General characteristics of the musical culture of the revival. Music of the High Renaissance Era Features of the Musical Culture of the Renaissance

abstract on the academic discipline "Culturology"

on the theme: "Music of the Renaissance".

Plan

1. Introduction.

2. Renaissance tools.

3. Schools and composers of the Renaissance.

5. Conclusion.

6. References.

1. Introduction.

The musical art of the Renaissance is, above all, an innovative art. First of all, this innovative character is determined by the breakthrough of secular song and dance culture. In each country, song and dance genres were based on folk origins. Be it the Spanish Villancica, the English ballad, the Italian frottola, the French chanson or the German lead - all of them were aimed at conveying the complex inner world of the human person, to tell people about the joys of life. In these songs you can feel all the specifics of the feeling of the Renaissance man.

The madrigal, a song sung in Italian, became a triumph of secular musical culture. It was the language that emphasized the departure of this genre from church music, which was performed in Latin. The evolution of the madrigal is an interesting process, which from the semblance of a simple shepherd's song turned into a full-fledged piece of music, both vocal and instrumental lines were present in it. Special attention should be paid to the text to the madrigals, the authors of which were outstanding poets of the Renaissance, including F. Petrarch. There was no musically developed country in Europe where madrigals were not written.

The second feature of the specificity of the musical culture of this period can be called the flourishing of polyphony. The composers who wrote polyphonic works contributed to the evolution of the largest Renaissance genre - the Mass. The result of this progress was the Mass, which has a strictly thought out cyclical form. The change of parts in the mass was influenced by the church calendar: the mass had an obligatory spiritual meaning associated with this or that event. But whatever the church calendar was, the Mass consisted of the obligatory parts.

The third feature is the perceptibly increased importance of instrumental music, despite the fact that the dominant role belonged to the vocal genres. Now instrumental music has become professional and had a certain focus on a particular instrument (group of instruments). Composers wrote compositions for the lute, keyboards, viola and its varieties.

The fourth feature is the emergence and establishment of national schools of composition. Each of them had its own specifics, nominated a number of outstanding representatives, had unique features associated with the folk musical art of the country.

The fifth feature is the rapid evolution of music theory. Scientists strove to develop concepts and laws of the most important musical elements - melody, harmony, polyphony. So, the Renaissance, being a turning point in the development of European culture, turned out to be a time of radical changes for music as well.

2. Renaissance tools.

The development of genres during the Renaissance also contributed to the expansion of the toolkit. In large European countries - Italy, Holland, England, Spain, France, workshops for the production of musical instruments were hastily opened, and things were going very well for them.

The organ has long been the king of musical instruments, and has dominated both the concert and the spiritual realm. But over time, the situation began to change, and string and stringed plucked instruments came to the fore. These are the viola (the progenitor of the modern violin and viola) and the lute, an instrument borrowed from Muslim culture. A record number of compositions were written for these instruments. The lute was an excellent accompaniment instrument for vocal performance.

Other instruments were also popular. Among the woodwind instruments were the bombarda and the shalme. Bombarda is a bass instrument that anticipated the modern bassoon. It is characterized by a rough timbre that does not favor artistic expression (unlike the bassoon).

Shalmey was distinguished by an extremely loud sound and a very wide range, which the bombard could not boast of. It was impossible to imagine ceremonial events or dances without the shalme. In the subsequent Baroque era, the shalme was forgotten for a long time.

The group of stringed instruments, in addition to the aforementioned viola, included: viola da gamba, viola da braccio and other varieties of this instrument.

Playing viola da gamba meant support with the legs, hence its name (it. Gamba - leg). Many composers of the Renaissance wrote their works with the expectation of it as a solo instrument. Accordingly, the viola da braccio is an instrument that is held in the hands. Both viols were widely used both as solo instruments and as instruments participating in ensembles and orchestras.

Keyboards were widespread: the harpsichord (also applies to strings), the clavichord, the spinet (also belongs to the group of keyboard strings), and the virginel.

The harpsichord has a very pleasant and specific timbre, but its significant drawback is the impossibility of dynamically changing the sound. This instrument turned out to be more realized in the Baroque era than in the Renaissance era.

The spinet is a type of harpsichord. His homeland, like many other musical instruments, is Italy. This instrument was more a home instrument than a concert one. Many rich ladies had a spinet at home and sang to its accompaniment, or played music on it.

Belongs to a variety of harpsichord and virginel. The name of this instrument contains the key to its sound characteristics. Derived from lat. Virginia (Virgo), the name hinted at its pure and angelic sound.

The clavichord, being one of the oldest musical instruments in the history of music, also functioned during the Renaissance. The main feature of the clavichord is the ability to extract vibrato on it. The clavichord was held in high esteem by both professional musicians and amateurs. Music played on keyboard instruments was called clavier, and the British made a great contribution to its development.

Thus, the range of instruments was quite rich and diverse, which spoke of the full-fledged genre development of music and composer's art. It should also be noted that each instrument had its own virtuoso performers.

3. Schools and composers of the Renaissance.

There were several major composing schools of the Renaissance, which were formed in the most developed countries. There are six main schools: Italian, Dutch, English, French, German and Spanish. The Netherlands school was in the lead among them. It is notable for the fact that it has developed a system of professional musical education. Future composers were taught in metrizas - schools at Catholic churches. Dutch music owes much to metrizes, as graduates of these institutions have become outstanding composers.

The composers of this school gravitated towards a number of genres. First of all, this is a mass (polyphonic multipart), songs and motets. Polyphonic songs were preferred. Motets were composed for ensembles. They also turned to such genres as chanson and madrigal - a kind of symbol of the victory of secular music over spiritual.

The merit of the Netherlands School is the generalization of the musical heritage related to polyphonic choral singing. In addition, the classical genres mentioned above were developed and established here, the laws of polyphony were established.

The Dutch school can be proud of many composers. Among them J. Okegem, G. Dufay, J. Despres, J. Obrecht, J.P. Swelling and others. Each of them not only wrote great music, but also contributed to the development of the theory of musical art. G. Dufay laid the foundation for national polyphony; J. Obrecht enriched music with folk melodies; NS. Swelling created a school of organ playing.

The Italian school was also rightly considered to be very strong and at the same time multifaceted, because consisted of a number of national schools, among which two stand out: Roman and Venetian.

The head of the Roman school was J.P. Palestrina, who served in the Sistine Chapel. His work determined the spiritual direction of the music he wrote. Mass turns out to be the main genre he addresses. However, he composed works in other common genres of that time. J.P. Palestrina was able to defend polyphony in church music, which they wanted to abandon, wanting to replace it with unison singing (Gregorian chant). Other outstanding composers of this school were F. Anerio, G. Jannacconi and others. The Roman school was focused on instrumental church music.

