcendental apperception from unity, which characterizes the empirical I and consists in referring a complex complex of states of consciousness to our I as its center, which is necessary to unite all the diversity given in experience and forming the content of all the experiences of the I. This is a brilliant idea of ​​the great thinker.

According to Kant, we know only phenomena - the world of things by themselves is inaccessible to us. When trying to comprehend the essence of things, our mind falls into contradictions.

Meticulously developing his concept of "things in themselves", Kant had in mind that in the life of an individual, in our relation to the world and to man, there are such depths of secrets, such spheres where science is powerless. According to Kant, a person lives in two worlds. On the one hand, he is part of the world of phenomena, where everything is determined, where the character of a person determines his inclinations, passions and conditions in which he acts. But on the other hand, in addition to this empirical reality, a person has a different, supersensible world of “things in themselves”, where the incidental, random, incomprehensible and unforeseen impulses from the person himself, or the confluence of circumstances, or the moral duty dictating his will are powerless.

25. Ethical teaching of I. Kant.

“At the heart of Kant's ethics, like his entire philosophy, lies the distinction between the sensible (empirical) world and the intelligible world. At the level of the empirical world, sensuality and reason act, generalizing the data of sensibility. In the intelligible world, reason operates in accordance with the general objective laws of reason, independent of the sensory empirical world. In ethical and practical aspects, this independence appears as freedom and autonomy of the mind from sensual inclinations, needs and passions. The objective laws of reason are here expressed in the form of objective laws of will or imperatives "
The central concept of Kant's ethics is imperatives and the corresponding practical formulations, prescriptions are maxims, but to identify the fundamental imperatives and maxims, Kant introduces the auxiliary concept of "the kingdom of goals", which played an exceptional role in subsequent axiology.
Schematically, the foundations of Kant's ethics can be presented in the form of two series of concepts, one of which is associated with the sensual, conditioned, accidental, the other with the rational, moral, absolute, necessary:
- sensual (empirical) world
- sensuality, reason
- dependence on inclinations and needs
- hypothetical imperatives
- subjective desires
- subjective goals corresponding to inclinations
- relative values ​​with a price, allowing an equivalent substitution
- an intelligible world
- intelligence
- freedom, autonomy
- categorical imperatives
- objective laws of reason and will
- objective goals that correspond to the universal laws of will
- absolute values ​​with dignity, which cannot
be replaced by nothing

26. Philosophy of G. Hegel.

The highest achievement of German classical philosophy was the philosophy of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831). According to Vl. Solov'ev, Hegel can be called a philosopher par excellence, because of all philosophers, philosophy was everything for him alone. For other thinkers, it is an effort to comprehend the meaning of existence, while in Hegel, on the contrary, existence itself tries to become philosophy, to turn into pure thinking. Other philosophers subordinated their speculation to an object independent of it: for some this object was God, for others it was nature. For Hegel, on the contrary, God himself was only a philosophizing mind, which only in perfect philosophy achieves its own absolute perfection. Hegel looked at nature in its innumerable empirical phenomena as a kind of "scales that the serpent of absolute dialectics throws off in its movement." Hegel developed the doctrine of the laws and categories of dialectics, for the first time in a systematized form he developed the basic principles of dialectical logic. He opposed the Kantian "thing-in-itself" dialectical principle: the essence is manifested, the phenomenon is essential. Hegel, seeing in the life of nature and man the immanent power of the absolute idea that drives the world process and reveals itself in it, argued that categories are objective forms of reality based on the "world mind", "absolute idea" or "world spirit". This is an active principle that gave impetus to the emergence and development of the world. Activity absolute idea is in thinking, the goal is in self-knowledge. In the process of self-knowledge, the mind of the world goes through three stages: the stay of a self-knowing absolute idea in its own bosom, in the element of pure thinking (logic, in which the idea reveals its content in the system of laws and categories of dialectics); the development of an idea in the form of “otherness” in the form of natural phenomena (it is not nature itself that develops, but only categories); development of ideas in thinking and in the history of mankind (history of the spirit). At this last stage, the absolute idea returns to itself and comprehends itself in the form of human consciousness and self-consciousness. Hegel died of cholera. He was already dying when his wife turned to him with a question about God. Weakened from suffering, Hegel pointed with his finger at the Bible, which was lying on the table by his bed, and said: this is where all the wisdom of God is. This position of Hegel reflects his panlogism(from the Greek pan - everything and logos - thought, word), going back to B. Spinoza and closely associated with the recognition of the existence of God. According to Hegel, "half-hearted philosophy separates from God, while true philosophy leads to God." The Spirit of God, according to Hegel, is not a spirit above the stars, outside the world, but God is present everywhere. In his writings, Hegel acts as a biographer of the world spirit. His philosophy did not pretend to foresee what this spirit will undertake in the future: its actions can be learned only after their completion. Philosophy is unable to foresee the future. The great merit of Hegel lies in the establishment in philosophy and the general consciousness of true and fruitful concepts: process, development, history... Everything is in process - there are no unconditional boundaries between different forms of being, there is nothing separate, not connected with everything. Philosophy and science have acquired genetic and comparative methods in all spheres.

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770 - 1831) - professor at the Heidelberg and then Berlin universities, was one of the most authoritative philosophers of his time both in Germany and in Europe, a prominent representative of German classical idealism.

The main merit of Hegel to philosophy lies in the fact that he advanced and developed in detail:

The theory of objective idealism (the core concept of which is the absolute idea - the World Spirit);

Dialectics as a universal philosophical method.

The most important philosophical works of Hegel include:

"Phenomenology of Spirit";

"Science of Logic";

"Philosophy of Law".