The Venetian school was formed thanks to the activities of A. Villart, a Dutch composer. It also included such composers as C. Monteverdi, C. Merulo, G. Bassano. These and other representatives were willingly engaged not only in instrumental, but also in vocal music. Prone to experimentation, they created a new musical style - concertato. The school of composing in Venice paved the way for the most important stage in music - the Baroque.

The English school of composers was based on vocal polyphony, to which the musical traditions of the country disposed. England became the first country where bachelors of arts emerged. During the Renaissance, a number of composers began to oppose secular musical art to church vocal art. One of the most beloved composing genres was madrigal. Note that the art of music developed in Renaissance England is not as diverse and bright as in other European countries.

The French school is one of the most peculiar. Here the art of song developed according to its own laws and received the name "chanson". Of course, it cannot be interpreted in the modern sense. Then it was a polyphonic work, not related to the church and biblical themes. But even then, in the chanson, a connection with folk music and dance rhythms was palpable.

The composer K. Zhaneken showed himself especially brightly in this genre, having written a large number of works in this genre. He also turned to other genres - masses, motets, etc.

Professional cadres in Renaissance Germany were forged in chapels that usually existed at cathedrals and courtyards; as well as from creative associations that developed among the burghers. German composers showed themselves as talented polyphonists and there were many great masters among them, however, they could not catch up with either the Netherlands or Italy in this regard. The glory of the German school was still ahead.

The meistersang, which replaced the minnesang, became a remarkable phenomenon of German musical art. This was the name of the activity of professional poet-singers who grew up from the burgher environment. Nevertheless, despite the fact that they were professionals, the creativity of their predecessors, the minnesingers, served as an aesthetic guideline for them.

In Spain, the art of music, even during the Renaissance, could not free itself from the dictatorship of the Catholic Church. All prominent composers of Spain were in the church service, and their works, even polyphonic ones, were shackled by established traditions. At the same time, they could not help but accept the innovations introduced by the Netherlands and Italy, so attempts to go beyond the limits in the work of major composers are still felt.

In Renaissance Spain, such genres as spiritual polyphony, song genre (villancios), motets were developed. Spanish music was distinguished by its peculiar melody, and Villancicos is a prime example of this. In general, each of the schools, in spite of approximately general trends in development, had its own national coloring.

4. Musicians and their works during the Renaissance.

Motet, madrigal and mass were the three most important genres during the Renaissance. Therefore, the names of the largest musicians are associated with them. In Italian music, the name of Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina sounds loudly. Having worked all his life in the field of church music, with his work he contributed to the establishment of such a style as a capella, which is still widespread today. Among the most famous works of G. Palestrino is the Mass of Pope Marcello. Despite its complexity, this work is filled with clarity, purity, harmony, which, in fact, are the main features of the composer's style.

Another Italian, Gesualdo di Venosa, is also an extremely prolific composer. The number of madrigals he wrote was six books. The author strove with the help of music to explore the difficult inner world of a person, to reflect his feelings. Many madrigals by G. di Venosa are tragic in nature. Expressiveness and sophistication are the main features of this composer's music.

Orlando di Lasso (Netherlands) is another great representative of the Renaissance. He wrote many works, but one of his most striking successes is the madrigal "Echo", which simulates acoustic effects. In his music, O. di Lasso managed to convey the dance, song and even everyday features of his era.

The brightest representative of English music was John Dunstable, who made a huge contribution to the development of national polyphony. He is the author of a number of masses, motets and songs that have become popular. Not all of the works written by him have survived, but those that remain testify to him as an inventive and prolific composer.

English vocal music can be proud of the names of Thomas Morley and John Dowland. The creativity of the latter delighted W. Shakespeare himself. It is assumed that it is J. Dowland who is the author of the music for the plays of the great playwright. The composer composed music for lute and voice; preferred the tragic direction in creativity, but, nevertheless, one of his humorous song "Beautiful tricks of the lady" became very popular.

T. Morley (his student was the famous William Bird) with all his work contributed to the promotion and popularization of the madrigals of Italian composers. It was quite natural that he himself composed music in this genre. One of the most famous songs - “The beloved and his girlfriend - captivates the viewer with its simplicity and sincerity.

Cristobal de Morales brought fame to Spanish music. His work fully combines national Spanish traditions and the achievements of the best composers of Italy and the Netherlands. Based on this synthesis, he created many masses and motets.

One of the prominent Spanish composers is Thomas Luis de Victoria, who not only composed music, but also mastered the art of singing and playing the organ. He wrote polyphonic works of a spiritual orientation.

Among the many French masters, the name of Clement Janequin stands out, who raised the chanson to the proper level. His songs are a wide variety of themes, melodies, musical thoughts, and sound imitations. He strove to convey the name of each song through the music.

When it comes to German music, the organist and composer Heinrich Schütz stands out in the first place. He was the first German composer to write an opera. It was an essay on a mythological subject; the opera was called Daphne. G. Schutz also wrote an opera-ballet, which was also based on the ancient Greek plot - "Orpheus and Eurydice". He penned many other works in smaller genres.

The Christian theologian Martin Luther played a great role in the development of German music, contributing to the reform in this area. In connection with his desire to attract as many parishioners to the service as possible, he formed new requirements for vocal sacred music. Thus, Protestant chant was born, which became the leading genre in the musical art of Germany during the Renaissance (here, of course, secular genres are not meant).

Thus, the musical heritage of the Renaissance is extremely rich in events, genres, instruments, works, and names.

5. Conclusion.

So, all of the above allows us to draw a number of conclusions. The most powerful countries in terms of music were the Netherlands (at the beginning) and Italy (at the end). It was there that traditions were born that influenced the musical process in other countries.

Musical boundaries have expanded. This concerned both the musicians themselves, who moved around Europe and could live and work in different countries, in different, sometimes contrasting genres, and the music itself. It ceased to be exclusively ecclesiastical (we are talking about professional art), since folk art is alive at all times.

Having gone beyond the boundaries of the spiritual sphere, music penetrated into everyday life, became available to wide layers of society. Her language became available to people. At the same time, music became an art in which the individuality of its creators was felt.

As in ancient times, music has become an integral part of festivals and celebrations, which have again won their place in the leisure of Europeans after the dark times of the Middle Ages.

The Renaissance society filled its life with a series of various festivals, at which they celebrated, sang and danced, and played theatrical performances. And everywhere music was an indispensable and irreplaceable attribute.