27. Marxism. Man as an active being.

It is often customary to separate:

Activity is a form of active and creative attitude to the surrounding world. The essence of this relationship is the purposeful change and transformation of the world.

Activity is divided into material and ideal, spiritual. From the point of view of the creative role of activity in social development, it is of particular importance to divide it into reproductive (aimed at obtaining an already known result by known means) and productive or creativity associated with the development of new means to achieve known goals.

Any activity includes a goal, a means, a result and the process of activity itself.

Man is a unique biological creature who, surviving in the face of constant changes in the environment, invented a social system. The social system is built "around" and "above" the biological nature of existence. In this regard, the unification of scientific knowledge about a person can occur on the basis of considering activity as a category that determines the qualitative specifics of an object.

28. Marxism. The problem of alienation.

Traditionally, it is believed that the following three points are of great importance in Marx's theory:

Surplus value doctrine,

Materialistic understanding of history (historical materialism)

The doctrine of the dictatorship of the proletariat.

It is often customary to separate:

Marxism as a philosophical doctrine (dialectical and historical materialism);

Marxism as a doctrine that influenced scientific concepts in economics, sociology, political science and other sciences;

Marxism as a political trend that affirms the inevitability of the class struggle and social revolution, as well as the leading role of the proletariat in the revolution, which will lead to the abolition of commodity production and private property, which form the basis of capitalist society and the establishment on the basis of public ownership of the means of production of a communist society aimed at a comprehensive development of each member of society;

The problem of alienation is complex and multifaceted. And the confusion associated with this problem in the socio-economic literature is not accidental. After all, the beginning of these confusions was laid by Hegel, and the source that nourishes them was the fuzzy distinction by Marx. The disclosure of the problem is also hindered by the fact that these concepts in the Russian language are covered by one term "alienation".
In our opinion, it is the clear distinction between these concepts that contributes to the correct reading of the "Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844", which, undoubtedly, is the key to solving the problem.
By the most general definition, alienation is an extreme form of a person's social regeneration, the loss of his generic essence by him.

29. Existentialism as a philosophy of crisis consciousness

For the first time, they started talking about existentialism (the philosophy of existence) at the end of the 20s of the 20th century. Many considered this direction of philosophy unpromising, but soon it grew into a major ideological movement. Conventionally, this movement is divided into two directions: atheistic (representatives - M. Heidegger in Germany, J.-P. Sartre, A. Camus in France) and religious - K. Jaspers (Germany), G. Marcel (France).

Existentialism is a philosophical expression of the deep upheavals that befell society during the crises of the 1920s and 1940s. Existentialists tried to comprehend a person in critical, crisis situations. They focused on the problem of the spiritual endurance of people thrown into an irrational, out of control stream of events.

The crisis period of history, that is, the twentieth century, is viewed by existentialists as a crisis of humanism, of reason, as an expression of a "world catastrophe". But in this confusion, the pathos of existentialism is directed against personal surrender to the "global crisis." The consciousness of a person living in the twentieth century is distinguished by apocalyptic fear, a feeling of abandonment, loneliness. The task of existentialism is to create new definitions of the subject of philosophy, its tasks and the possibilities of new postulates.

Existentialism - (from the late Lat. Exsistentia - existence), or the philosophy of existence - is the direction of modern philosophy, the main subject of study of which has become a person, his problems, the difficulties of existence in the world around him. For the first time they started talking about existentialism in the late 1920s. Many considered this direction of philosophy unpromising, but soon it grew into a major ideological movement.

Actualization and flourishing of existentialism in the 20s - 70s. XX century contributed to the following reasons:

Moral, economic and political crises that gripped humanity before the First World War, during the First and Second World Wars and between them;

The explosive growth of science and technology and the use of technological advances to the detriment of man (improvement of military equipment, machine guns, machine guns, mines, bombs, the use of toxic substances during hostilities, etc.);

The danger of the death of humanity (invention and use of nuclear weapons, an impending environmental catastrophe);

Increased cruelty, inhuman treatment of people (70 million killed in two world wars, concentration camps, labor camps);

The spread of fascist and other totalitarian regimes that completely suppress the human personality;

Powerlessness of man in front of nature by a technogenic society.

30. The problem of freedom in existentialism

Existence is a person's way of being. For the first time in this sense, the term existence is used by Kierkegaard.

Existentialism (from late Lat. Exsistentia - existence) - "philosophy of existence", one of the most fashionable philosophical trends in the middle of the 20th century, which was "the most direct expression of modernity, its lost, its hopelessness ... Existential" philosophy expresses a common sense of time: feeling decay, meaninglessness and hopelessness of everything that happens ... Existential philosophy is a philosophy of radical finitude "

Existentialism is a philosophy of man. The main theme of all works is a person, his relationship with the world, a person in his self-consciousness. The essence of the existentialist approach is as follows: the personality does not depend on the environment, while the mind, logical thinking is only a certain part of a person (not its main part).

According to existentialism, the task of philosophy is to deal not so much with the sciences in their classical rationalistic expression, as with the issues of a purely individual human existence. A person, against his will, is thrown into this world, into his own destiny and lives in a world alien to himself. His being is surrounded on all sides by some mysterious signs, symbols. What does a person live for?

What is the meaning of his life? What is the place of man in the world? What is his choice of his life path? These are really very important questions that people cannot but worry about. Existentialists proceed from a single human existence, which is characterized by a complex of negative emotions - concern, fear, consciousness of the approaching end of their being. In considering all these and other problems, representatives of existentialism expressed many deep and subtle observations and considerations.