Of course, it cannot be argued that music has become exclusively secular. This would be fundamentally wrong. As before, the closest attention was paid to church music. Composers wrote grandiose polyphonic vocal and instrumental works in which human voices were supported by parts of wind instruments. And although in some countries (for example, in Germany) there was a tendency to simplify church music, for the most part, sacred music remained majestic and complex.

During the Renaissance, musical culture underwent a significant renewal. This applied to tools, new achievements in theoretical disciplines, and the development of music printing.

But the most important achievement of the Renaissance in all spheres of activity is the affirmation of the human personality, interest in him, the disclosure of his rich inner world by all available artistic means.

6. References.

1. Alekseev A.D. History of Piano Art. In two parts / A.D. Alekseev. - M .: Muzyka, 1988 .-- 415 p.

2. Evdokimova Yu.K., Simakova N.A. Renaissance music. Cantus prius factus and work with it / Yu.K. Evdokimova, N.A. Simakova. - M .: Muzyka, 1982 .-- 240 p.

3. Livanova T.N. History of Western European music before 1789: In 2 vols. Ed. 2nd, rev. Book. 1: From antiquity to the 18th century / T.N. Livanov. - M .: Muzyka, 1986 .-- 378 p.

4. Rosenschild K.K. History of foreign music / K.K. Rosenschild. - M .: Muzyka, 1978 .-- 445 p.

The question of the musical side of the Renaissance is a complex one. In the music of that time, it is more difficult to identify new, fundamentally different, elements and trends compared to the Middle Ages than in other areas of art - in painting, sculpture, architecture, artistic craft, and so on. The fact is that music, both in the Middle Ages and throughout the Renaissance, retained its diverse character. There was a clear division into church-spiritual music and secular compositions, song and dance. However, Renaissance music has its own original character, although it is closely related to previous achievements.

Musical culture of the Renaissance

The peculiarity of Renaissance music, to which the musical era of the XV-XVI centuries is attributed, is the combination of various national schools, which at the same time had a general tendency of development. Experts identify the first elements characteristic of the era of mood in the Italian direction of music. Moreover, in the homeland of the Renaissance, "new music" began to appear at the end of the XIV century. The features of the Renaissance style were most clearly manifested in the Dutch school of music, starting from the middle of the 15th century. A special feature of Dutch music was the increased attention to vocal compositions with appropriate instrumental accompaniment. Moreover, vocal polyphonic compositions were characteristic of both the church music of the Dutch school and its secular direction.

It is characteristic that the Dutch school had a serious impact on the rest of the European musical traditions of the Renaissance.

So, already in the 16th century, it spread to France, Germany, England. Moreover, secular vocal compositions in the Dutch style were performed in different languages: for example, music historians see the origins of traditional French chanson in these songs. All European music of the Renaissance is characterized by two seemingly multidirectional tendencies. One of them led to a clear individualization of compositions: in secular works, the author's principle is more and more traced, more personal lyrics, experiences and emotions of a particular composer appear.

Another tendency was reflected in the increasing systematization of musical theory. Works, both ecclesiastical and secular, became more and more complex, musical polyphonism improved and developed. First of all, in church music, clear rules for shaping, harmonic sequences, voice leading and the like were compiled.

Theorists or composers of the Renaissance?

Such a complex nature of the development of music in the Renaissance is associated with the fact that at present there are disputes over whether the leading musical figures of that time should be considered composers, theorists or scientists. Then there was no clear "division of labor", so the musicians combined various functions. So, to a greater extent the theorist was the Swiss Glarean, who lived and worked in the first half of the 16th century. He made significant contributions to musical theory, creating the basis for the introduction of concepts such as major and minor. At the same time, he viewed music as a source of pleasure, that is, he advocated its secular nature, in fact, rejecting the development of music in the religious aspect of the Middle Ages. In addition, Glarean saw music only in an inextricable connection with poetry, so he paid great attention to song genres.

The Italian Josepho Tsarlino, whose creative activity occurred in the second quarter - the end of the 16th century, in many ways developed and supplemented the theoretical developments presented above. In particular, he first proposed to associate the already formulated concepts of major and minor with the emotional mood of a person, associating the minor with melancholy and sadness, and the major with joy and lofty feelings. In addition, Tsarlino continued the ancient tradition of interpreting music: for him, music was a tangible expression of the harmony in which the universe should exist. Consequently, music, in his opinion, was the highest manifestation of creative genius and the most important of the arts.

Where did Renaissance music come from?

Theory is theory, but in practice, music is inconceivable without musical instruments - of course, with their help the musical art of the Renaissance was embodied in life. The main instrument that “migrated” into the Renaissance from the previous, medieval, musical period was the organ. This keyboard-wind instrument was actively used in church music, and given the most important place of sacred compositions in the music of the Renaissance, the importance of the organ was preserved. Although, in general, the "specific weight" of this instrument, perhaps, has decreased - stringed bowed and plucked instruments came to the fore. However, the organ laid the foundation for a separate direction of keyboard instruments, which had a higher and more secular sound. The most common of these was the harpsichord.

The stringed bowed instruments have formed a whole separate family - the viola. Violas were instruments resembling modern violin instruments in form and function (violin, viola, cello). Most likely, there are family ties between the violas and the violin family, but the viols have characteristic features. They have a much more pronounced individual "voice" with a velvety hue. Viols have an equal number of main and resonating strings, which is why they are very whimsical and difficult to tune. Therefore, violas are almost always a solo instrument; it is rarely possible to achieve their harmonious use in an orchestra.

As for plucked string instruments, among them the lute, which appeared in Europe around the 15th century, occupied the main place during the Renaissance. The lute was of oriental origin and had a specific device. The instrument, the sounds from which could be extracted both with fingers and with the help of a special plate (analogous to a modern pick), very quickly gained popularity in the Old World.

Alexander Babitsky

In the musical culture of the Renaissance, several defining innovative features can be distinguished.

First, the rapid development of secular art, expressed in the ubiquity of many secular song and dance genres. These are Italianfrottols ("Folk songs, from frottola words - crowd), villanelles ("Village songs"),kachchii , canzone (literally - songs) and madrigals, SpanishVillancico (from villa - village), French chanson songs, GermanLied , english ballads other. All these genres, glorifying the joy of being, interested in the inner world of a person, striving for the truth of life, directly reflected a purely Renaissance attitude. For their expressive means, the widespread use of intonations and rhythms of folk music is typical.