The basis of each personality is a stream of experiences of his worldview, experiences of his own being. It is this stream of experiences that is called existence. Existence not only does not depend on the environment, it is always unique and inimitable. Hence, two conclusions:

a person is irresistibly lonely, because all his connections with other people do not give the full opportunity to express his existence. It can be expressed in his creativity, but any product of creativity is something material and alienated from its creator;

man is internally free, but this freedom is not a blessing, but a heavy burden (“We are cursed by our freedom” by J.P. Sartre), because it is associated with the burden of responsibility. Man creates himself.

There are two types of existentialism: religious and atheistic. Religious - the unity of man with God. A real person is forced to live in society, to obey its requirements and laws. But this is not real existence.

31. Philosophy of positivism and the main stages of its development

Positivism (lat. Positivus - positive) considers the issue of the relationship between philosophy and science as the main problem. The main thesis of positivism is that genuine (positive) knowledge about reality can be obtained only by specific, special sciences.

The first historical form of positivism arose in the 30-40s of the 19th century as an antithesis to traditional metaphysics in the sense of the philosophical doctrine of the principles of all that exists, of the universal principles of being, knowledge of which cannot be given in direct sensory experience. The founder of positivist philosophy is Auguste Comte (1798-1857), a French philosopher and sociologist who continued some of the traditions of the Enlightenment, expressed his belief in the ability of science to endless development, adhered to the classification of sciences developed by encyclopedists.

Kant argued that all attempts to adapt "metaphysical" problems to science are doomed to failure, because science does not need any philosophy, but must rely on itself. "New philosophy", which must decisively break with the old, metaphysical ("revolution in philosophy"), its main task must consider the generalization of scientific data obtained in private, special sciences.

The second historical form of positivism (at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries) is associated with the names of the German philosopher Richard Avenarius (1843-1896) and the Austrian physicist and philosopher Ernst Mach (1838-1916). The main trends are Machism and empirio-criticism. The Machians rejected the study of an external source of knowledge as opposed to Kant's idea of ​​"the thing-in-itself" and thereby revived the traditions of Berkeley and Hume. The main task of philosophy was seen not in the generalization of the data of particular sciences (Comte), but in the creation of a theory of scientific knowledge. Considered scientific concepts as a sign (theory of hieroglyphs) for an economical description of the elements of experience - sensations.

In 10-20 years. XX century, a third form of positivism appears - neopositivism or analytical philosophy, which has several directions.

Logical positivism or logical empiricism is represented by the names of Moritz Schlick (1882-1936), Rudolf Carnap (1891-1970) and others. The focus is on the problem of empirical meaningfulness of scientific statements. Philosophy, logical positivists assert, is neither a theory of knowledge, nor a meaningful science of any reality. Philosophy is the activity of analyzing natural and artificial languages. Logical positivism is based on the principle of verification (Latin verus - true; facere - to do), which means empirical confirmation of the theoretical positions of science by comparing them with observed objects, sensory data, experiment. Scientific statements that are not confirmed by experience, have no cognitive value, are incorrect. A statement of fact is called a protocol or protocol statement. The limitation of verification was subsequently revealed in the fact that the universal laws of science are not reducible to a set of protocol sentences. The very principle of verifiability could not be exhausted by the simple sum of any experience either. Therefore, the supporters of linguistic analysis, another influential direction of neopositivism, George Edward Moore (1873-1958) and Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889-1951), fundamentally abandoned the verification theory of meaning and some other theses.

The fourth form of positivism, post-positivism, is characterized by a departure from many of the fundamental provisions of positivism. This evolution is characteristic of the work of Karl Popper (1902-1988), who came to the conclusion that philosophical problems are not limited to the analysis of language. He saw the main task of philosophy in the problem of demarcation - the differentiation of scientific knowledge from non-scientific. The demarcation method is based on the principle of falsification, i.e. fundamental refutability of any statement related to science. If a statement, concept or theory cannot be refuted, then they do not belong to science, but to religion. The growth of scientific knowledge lies in the advancement of bold hypotheses and their refutation.

32.Features of the development of Russian philosophy and its periodization

In modern Russian philosophy, the following periods of Russian philosophy are usually distinguished

I period - The origin of philosophical thought in Russia. (XI-XVII centuries)

II period - Russian Renaissance philosophy (XVIII - early XIX centuries)

II period - Russian philosophy of the XIX - early XX century.

I period - The origin of philosophical thought in Russia. (XI-XVII centuries) XI-XVII centuries during this period is characterized by ethical philosophy. Philosophical moral teachings. Philosophy of Unity. Philosophy reflects the connection between secular and spiritual life.

II period - Formation of Russian philosophy (XVIII - early XIX centuries) XVIII - mid XIX centuries. This period is characterized by attempts to borrow from Western philosophy and at the same time the emergence of the natures of philosophy (philosophy of nature) in the person of Lomonosov

III period - Russian philosophy of the 19th - early 20th centuries: Mid-19th and first decades of the 20th centuries. This period is characterized by the highest development of Russian philosophy ("golden age").

Period IV - Philosophy in the Soviet period of history (1917 - 1991).

After 1917, Russian philosophy was heavily burdened by completely different, in many ways unnatural and violent social conditions of its development. If a cruel ideological oppression was established in the USSR, accompanied by direct terror against dissent, then under the conditions of emigration, Russian philosophy could not but be affected by its isolation from Russian reality and from the Russian people who found itself behind the "iron curtain".

1. The first and main feature of Russian philosophy is PREVIOUSLY RELIGIOUS, AND THE CHARACTER IS RELIGIOUS-MYSTICAL, RELIGIOUS-SYMBOLIC ITS CHARACTER, i.e. LONG DOMINATION IN IT OF RELIGIOUS FORMS OF CONSCIOUSNESS, CONSTANT SEARCH OF SENSE AND SIGNIFICANCE OF CHRISTIAN IDEAS FOR INDIVIDUAL PERSON, SOCIETY AND CULTURE. The second characteristic feature of Russian philosophy: EXTREME DUALISM, ANTINOMISM (antinomy is a contradiction between two mutually exclusive provisions, equally convincingly provable by a logical way) IN THE UNDERSTANDING OF THE WORLD, HUMAN AND HISTORY as a consequence of the third confrontation between pagan and Christian origins, which is insurmountable to the end. philosophy it is necessary to note the SPECIFICITY OF THE STYLE OF PHILOSOPHY. in Western philosophy since the 17th century. the purely rationalistic, "scientific" method of presentation became dominant, reaching its apotheosis among the representatives of German classical philosophy. In Russian philosophy, the rationalist method has never been the main one; moreover, for many thinkers it seemed false, making it impossible to get to the essence of the main philosophical problems. Another, fourth, feature of Russian philosophy follows from the third: it was a PHILOSOPHY OF LIFE in the full sense of the word. Philosophy, detached from life and closed in speculative constructions, in Russia could not count on success. Therefore, it was in Russia - earlier than anywhere else - that it consciously submitted to the solution of the urgent problems facing society.

33. Philosophy of Russian cosmism.

Russian cosmism is a course of Russian religious and philosophical thought based on a holistic worldview, which presupposes a teleologically determined evolution of the Universe. It is characterized by an awareness of universal interdependence, all-unity; the search for a person's place in Space, the relationship between cosmic and earthly processes; recognition of the proportionality of the microcosm (man) and the macrocosm (the Universe) and the need to measure human activity with the principles of the integrity of this world. Includes elements of science, philosophy, religion, art, as well as pseudoscience, occultism and esotericism. This trend is described in a significant number of Russian publications on anthropocosmism, sociocosmism, biocosmism, astrocosmism, sophiocosmism, photocosmism, cosmoaesthetics, cosmoecology and other related topics, but has practically no noticeable influence in Western countries.

Interest in the teachings of cosmists developed in the USSR in connection with the development of astronautics, the actualization of social and environmental problems. The term "Russian cosmism" as a characteristic of the national tradition of thought emerged in the 1970s, although the expressions "cosmic thinking", "cosmic consciousness", "cosmic history" and "cosmic philosophy" (fr. philosophie cosmique) met in the occult and mystical literature of the 19th century (Karl Duprel, Max Theon, Helena Blavatsky, Annie Besant, Peter Uspensky), as well as in evolutionary philosophy. The term "cosmic philosophy" was used by Konstantin Tsiolkovsky. In the 1980s and 1990s, a narrow understanding of Russian cosmism as a natural science school initially prevailed in Russian literature (Nikolai Fedorov, Nikolai Umov, Nikolai Kholodny, Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, Vladimir Vernadsky, Alexander Chizhevsky and others). However, subsequently, a broad interpretation of Russian cosmism as a socio-cultural phenomenon begins to acquire more and more importance, including the specified "narrow" understanding as a particular case, along with other areas of domestic cosmism, such as religious-philosophical, poetical-artistic, aesthetic, musical-mystical, existential-eschatological, projective and others. At the same time, researchers note the diversity and conventionality of classifications of this phenomenon for two reasons: all "cosmists" were gifted with talents in various spheres of culture, and were original thinkers who created fairly independent systems requiring individual analysis.

Some philosophers find consonance of the main principles of the philosophy of cosmism with many fundamental ideas of the modern scientific picture of the world and their positive potential for the development of a new metaphysics as a philosophical foundation for a new stage in the development of science. Supporters see the relevance of the ideas of cosmism in resolving the challenges of our time, such as the problems of finding moral guidelines, uniting mankind in the face of an environmental crisis, overcoming the crisis phenomena of culture. The adherents consider cosmism to be the original fruit of the Russian mind, an essential part of the "Russian idea", the specific national character of which is supposed to be rooted in the unique Russian archetype of "all-unity".

On the other hand, Russian cosmism is closely related to pseudoscientific, occult and esoteric currents of philosophical thought and is recognized by some researchers as a speculative concept formulated in very vague terms.

34. Anthroposociogenesis problems. Biological and social in man.

Axiology studies issues related to the nature of values, their place in reality and the structure of the value world, that is, about the relationship of various values ​​with each other, with social and cultural factors and the structure of the personality. For the first time, the question of values ​​was posed by Socrates, who made it the central point of his philosophy and formulated it in the form of the question of what is good. The good is the realized value-utility [ ]. That is, value and benefit are two sides of the same coin. In ancient and medieval philosophy, the question of values ​​was directly included in the structure of the question of being: the fullness of being was understood as an absolute value for a person, simultaneously expressing ethical and aesthetic ideals. In Plato's concept, the One or Good was identical to Being, Good and Beauty. The entire platonic branch of philosophy, up to Hegel and Croce, adheres to the same ontological and holistic interpretation of the nature of values. Accordingly, axiology as a special section of philosophical knowledge arises when the concept of being is split into two elements: reality and value as the possibility of practical implementation. The task of axiology in this case is to show the possibilities of practical reason in the general structure of being.

Naturalistic psychology

Represented by names such as Meinong, Perry, Dewey, Lewis. This theory boils down to the fact that the source of values ​​lies in the biopsychologically interpreted human needs, and the values ​​themselves can be empirically fixed as some facts.

Transcendentalism

It was developed in the Baden school of neo-Kantianism (Windelband, Rickert) and is associated with the concept of value as an ideal being, correlated not with empirical, but with “pure”, or transcendental, consciousness. While ideal, values ​​are independent of human needs and desires. However, values ​​must somehow correlate with reality. Therefore, we must either idealize empirical consciousness, ascribing normativity to it, or develop the idea of ​​"logos", some superhuman essence on which values ​​are based.