The culmination of the secular line in the art of the Renaissance -madrigal ... The name of the genre means "song in the mother tongue (that is, Italian)". It emphasizes the difference between madrigal and sacred music performed in Latin. The development of the genre went from an unpretentious one-voice shepherd's song to a 5-6-voice vocal-instrumental piece with a refined and refined lyric text. Among the poets who turned to the madrigal genre are Petrarca, Boccaccio, Tasso. The composers A. Villart, J. Arcadelt, Palestrina, O. Lasso, L. Marenzio, C. Gesualdo, K. Monteverdi were remarkable masters of the madrigal. Originating in Italy, madrigal quickly spread to other Western European countries.

The French version of the polyphonic song is calledchanson ... It differs from madrigal by a greater closeness to the real, everyday life, that is, genre. Among the creators of chanson -Clement Jeannequin , one of the most famous French composers of the Renaissance.

Secondly, the highest flowering of choral polyphony, which became the leading musical style of the era. Dignified and auspicious, it corresponded perfectly to the solemnity of the church service. At the same time, polyphonic polyphony was the dominant form of expression not only in spiritual genres, but also in secular ones.

The development of choral polyphony was associated, first of all, with the work of composers of the Dutch (Franco-Flemish) school: Guillaume Dufay, Johannes Okegem, Jacob Obrecht, Josquin Despres, Orlando Lasso.

Orlando Lasso (about 1532-1594) worked in many European countries. His talent, truly phenomenal, conquered and delighted everyone. In the immense work of Orlando Lasso, all musical genres of the Renaissance are represented (with the predominance of secular music over spiritual). His most popular works include "Echo", written in the genre of Italian everyday song. The composition is based on the colorful juxtaposition of the two choirs, creating an echo effect. Its text belongs to the composer himself.

Along with Orlando Lasso, the Italian was the largest representative of the High Renaissance in music.Palestrina (full name Giovanni Pierlui-gi da Palestrina, circa 1525-1594). Most of Palestrina's life was spent in Rome, where he was constantly associated with work in the church, in particular, he headed the chapel of the Cathedral of St. Peter. The main part of his music is spiritual works, first of all, masses (there are more than a hundred of them, among which the famous "Mass of Pope Marcello" stands out) and motets. However, Palestrina also willingly composed secular music - madrigals, canzonets. Works by Palestrina for choir a Sarrellabecame a classic example of Renaissance polyphony.

The work of polyphonist composers played a leading role in the development of the main genre of Renaissance music -masses ... Originating in the Middle Ages, the genre of mass inXIV- Xvicenturies, it is rapidly transforming, moving from samples presented by separate, scattered parts, to works of a harmonious cyclical form.

Depending on the church calendar, some parts were omitted in the music of the Mass and other parts were inserted. There are five obligatory parts that are constantly present in the church service. VI and V - « Kyrieeleison» ("Lord have mercy") and« AgnusDei» (« Lamb of God ") - a prayer for forgiveness and mercy was expressed. InII and IV - « Gloria"(" Glory ") and" Sanctus» (« Holy ") - praise and gratitude. In the central part, "Credo» (« I believe ”), the main dogmas of the Christian doctrine were set forth.

Third, the growing role of instrumental music (with a clear predominance of vocal genres). If the European Middle Ages almost did not know professional instrumentalism, then in the Renaissance, many works were created for the lute (the most common musical instrument of that time), organ, viola, vihuela, virginal, longitudinal flutes. They still follow vocal patterns, but the interest in instrumental playing has already been determined.

Fourthly, during the Renaissance, there was an active formation of national music schools (Dutch polyphonists, English virginalists, Spanish vihuelists and others), whose work was based on the folklore of their country.

Finally, the theory of music has stepped far forward, having put forward a number of remarkable theoreticians. This is FrenchPhilippe de Vitry , the author of the treatise " Arsnova» (« New Art ", where the theoretical substantiation of the new polyphonic style is given); ItalianJoseffo Zarlino , one of the founders of the science of harmony; SwissGlarean , the founder of the doctrine of melody.

In the 19th century, the historian Jules Michelet first used the concept of the Renaissance. The musicians and composers discussed in the article belonged to the period that began in the 14th century, when the medieval dominance of the church was replaced by secular culture with its interest in the human person.

Renaissance music

European countries have entered a new era at different times. A little earlier they arose in Italy, but the Dutch school dominated the musical culture, where for the first time at cathedrals special metrizas (shelters) were created to train future composers. The main genres of that time are presented in the table:

Most of the Renaissance in the Netherlands is Guillaume Dufay, Jacob Obrecht, Josquin Despres.

Great Dutchmen

Johannes Okegem was educated at the Metrisse of Notre Dame (Antwerp), and in the 40s of the 15th century he became a choir choirman at the court of Duke Charles I (France). Subsequently, he headed the chapel of the royal court. Having lived to a ripe old age, he left a great legacy in all genres, having established himself as an outstanding polyphonist. Manuscripts of his 13 masses have come down to us under the name Chigi codex, one of which is scheduled for 8 votes. He used not only other people's, but also his own melodies.

Orlando Lasso was born on the territory of modern Belgium (Mons) in 1532. His musical talent manifested itself in early childhood. The boy was kidnapped from home three times to make him a great musician. He spent his entire adult life in Bavaria, where he performed as a tenor at the court of Duke Albrecht V, and then headed the chapel. His highly professional team helped transform Munich into the musical center of Europe, which was visited by many famous composers of the Renaissance.

Such talents as Johann Eckard, Leonard Lechner, and the Italian D. Gabrieli came to study with him. . He found his last refuge in 1594 on the territory of a Munich church, leaving a grand legacy: more than 750 motets, 60 masses and hundreds of songs, among which the most popular was Susanne un jour. His motets ("The Prophecies of the Sibyls") were distinguished by their innovations, but he was also known for his secular music, in which there was a lot of humor (Vilanella O bella fusa).

Italian school

Outstanding composers of the Renaissance from Italy, in addition to traditional directions, actively developed instrumental music (organ, bowed string instruments, clavier). The lute became the most widespread instrument, and at the end of the 15th century the harpsichord appeared - the forerunner of the piano. On the basis of elements of folk music, two influential composing schools developed: the Roman (Giovanni Palestrina) and the Venetian (Andrea Gabrieli).

Giovanni Pierluigi took the name Palestrina by the name of the town near Rome, where he was born and served in the main church as a choirmaster and organist. The date of his birth is very approximate, but he died in 1594. During his long life he wrote about 100 masses and 200 motets. His "Mass of Pope Marcellus" aroused the admiration of Pope Pius IV and became an example of Catholic sacred music. Giovanni is the most prominent representative of vocal singing without musical accompaniment.