Personalistic ontologism

Philosophy of science has the status of historical sociocultural knowledge, regardless of whether it is focused on the study of natural science or social and humanitarian sciences. The philosopher of science is interested in scientific research, the "discovery algorithm", the dynamics of the development of scientific knowledge, methods of research activities. (It should be noted that although the philosophy of science is interested in the rational development of sciences, it is nevertheless not called upon to directly ensure their rational development, as diversified metascience is called upon.) If the main goal of science is to obtain truth, then the philosophy of science is one of the most important areas for mankind the use of his intellect, within the framework of which the issue is discussed "How is it possible to attain the truth?".

41. Methods and forms of scientific knowledge

Scientific knowledge is the most objective way of discovering something new. In this article we will consider the methods and forms of scientific knowledge, we will try to understand the essence of the question of how they differ.

There are two levels of scientific knowledge: empirical and theoretical. And in this regard, the following forms of scientific knowledge in philosophy are distinguished: scientific fact, problem, hypothesis and theory. Let's pay a little attention to each of them.

A scientific fact is an elementary form that can be considered as scientific knowledge, but about one separately taken phenomenon. Not all research results can be recognized as facts if they are not obtained as a result of studying them in interaction with other phenomena and have not undergone special statistical processing.

The problem exists in the form of knowledge, in which, along with the known, there is what needs to be known. It consists of two points: firstly, the problem must be established, and secondly, it must be solved. The sought-after and the known in the problem are closely related. In order to solve the problem, you need to make not only physical and mental, but also material efforts. Therefore, some of the problems remain unrecognized for a very long time.

To solve the problem, a hypothesis is put forward, which testifies to the scientist's knowledge of the laws that can help a particular problem. The hypothesis must be substantiated, that is, meet the conditions of verifiability, compatibility with the actual material, the possibility of comparison with other objects under study. The truth of the hypothesis is proved in practice. After the truth of the hypothesis has been tested, it takes the form of a theory, which completes the stages of development that modern methods and forms of scientific knowledge have reached.

And the highest form of scientific knowledge is theory. This is a model of scientific knowledge that gives a general idea of ​​the laws of the studied area. Logical laws follow from theory and are subject to its main provisions. Theory explains, systematizes and predicts and determines the methodology of scientific knowledge, its integrity, validity and reliability.

The forms of scientific knowledge in philosophy are also determined by the basic methods of scientific knowledge. Scientific knowledge is formed as a result of observation and experimentation. Experiment as a method of scientific knowledge emerged in the 17th century. Until that time, researchers relied more on everyday practice, common sense, and observation. The conditions for experimental scientific knowledge developed with the development of technology and the emergence of new mechanisms as a result of the industrial revolution that took place at that time. The activity of scientists at this time is increasing due to the fact that the experiment made it possible to subject the object under study to special influences, placing it in isolated conditions.

However, considering the methods and forms of scientific knowledge, the importance of observation should not be underestimated. It is this that opens the way to conducting an experiment. Let us remember, for example, how W. Gilber, rubbing amber with wool, discovered the existence of static electricity. It was one of the simplest experiments in external observation. And later the Dane H. Oersted conducted a real experiment, using a galvanic device.

Modern methods and forms of scientific knowledge have become much more complicated and are on the verge of a technical miracle. The dimensions of the experimental equipment are enormous and massive. The amount invested in their creation is also impressive. Therefore, scientists often save money by replacing the basic methods of scientific knowledge with the method of thought experiment and scientific modeling. An example of such models is an ideal gas, where the absence of collisions of molecules is assumed. Mathematical modeling is also widely used as an analogue of reality.

42. Scientific pictures of the world (classical, non-classical, post-non-classical).

A wide panorama of knowledge about nature is associated with the scientific picture of the world, which includes the most important theories, hypotheses and facts. The structure of the scientific picture of the world offers a central theoretical core, fundamental assumptions and particular theoretical models, which are constantly being completed. The central theoretical core is relatively stable and retains its existence for a fairly long time. It is a set of concrete scientific and ontological constants that remain unchanged in all scientific theories. When it comes to physical reality, the superstable elements of any picture of the world include the principles of conservation of energy, constant growth of entropy, fundamental physical constants that characterize the basic properties of the universe: space, time, matter, field, motion.
Fundamental assumptions are specific and are taken as conditionally irrefutable. These include a set of theoretical postulates, ideas about the ways of interaction and organization in a system, about the genesis and laws of development of the universe. In the event of a collision of the existing picture of the world with counterexamples or anomalies for the preservation of the central theoretical core and
fundamental assumptions, a number of additional specific scientific models and hypotheses are formed. It is they who can modify, adapting to anomalies.
The scientific picture of the world is not just a sum or a set of separate knowledge, but the result of their mutual agreement and organization into a new integrity, i.e. into the system. Associated with this is such a characteristic of the scientific picture of the world as its consistency. The purpose of the scientific picture of the world as a set of information is to ensure the synthesis of knowledge. This implies its integrative function.
The scientific picture of the world is paradigmatic in nature, since it sets a system of attitudes and principles for mastering the universe. By imposing certain restrictions on the nature of the assumptions of "reasonable" new hypotheses, the scientific picture of the world, thereby guides the movement of thought. Its content determines the way of seeing the world, since it influences the formation of socio-cultural, ethical, methodological and logical norms of scientific research. Therefore, we can talk about the normative, as well as the psychological functions of the scientific picture of the world, which creates a general theoretical background for research and coordinates the guidelines for scientific research.
The evolution of the modern scientific picture of the world presupposes a movement from the classical to the non-classical and post-non-classical picture of the world (which has already been discussed). European science started with the adoption of the classical scientific picture of the world, which was based on the achievements of Galileo and Newton, dominated for a fairly long period - until the end of the last century. She claimed the privilege of possessing true knowledge. It corresponds to a graphic image of progressively directed linear development with rigidly unambiguous determination. The past defines the present in the same way as the present defines the future. All states of the world, from the infinitely distant past to the very distant future, can be calculated and predicted. The classical picture of the world carried out the description of objects as if they existed by themselves in a strictly specified coordinate system. It clearly adhered to an orientation toward "ontos", ie. what is in its fragmentation and isolation. The main condition was the requirement for the elimination of everything that related either to the subject of knowledge, or to disturbing factors and hindrances.

43. Subject and object of cognition. Human cognitive abilities.

Any activity as a specifically human form of a person's active relationship to the world is an interaction of a subject and an object. A subject is a bearer of material and spiritual activity, a source of activity aimed at an object. The object is that which opposes the subject, to which his activity is directed. Unlike objective reality, an object is only that part of it that is included in the activity of the subject.

In the process of development of social relations, cognitive activity is separated from material, practical activity, acquires relative independence; the relation "subject - object" acts as a relation between the subject and the object of cognition.

The subject of cognition is a carrier of cognitive activity, a source of activity aimed at an object. The object of cognition is what the cognitive activity of the subject of cognition is directed to. For example, the planet Neptune, which has existed as an objective reality since the emergence of the solar system, becomes an object of cognition only after its discovery (1846): its distance from the Sun, its orbital period, equatorial diameter, mass, distance from the Earth, and other characteristics were established.

In different philosophical teachings, the subject and the object of cognition are interpreted in different ways. In the materialism of the 17th-18th centuries. the object was considered as something that exists independently of the subject, and the subject - as an individual, passively perceiving the object. This position is characterized by contemplation. In idealistic systems, the subject acted as an active, creative need, the subject was understood either as an individual consciousness that creates an object in the form of combinations (complexes) of sensations (the teachings of Berkeley, Hume, empirio-criticism), or a non-human subject - God, the world mind, creating and cognizing reality. In Hegel's system, for example, the initial position of which is the identity of thinking and being, the absolute idea (objective thinking) turns out to be both the subject and the object of cognition.

Knowledge is not the result of the activity of an individual subject isolated from society; it is impossible without knowledge that has become public domain. But on the other hand, cognition is impossible without a subject, and this subject is, first of all, a person, an individual with the ability to cognize, endowed with consciousness and will, armed with skills and knowledge expressed in concepts, categories, theories, fixed in the language and transmitted from generation to generation. generation (Popper's third world). The epistemological subject has a social nature, it is a social person who has mastered the achievements of material and spiritual culture, and in this broader sense, the subject of cognition can be considered as a collective, social group, society as a whole. As a universal epistemological subject, society unites subjects of all levels, all generations. But it realizes cognition only through the cognitive activity of individual subjects.

Usually, two stages of cognition are distinguished: sensory and mental - although they are inextricably linked
Sensory cognition:
- based on human cognitive abilities associated with the senses. The word "sensual" is ambiguous, it is associated not only with sensation, but also with feeling, as a manifestation of emotions.
Sensory cognition is a form of cognition associated with the comprehension of sensory data, but not reducible to them. The human senses can hardly be considered the most developed. There are four stages of sensory cognition: initial impression (living contemplation), sensation, perception, presentation.
The first meeting of a person with the phenomena of the surrounding world - allows him to get a holistic, undifferentiated initial impression of the object of interest. This impression may persist, but it may undergo change, refinement, and subsequent differentiation into elementary sensations.

44. Truth and delusion. Reliability of knowledge. Truth criteria.

Truth is usually defined as the correspondence of knowledge to an object. Truth is adequate information about an object, obtained through either sensory or intellectual comprehension, or a message about it and characterized in terms of its reliability. Thus, truth exists as a subjective reality in its informational and value aspects.

The value of knowledge is determined by the measure of its truth. Truth is a property of knowledge, not an object of knowledge.

Truth is defined as an adequate reflection of an object by a cognizing subject, reproducing reality as it is in itself, outside and independently of consciousness. Truth is an adequate reflection of reality in the dynamics of its development.

But humanity rarely reaches the truth except through extremes and delusions. Delusion is the content of consciousness that does not correspond to reality, but is taken as true. Delusions also reflect objective reality and have a real source. Misconceptions are also caused by the relative freedom of choice of ways of cognition, the complexity of the problems to be solved, the desire to implement ideas in a situation of incomplete information.

But delusions should be distinguished from lies as a moral and psychological phenomenon. Lying is a distortion of the actual state of affairs, with the goal of deceiving someone. A lie can be either an invention about what was not, or a conscious concealment of what was.

Logically incorrect thinking can also be a source of lies.

Scientific knowledge is inherently impossible without a clash of different opinions, beliefs, just as it is impossible without errors. Errors are often made in the course of observation, measurement, calculations, judgments, assessments.

Everything is much more complicated in the social sciences, in particular in history. Here is the availability of sources, and their reliability, and politics.

Truth is historical. The concept of ultimate or unchanging truth is just a phantom.

Any object of knowledge is inexhaustible, it changes, has many properties and is connected by an infinite number of connections with the surrounding world. Each stage of cognition is limited by the level of development of society and science. Scientific knowledge is therefore relative. The relativity of knowledge lies in their incompleteness and probabilistic nature. Truth is therefore relative, because it does not reflect the object completely, not in an exhaustive way. Relative truth is limited-correct knowledge about something.