Andrea Gabrieli together with his pupil and nephew Giovanni worked in the chapel of St. Mark (16th century), “painting” the choir's singing with the sound of organ and other instruments. The Venetian school gravitated more towards secular music, and when Sophocles' Oedipus was staged on the theater stage by Andrea Gabrieli, choir music was written, an example of choral polyphony and a harbinger of the future of opera.

Features of the German school

German soil advanced Ludwig Zenfl, the best polyphonist of the 16th century, who, nevertheless, did not reach the level of the Dutch masters. Songs of poets-singers from among the artisans (meistersingers) are also special music of the Renaissance. German composers represented singing corporations: tinsmiths, shoemakers, weavers. They united across the territory. An outstanding representative of the Nuremberg School of Singing was Hans Sachs(years of life: 1494-1576).

Born into a family of a tailor, he worked as a shoemaker all his life, striking with erudition and musical and literary interests. He read the Bible as interpreted by the great reformer Luther, knew ancient poets and appreciated Boccaccio. As a folk musician, Sachs did not possess the forms of polyphony, but created melodies of the song warehouse. They were close to dance, easy to remember and had a certain rhythm. The most famous piece was The Silver Tune.

Renaissance: musicians and composers of France

The musical culture of France really felt a renaissance only in the 16th century, when the social soil was prepared in the country.

One of the best representatives is Clement Jannequin... It is known that he was born in Chatellerault (late 15th century) and went from a boy-singer to the king's personal composer. From his creative heritage, only the secular songs published by Attenyan have survived. There are 260 of them, but those that have passed the test of time have gained real fame: "Birdsong", "Hunt", "Skylark", "War", "Screams of Paris". They were constantly reprinted and used by other authors for revision.

His songs were polyphonic and resembled choral scenes, where, in addition to onomatopoeia and canted voice-leading, there were exclamations that were responsible for the dynamics of the work. It was a bold attempt at finding new ways of imagery.

Famous composers of France include Guillaume Cotlet, Jacques Mauduy, Jean Baif, Claude Lejeune, Claude Gudimel , gave the music a harmonious structure that contributed to the assimilation of music by the general public.

Renaissance composers: England

The 15th century in England was influenced by the works John Dubstale, and XVI - William Byrd... Both masters gravitated towards sacred music. Bird started out as organist at Lincoln Cathedral and ended his career at the Royal Chapel in London. For the first time, he managed to connect music and entrepreneurship. In 1575, in collaboration with Tallis, the composer became a monopoly in the publication of musical works, which did not bring him profit. But it took a lot of time to defend their property rights in the courts. After his death (1623), in the official documents of the chapel, he was called "the ancestor of music."

What did the Renaissance leave behind? Bird, in addition to published collections (Cantiones Sacrae, Gradualia), preserved many manuscripts, considering them suitable only for domestic worship. The madrigals (Musica Transalpina) published later showed great influence of Italian authors, but several masses and motets were included in the golden fund of sacred music.

Spain: Cristobal de Morales

The best representatives of the Spanish school of music passed through the Vatican, speaking in the papal chapel. They felt the influence of Dutch and Italian authors, so only a few managed to become famous outside their country. Renaissance composers from Spain were polyphonists creating choral works. The most prominent representative is Cristobal de Morales(XVI century), who led the metrisa in Toledo and prepared more than one student. A follower of Josquin Despres, Cristobal introduced a special technique to a number of compositions called homophonic.

The most famous are the author's two requiems (the last one for five voices), as well as the Armed Man Mass. He also wrote secular works (a cantata in honor of the conclusion of a peace treaty in 1538), but this applies to his earlier works. Heading the chapel in Malaga at the end of his life, he remained the author of sacred music.

Instead of a conclusion

Renaissance composers and their works prepared the heyday of 17th century instrumental music and the emergence of a new genre - opera, where the intricacies of many voices are replaced by the primacy of one leading the main melody. They made a real breakthrough in the development of musical culture and laid the foundation for modern art.

Renaissance, or Renaissance(fr. renaissance), - a turning point in the history of the culture of European peoples. In Italy, new trends appeared at the turn of the XIII-XIV centuries, in other European countries - in the XV-XVI centuries. Renaissance figures recognized man - his good and the right to free personal development - as the highest value. This worldview is called "humanism" (from the Latin. Humanus - "human", "humane"). The humanists sought the ideal of a harmonious person in antiquity, and ancient Greek and Roman art served them as a model for artistic creativity. The desire to "revive" the ancient culture gave the name to an entire era - the Renaissance, the period between the Middle Ages and the New Age (from the middle of the 17th century to the present day).

Art, including music, reflects most fully the Renaissance worldview. During this period, as well as in the Middle Ages, the leading place belonged to vocal church music. The development of polyphony led to the appearance of polyphony (from the Greek "polis" - "numerous" and "background" - "sound", "voice"). With this type of polyphony, all voices in a work are equal. Polyphony not only complicated the work, but allowed the author to express his personal understanding of the text, and gave the music great emotionality. The polyphonic composition was created according to strict and complex rules, requiring deep knowledge and virtuoso skills from the composer. Church and secular genres developed within the framework of polyphony.

Dutch polyphonic school. The Netherlands is a historical region in the northwest of Europe, which includes the territories of modern Belgium, Holland, Luxembourg and Northeastern France. By the XV century. The Netherlands has reached a high economic and cultural level and has become a prosperous European country.

It was here that the Dutch polyphonic school was formed - one of the largest phenomena of Renaissance music. For the development of art in the 15th century, communication between musicians from different countries and the mutual influence of creative schools were of great importance. The Dutch school has absorbed the traditions of Italy, France, England and the Netherlands themselves.

Its outstanding representatives: Guillaume Dufay (1400-1474) (Dufay) (about 1400 - 11/27/1474, Cambrai), Franco-Flemish composer, one of the founders of the Dutch school. The foundations of the polyphonic tradition in Dutch music were laid by Guillaume Dufay (about 1400-1474). He was born in Cambrai in Flanders (a province in the south of the Netherlands) and from an early age he sang in a church choir. In parallel, the future musician took private lessons in composition. In his youth, Dufay went to Italy, where he wrote his first compositions - ballads and motets. In 1428-1437. he served as a singer in the papal chapel in Rome; during these years he traveled to Italy and France. In 1437 the composer was ordained. At the court of the Duke of Savoy (1437-1439), he composed music for ceremonies and holidays. Dufay was highly respected by noble persons - among his admirers were, for example, the Medici couple (rulers of the Italian city of Florence). [Worked in Italy and France. In 1428-37 he was a singer of papal chapels in Rome and other Italian cities, in 1437-44 he served with the Duke of Savoy. Since 1445 canon and director of the musical activities of the cathedral in Cambrai. Master of spiritual (3-, 4-voice masses, motets), as well as secular (3-, 4-voice French chanson, Italian songs, ballads, rondo) genres associated with folk polyphony and the humanistic culture of the Renaissance. Dante's art, which absorbed the achievements of European musical art, had a great influence on the further development of European polyphonic music. He was also a reformer of musical notation (D. is credited with introducing notes with white heads). The complete collected works of D. published in Rome (6 vols., 1951-66).] Dufay was the first among composers who began to compose the Mass as an integral musical composition. To create church music requires an extraordinary talent: the ability to express abstract, non-material concepts by concrete, material means. The difficulty lies in the fact that such a composition, on the one hand, does not leave the listener indifferent, and on the other hand, does not distract from the divine service, helps to focus deeper on prayer. Many of Dufay's masses are inspired, full of inner life; they seem to help to open the veil of Divine revelation for a moment.