Absolute truths include reliably established facts, dates of events, births, deaths, etc. Absolute truth is such a content of knowledge that is not refuted by the subsequent development of science, but is enriched and constantly confirmed by life.

Concreteness is a property of truth based on knowledge of real connections, the interaction of all sides of an object, the main, essential properties, tendencies of its development. So the truth or falsity of certain judgments cannot be established if the conditions of the place, time in which they are formulated are not known.

The criterion of truth is practice. It is in practice that a person must prove the truth, i.e. the reality of your thinking. One of the principles of thinking says: a certain position is true if it is possible to prove whether it is applicable in a particular situation. This principle is expressed in the term realizability. Through the implementation of the idea in practical action, knowledge is measured, compared with its object, thereby revealing the real measure of objectivity, the truth of its content.

But we must not forget that practice cannot fully confirm or refute any idea, knowledge. "Atom is indivisible" - so it was believed for many centuries and practice has confirmed this. The practice is silent about what is beyond its historically limited scope. However, it is constantly developing and improving. In the process of developing true knowledge, increasing its volume, science and practice increasingly appear in indivisible unity.

45. Global problems. Classification of global problems. Prospects for the future.

Global problems of our time is a set of socio-natural problems, on the solution of which the social progress of mankind and the preservation of civilization depend. These problems are characterized by dynamism, arise as an objective factor in the development of society, and for their solution require the combined efforts of all mankind. Global problems are interconnected, cover all aspects of human life and affect all countries of the world.

The emergence of global problems, the increasing danger of their consequences pose new challenges for science in forecasting and the way to solve them. Global problems are a complex and interconnected system that affects society as a whole, man and nature, therefore, requires constant philosophical reflection.

The global problems, first of all, include:

prevention of a world thermonuclear war, the creation of a non-violent world that provides peaceful conditions for the social progress of all peoples; overcoming the growing gap in the level of economic and cultural development between countries, eliminating economic backwardness throughout the world; ensuring the further economic development of mankind with the necessary natural resources (food, raw materials, energy sources); overcoming the ecological crisis caused by human invasion of the biosphere: cessation of rapid population growth (population growth in developing countries, falling birth rates in developed countries); timely foresight and prevention of various negative consequences of scientific and technological revolution and rational effective use of its achievements for the benefit of society and the individual.

Philosophical understanding of global problems is the study of processes and phenomena associated with the problems of the planetary civilization, the world-historical process. Philosophy analyzes the reasons that led to the emergence or exacerbation of global problems, studies their social danger and conditionality.

In modern philosophy, the main approaches to understanding global problems have developed:

all problems can become global; the number of global problems must be limited to the number of pressing and most dangerous (war prevention, ecology, population); precise definition of the causes of global problems, their symptoms, content and methods of the fastest resolution.

Global problems have common features: they affect the future and interests of all mankind, their solution requires the efforts of all mankind, they require urgent resolution, being in a complex relationship with each other.

Global problems are, on the one hand, natural and natural, on the other, social. In this regard, they can be considered as an influence or a result of human activity that had a negative impact on nature. The second variant of the emergence of global problems is a crisis in relations between people, which affects the entire range of relationships between members of the world community.

46. Basic concepts and problems of philosophical ontology.

The German philosopher Hegel, called being "lean abstraction", meaning the fact that pure being (being as such) is an absolutely meaningless, and therefore useless concept. Nothing can be asserted about such being, except that it is, i.e. only its tautology can be produced. Taken by itself, i.e. outside of relation to anything, it is nothing. However, with his help, it was convenient for Hegel to build a logic describing the development from naked and abstract representations to concrete and experience-enriched knowledge. The initially empty, abstract and unmanifest essence of being unfolds itself in a system of concepts. Developing this idea, Heidegger notes that for all its emptiness, the category of being is a source of enormous semantic wealth. However, this wealth will manifest itself only if we are able to differentiate the initially undivided, outwardly self-comprehensible, but in fact hidden meaning of being. Simply put, the meaning of being, like a diamond, plays on the brink of differences. Armed with this thought, we will try to grasp this meaning in the faceting of ontological categories. Being and non-being (nothing). "Why is there something and not nothing" as the main question of philosophy. The question of the reality of non-being and nothing in the history of philosophy (from Parmenides to Sartre). Ontological status is nothing in the light of the concepts of absolute and relative being. The value of experience Nothing in the development of an ontological problem. Being and being. The concept of "basic ontological difference" and its meaning for ontology. Being as a "skinny abstraction" (Hegel) and as a hidden wealth of meaning (Heidegger). The difference between ontic and ontological analysis. Being and time. Development of ideas about time in the history of philosophy. Time as "a kind of being of moving objects" (Aristotle). Time as the reality of consciousness (Augustine). Substantialist interpretation of time. Time as an objective property of nature and as an a priori form of cognition of the subject (Kant). The time of human existence. Being and becoming. The motives of the constancy and variability of existence in the history of philosophy (from Heraclitus to Hegel). Contradiction in the object or in the judgment ?: dialectics and metaphysics about the nature of becoming. The idea of ​​development and the laws of dialectics. Progress and regression in developing systems. Being material and spiritual. The idea of ​​the material and ideal structures of existence in the history of philosophy. The philosophy of fusion and contemplative materialism of the ancient Greeks. Matter as the atom of Democritus and Plato's eidos. Being is real and possible. Matter and form. Matter as negative (Plato) and positive (Aristotle) ​​the possibility of existence. Theological nature of the opposition of spirit and matter in the Middle Ages. Mathematization of nature and hylozoism of modern times. The question of the primary or secondary nature of spirit and matter and its philosophical meaning. Freedom and necessity. Providence and voluntarism in relation to freedom. Determinism and its varieties. Freedom as a “realized necessity” (Hegel) and as a negation of necessity (Berdyaev). Freedom as a manifestation of the negative nature of man (Sartre). Freedom and responsibility. Necessity and action. Types of determinations: purpose, desires, actions. Freedom and necessity in the context of creativity. The problem is the thing. The problem of a thing as an ontological and epistemological problem. I. Kant about "things in themselves" and phenomena. The concept as the reality of a thing (Hegel). "Leaving" things and calling phenomenology "back to the things themselves." Thing as an existential problem (M. Heidegger). Things in the "postav" structure and the problem of overcoming the subject-object paradigm of interpreting things. J. Baudrillard on the "pornography of things." The materiality of a thing and the objectivity of a thing. Thing as an event of man and the world.