Often, when creating a Mass, Dufay took a well-known melody, to which he added his own. Such borrowings are characteristic of the Renaissance. It was considered very important that the basis of the Mass should be based on a familiar melody that worshipers could easily recognize even in a polyphonic piece. A fragment of Gregorian chant was often used; secular works were not excluded either.

In addition to church music, Dufay composed motets for secular texts. In them, he also used a complex polyphonic technique.

Josquin Despres (1440-1521). The representative of the Dutch polyphonic school of the second half of the 15th century. was Josquin Despres (about 1440-1521 or 1524), who had a great influence on the work of the next generation of composers. In his youth he served as a church choir in Cambrai; took music lessons from Okegem. At the age of twenty, the young musician came to Italy, sang in Milan with the dukes of Sforza (later the great Italian artist Leonardo da Vinci served here) and in the papal chapel in Rome. In Italy, Despres probably started composing music. At the very beginning of the XVI century. he moved to Paris. By that time, Despres was already known, and he was invited to the position of court musician by the French king Louis XII. Since 1503, Despres settled again in Italy, in the city of Ferrara, at the court of the Duke d'Este. Despres composed a lot, and his music quickly gained recognition in the widest circles: both nobility and common people loved her. The composer created not only church works, but also secular. In particular, he turned to the genre of the Italian folk song - frottola (Italian frottola, from frotta - "crowd"), which is characterized by a dance rhythm and a fast tempo. , live intonation broke strict detachment and caused a feeling of joy and fullness of being. ...

Johannes Okegem (1430-1495), Jacob Obrecht (1450-1505). Younger contemporaries of Guillaume Dufay were Johannes (Jean) Okegem (circa 1425-1497) and Jacob Obrecht. Like Dufay, Okegem was originally from Flanders. All his life he worked hard; in addition to composing music, he acted as the head of the chapel. The composer created fifteen masses, thirteen motets, more than twenty chanson. Okegem's works are characterized by severity, concentration, long-term development of smooth melodic lines. He paid great attention to polyphonic technique, strove for all parts of the mass to be perceived as a single whole. The composer's creative handwriting is also guessed in his songs - they are almost devoid of secular lightness, in character they are more reminiscent of motets, and sometimes even fragments of masses. Johannes Okegem was respected both at home and abroad (he was appointed adviser to the King of France). Jacob Obrecht was a chorister in cathedrals in various cities of the Netherlands, led chapels; for several years he served at the court of the Duke d'Este in Ferrara (Italy). He is the author of twenty-five masses, twenty motets, thirty chanson. Using the achievements of his predecessors, Obrecht brought a lot of new things into the polyphonic tradition. His music is full of contrasts, bold even when the composer addresses to traditional church genres.

The versatility and depth of Orlando Lasso's creativity. Completing the history of Dutch Renaissance music is the work of Orlando Lasso (real name and surname Roland de Lasso, circa 1532-1594), called by his contemporaries "Belgian Orpheus" and "prince of music". Lasso was born in Mons (Flanders). From childhood, he sang in the church choir, striking the parishioners with a wonderful voice. Gonzaga, Duke of the Italian city of Mantua, accidentally hearing the young singer, invited him to his own chapel. After Mantua, Lasso worked for a short time in Naples, and then moved to Rome - there he received the position of the head of the chapel of one of the cathedrals. By the age of twenty-five, Lasso was already known as a composer, and his works were in demand among music publishers. In 1555, the first collection of works was published, containing motets, madrigals and chanson. Lasso studied all the best that was created by his predecessors (Dutch, French, German and Italian composers), and used their experience in his work. Being an extraordinary personality, Lasso strove to overcome the abstract character of church music, to give it individuality. To this end, the composer sometimes used genre motives (themes of folk songs, dances), thus bringing together the church and secular traditions. Lasso combined the complexity of polyphonic technique with great emotionality. He was especially successful at madrigals, in the texts of which the state of mind of the characters was revealed, for example, Tears of St. Peter "(1593) on the verses of the Italian poet Luigi Tranzillo. The composer often wrote for a large number of voices (five to seven), so his works are difficult to perform. ...

From 1556 Orlando Lasso lived in Munich (Germany), where he headed the chapel. By the end of his life, his authority in musical and artistic circles was very high, and his fame spread throughout Europe. The Dutch polyphonic school had a great influence on the development of the musical culture of Europe. The principles of polyphony developed by Dutch composers have become universal, and many artistic techniques have been used in their work by composers already in the 20th century.

France. For France, the 15th-16th centuries became an era of important changes: the Hundred Years War (1337-1453) with England ended, by the end of the 15th century. the unification of the state was completed; in the 16th century, the country experienced religious wars between Catholics and Protestants. In a strong state with an absolute monarchy, the role of court celebrations and folk festivals increased. This contributed to the development of art, in particular the music that accompanied such actions. The number of vocal and instrumental ensembles (chapels and consorts), which consisted of a significant number of performers, increased. During the military campaigns in Italy, the French got acquainted with the achievements of Italian culture. They deeply felt and accepted the ideas of the Italian Renaissance - humanism, the desire for harmony with the world around them, for the enjoyment of life.

If in Italy the musical Renaissance was associated primarily with the Mass, then French composers, along with church music, paid special attention to the secular polyphonic song - chanson. Interest in it in France arose in the first half of the 16th century, when a collection of musical pieces by Clement Janequin (circa 1485-1558) was published. It is this composer who is considered one of the creators of the genre.