The types of worldview have changed along with human evolution and the formation of moral, ethical and cultural values. Epochs replace one another, some views of the world remain unchanged, and continue to influence human society, others disappear without a trace.

Worldview, its structure and historical types

Worldview is a set of general and personal views, attitudes of people towards the world and interaction with it. The types of human worldview in one and the same person may have different properties. The structure of the worldview consists of individual elements and connections between them. Structure levels:

• everyday or ordinary - is present in every person, helps to see the world emotionally colored;
• rational-theoretical - an intellectual, narrowly focused level of worldview, characteristic of certain specialties, scientific fields with their theories, concepts.

Elements of the worldview:

• ideals;
• beliefs;
• values ​​prevailing in society;
• knowledge.

The so-called triad of established types of worldview from ancient times deserves attention, without understanding which it is impossible to fully understand how a person's worldview is formed, what it relies on. Historical types of worldview, their features:

1. Mythological - the oldest type of worldview associated with the forces of nature and reverence for them, worship in the form of a host of gods.
2. Religious - people already have a source of knowledge, Holy Scripture with its dogmas, prescriptions, monotheism is formed and, along with this, spirituality.
3. Philosophical - reliance on intellect, free-thinking and an incessant search for truth, substantiation of views of the world, backing them up with logical arguments, argumentation, the work of reason.

The main types of worldview

Historically established types of worldview: mythological, religious and philosophical are present in the views of the world and among modern people to a greater or lesser extent. What types of worldview exist in each specific form can be learned from special religious and philosophical sources, and reading ancient myths can bring you closer to understanding the processes that occur with a person when interacting with a frightening and large world.

Types of worldview in philosophy

The classification of types of worldview in philosophy is reduced to reflexive ways of knowing the world, which include:

1. Universalism is a form of cognition of being based on universal laws of wisdom and universal principles of moral and spiritual values.
2. Substantialism - all philosophers strive to explain the world order, relying on a single stable beginning.

The philosophical worldview is built on doubts, which are the subject of reflection. A philosopher, in search of truth, criticizes customs, everyday phenomena, traditional values ​​and moral norms. Everything that passes the test of time and forms an evidence base is put by philosophers on a solid foundation of knowledge, the rest is discarded as obsolete and exhausted.

Mythological type of worldview

Mythology as a type of worldview is saturated with emotional experiences and images. For primitive man, myth is an integral part of thinking and attitude to life, it is a material created reality, everything can be described with the help of myth. For ancient people, mythological thinking was akin to science and answered many life questions:

• what are natural phenomena;
• what a person can achieve with the help of a certain activity;
• how to fight evil;
• and evil;
• how everything that is happened: deities, space, planets, animals, people;
• what is life, death.

Religious type of worldview

Considering the types and types of worldviews, it is important to see in each the values ​​that they carry in themselves. Religion has brought new meanings of existence and goals into human life. God as the supreme authority unites people. The religious worldview divides the world into earthly existence during life and the supernatural - after death, the soul goes to a place corresponding to its merits in heaven or hell. Religious consciousness is based on faith, which does not need scientific evidence. For a believer, mystical, ecstatic experiences are proof of the existence of God.

Science as a type of worldview

The types of worldview would not be complete without the inclusion of the scientific, which begins to dominate since the 18th century. What types of worldview has science distinguished since this time? All the same historically formed triad: mythological, philosophical and religious. Historians and archaeologists have many scientific substantiations and facts about why and how this or that worldview was formed. The formation of scientific views of the world was facilitated by the methods of cognition:

• empirical;
• theoretical;
• rational;
• analysis and synthesis;
• combinations of theoretical and practical methods;
• induction;
• deduction.

Types of worldview - pros and cons

The types of worldview for each person can have a different ratio and from this the picture of the world looks individual, although it has common features for the majority. You can believe in God and at the same time be an excellent scientist based on real facts, or you can combine both mythological and religious consciousness and at the same time be very harmonious in this. What type of worldview is the most correct - there is no correct answer to this question. Types of worldview strengths and weaknesses:

1. Mythological worldview - provides a connection between generations, allows you to creatively and creatively look at the world, see powerful manifestations of nature in it, but in itself it is spontaneous and irrational and distorted.
2. Religious - similar to mythological in terms of an illusory perception of the world, but allows a person to adhere to social and moral norms, generally accepted values, and promotes cohesion.
3. Philosophical - combines an irrational view of the world with a scientific one and complements the mythological and religious.
4. Scientific worldview - explains the world with the help of theories, facts, what was previously considered from the category of miracles gets its scientific justification, but not everything lends itself to logic and reason.

What types of worldview are prevalent in modern society?

The types and types of worldview of a modern person are undergoing changes - the age of digital technologies, permissiveness and accessibility of what was previously prohibited and condemned - today is the norm of life. The crisis of spirituality and the loss of values ​​have greatly affected the worldview of people, representatives of various confessions never tire of talking about this, whether this is really so - time will tell.