Major choral programmatic works by Clement Janequin (1475-1560). As a child, Jeannequin sang in a church choir in his hometown of Chatellerault (Central France). Later, as music historians suggest, he studied with the Dutch master Josquin Desprez or with a composer from his entourage. Having received the ordination of a priest, Zhaneken worked as a choir director and organist; then he was invited to the service by the Duke of Guise. In 1555, the musician became a singer of the Royal Chapel, and in 1556-1557. - the royal court composer. Clement Jeannequin created two hundred and eighty chanson (published between 1530 and 1572); wrote church music - masses, motets, psalms. His songs were often pictorial. Pictures of the battle ("The Battle of Marignano", "The Battle of Renta", "The Battle of Metz"), hunting scenes ("The Hunt"), images of nature ("The Singing of Birds", "Nightingale", "Lark" ), everyday scenes ("Women's chatter"). With amazing vividness, the composer managed to convey the atmosphere of everyday life in Paris in the chanson "Screams of Paris": he introduced the exclamations of the sellers into the text ("Milk!" - "Pies!" - "Artichokes!" - "Fish!" - "Matches!" - "Doves! ! "-" Old shoes! "-" Wine! "). Janequin almost did not use long and flowing themes for individual voices and complex polyphonic techniques, preferring roll calls, repetitions, onomatopoeia.

Another direction of French music is associated with the pan-European movement of the Reformation.

In church services, French Protestants (Huguenots) abandoned Latin and polyphony. Sacred music has acquired a more open, democratic character. One of the brightest representatives of this musical tradition was Claude Gudimel (between 1514 and 1520-1572) - the author of psalms on biblical texts and Protestant chants.

Chanson. One of the main musical genres of the French Renaissance is chanson (French chanson - "song"). Its origins are in folk art (rhymed verses of epic legends were transferred to music), in the art of medieval troubadours and trouvers. In terms of content and mood, the chanson could be very diverse - there were love songs, everyday, humorous, satirical, etc. The composers took folk poems and modern poetry as texts.

Italy. With the onset of the Renaissance, everyday music-making on various instruments spread in Italy; circles of music lovers arose. In the professional field, two of the most powerful schools were formed: the Roman and the Venetian.

Madrigal. During the Renaissance, the role of secular genres increased. In the XIV century. the madrigal appeared in Italian music (from pozlnelat. matricale - "song in the native language"). It was formed on the basis of folk (shepherd's) songs. Madrigals were songs for two or three voices, often without instrumental accompaniment. They were written on the verses of modern Italian poets, which talked about love; there were songs on everyday and mythological subjects.

During the fifteenth century, composers hardly ever turned to this genre; interest in him was revived only in the 16th century. A characteristic feature of the 16th century madrigal is the close connection between music and poetry. The music flexibly followed the text, reflecting the events described in the poetic source. Over time, peculiar melodic symbols developed, denoting tender sighs, tears, etc. In the works of some composers, the symbolism was philosophical, for example, in Gesualdo di Venosa's madrigal "I am dying, unhappy" (1611).

The heyday of the genre falls on the turn of the XVI-XVII centuries. Sometimes, simultaneously with the performance of the song, its plot was played out. Madrigal became the basis of madrigal comedy (choral composition based on the text of a comedy play), which prepared the appearance of the opera.

Roman polyphonic school. Giovanni de Palestrina (1525-1594). The head of the Roman school was Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina, one of the greatest composers of the Renaissance. He was born in the Italian city of Palestrina, by the name of which he received his surname. From childhood, Palestrina sang in the church choir, and upon reaching adulthood, he was invited to the post of conductor (choir leader) in St. Peter's Basilica in Rome; later he served in the Sistine Chapel (the Pope's court chapel).

Rome, the center of Catholicism, has attracted many leading musicians. At different times Dutch masters, polyphonists Guillaume Dufay and Josquin Despres worked here. Their developed compositional technique sometimes interfered with the perception of the text of the divine service: it was lost behind the exquisite interweaving of voices and the words, in fact, could not be heard. Therefore, the church authorities were wary of such works and advocated the return of monophony based on Gregorian chants. The question of the permissibility of polyphony in church music was discussed even at the Council of Trent of the Catholic Church (1545-1563). Close to the Pope, Palestrina convinced the Church leaders of the possibility of creating works where the compositional technique would not interfere with the understanding of the text. As proof, he composed Pope Marcello's Mass (1555), which combines complex polyphony with the clear and expressive sound of every word. Thus, the musician "saved" professional polyphonic music from the persecution of the church authorities. In 1577, the composer was invited to discuss the gradual reform - a collection of sacred chants of the Catholic Church. In the 80s. Palestrina was ordained, and in 1584 became a member of the Society of Masters of Music - an association of musicians directly subordinate to the Pope.

Creativity of Palestrina is imbued with a bright attitude. The works he created amazed his contemporaries with both the highest skill and quantity (more than a hundred masses, three hundred motets, one hundred madrigals). The complexity of music has never been an obstacle to its perception. The composer knew how to find a middle ground between the sophistication of the compositions and their accessibility to the listener. Palestrina saw the main creative task in developing an integral large work. Each voice in his chants develops independently, but at the same time forms a single whole with the rest, and often the voices add up to amazingly beautiful combinations of chords. Often the melody of the upper voice hovers above the others, outlining the "dome" of polyphony; all voices are fluid and developed.

The musicians of the next generation considered Giovanni da Palestrina's art to be exemplary, classical. Many outstanding composers of the 17th-18th centuries studied on his works.

Another direction of Renaissance music is associated with the work of the composers of the Venetian school, the founder of which was Adrian Villart (circa 1485-1562). His students were the organist and composer Andrea Gabrieli (between 1500 and 1520 - after 1586), the composer Cyprian de Pope (1515 or 1516-1565) and other musicians. While the works of Palestrina are characterized by clarity and strict restraint, Willart and his followers developed a magnificent choral style. To achieve a surround sound, playing timbres, they used several choirs in their compositions, located in different places of the temple. The use of roll calls between choirs made it possible to fill the church space with unprecedented effects. This approach also reflected the humanistic ideals of the era as a whole - with its cheerfulness, freedom, and the Venetian artistic tradition itself - with its striving for everything bright and unusual. In the works of the Venetian masters, the musical language also became more complicated: it was filled with bold combinations of chords, unexpected harmonies.

A prominent Renaissance figure was Carlo Gesualdo di Venosa (circa 1560-1613), prince of the city of Venosa, one of the greatest masters of the secular madrigal. He gained fame as a philanthropist, lute performer, composer. Prince Gesualdo was friends with the Italian poet Torquato Tasso; there are still interesting letters in which both artists discuss issues of literature, music, and fine arts. Many of Tasso Gesualdo di Venosa's poems were set to music - this is how a number of highly artistic madrigals appeared. As a representative of the late Renaissance, the composer developed a new type of madrigal, where feelings were in the first place - violent and unpredictable. Therefore, his works are characterized by changes in volume, intonation, similar to sighs and even sobs, sharp-sounding chords, contrasting tempo changes. These techniques gave Gesualdo's music an expressive, somewhat bizarre character, it amazed and at the same time attracted contemporaries. The legacy of Gesualdo di Venosa consists of seven collections of polyphonic madrigals; among the spiritual works - "Sacred Chants". His music today does not leave the listener indifferent.

Development of genres and forms of instrumental music. Instrumental music has also been marked by the emergence of new genres, most notably the instrumental concert. Violin, harpsichord, organ gradually turned into solo instruments. The music written for them made it possible to show talent not only for the composer, but also for the performer. Primarily appreciated was virtuosity (the ability to cope with technical difficulties), which gradually became an end in itself for many musicians and an artistic value. Composers of the 17th-18th centuries usually not only composed music, but also played the instruments masterly and were engaged in pedagogical activity. The well-being of the artist largely depended on the specific client. As a rule, every serious musician sought to get a place either at the court of a monarch or a wealthy aristocrat (many members of the nobility had their own orchestras or opera houses), or in a temple. Moreover, most composers easily combined church music-making with service with a secular patron.

England. The cultural life of England during the Renaissance was closely associated with the Reformation. In the 16th century, Protestantism spread throughout the country. The Catholic Church lost its dominant position, the Anglican Church became the state one, which refused to recognize some dogmas (basic provisions) of Catholicism; most of the monasteries ceased to exist. These events influenced English culture, including music. Music departments were opened at Oxford and Cambridge Universities. In the salons of the nobility, keyboard instruments sounded: virginel (a kind of harpsichord), portable (small) organ, etc. Small compositions intended for home music were popular. The most prominent representative of the musical culture of that time was William Bird (1543 or 1544-1623) - a music publisher, organist and composer. Bird became the ancestor of the English madrigal. His works are distinguished by their simplicity (he avoided complex polyphonic techniques), the originality of the form that follows the text, and harmonic freedom. All musical means are intended to affirm the beauty and joy of life, as opposed to medieval severity and restraint. The composer had many followers in the madrigal genre.

Bird also created spiritual works (masses, psalms) and instrumental music. In his compositions for the virginel, he used motives of folk songs and dances.

The composer really wanted the music he wrote to "happily carry at least a little tenderness, relaxation and entertainment" - this is what William Bird wrote in the preface to one of his music collections.

Germany. The connection of German musical culture with the Reformation movement. In the 16th century, the Reformation began in Germany, which significantly changed the religious and cultural life of the country. The leaders of the Reformation were convinced of the need for changes in the musical content of worship. This was due to two reasons. By the middle of the 15th century. the polyphonic skill of composers working in the genres of church music has reached extraordinary complexity and sophistication. Sometimes works were created that, due to the melodic richness of voices and lengthy chants, could not be perceived and spiritually experienced by the majority of parishioners. In addition, the service was conducted in Latin, understandable to Italians, but alien to the Germans.

The founder of the Reformation movement Martin Luther (1483-1546) believed that a reform of church music was needed. Music, firstly, should promote a more active participation of parishioners in worship (it was impossible when performing polyphonic compositions), and secondly, it should generate empathy for biblical events (which was hindered by the conduct of the service in Latin). Thus, the following requirements were imposed on church singing: simplicity and clarity of melody, even rhythm, clear form of chanting. On this basis, the Protestant chant arose - the main genre of church music of the German Renaissance. In 1522, Luther translated the New Testament into German - henceforth it became possible to conduct divine services in their native language.

Luther himself, as well as his friend, the German music theorist Johann Walter (1490-1570), took an active part in the selection of melodies for the chorales. The main sources of such melodies were folk spiritual and secular songs - widely known and easy to comprehend. Luther composed the melodies for some of the chorales himself. One of them, "The Lord is our support", became a symbol of the Reformation during the religious wars of the 16th century.

Meistersingers and their art. Another bright page of German Renaissance music is associated with the work of the Meistersinger (German Meistersinger - "master singer") - poet singers from among the artisans. They were not professional musicians, but above all craftsmen - gunsmiths, tailors, glaziers, shoemakers, bakers, etc. The city union of such musicians included representatives of various crafts. In the 16th century, Meistersinger associations existed in many cities in Germany.

The Meistersingers composed their songs according to strict rules, the creative initiative was embarrassed by many restrictions. A beginner had to first master these rules, then learn how to perform songs, then compose lyrics to other people's melodies, and only then he could create his own song. The melodies of the famous meistersingers and minnesingers were considered to be the melodies-samples.

Outstanding Meistersinger of the 16th century Hans Sachs (1494-1576) came from a family of a tailor, but in his youth he left his parental home and went to travel in Germany. During his wanderings, the young man learned the craft of a shoemaker, but most importantly, he got acquainted with folk art. Sachs was well educated, knew ancient and medieval literature perfectly, read the Bible in German translation. He was deeply imbued with the ideas of the Reformation, so he wrote not only secular songs, but also spiritual ones (about six thousand songs in total). Hans Sachs also became famous as a playwright (see the article "Theatrical art of the Renaissance").

Musical instruments of the Renaissance. During the Renaissance, the composition of musical instruments expanded significantly, new varieties were added to the already existing strings and winds. Among them, a special place is occupied by viols - a family of bowed strings, striking with their beauty and nobility of sound. In form, they resemble the instruments of the modern violin family (violin, viola, cello) and are even considered their immediate predecessors (they coexisted in musical practice until the middle of the 18th century). However, the difference, and significant, is still there. Violas have a system of resonating strings; as a rule, there are as many of them as the main ones (six to seven). The vibrations of the resonating strings make the viola sound soft, velvety, but the instrument is difficult to use in an orchestra, as it quickly becomes out of tune due to the large number of strings.

For a long time, the sound of the viola was considered a model of sophistication in music. There are three main types in the viola family. Viola da gamba is a large instrument that the performer placed vertically and clamped from the sides with his feet (the Italian word gamba means "knee"). Two other varieties - viola da braccio (from Italian braccio - "forearm") and viol d "cupid (fr. Viole d" amour - "viola of love") were oriented horizontally, and when played, they were pressed against the shoulder. Viola da gamba is close to the cello in terms of sound range, viola da braccio - to the violin, and viol d "cupid - to the viola.

Among the plucked instruments of the Renaissance, the main place is occupied by the lute (Polish lutnia, from the Arabic "alud" - "tree"). It came to Europe from the Middle East at the end of the 14th century, and by the beginning of the 16th century there was a huge repertoire for this instrument; first of all, songs were performed to the accompaniment of the lute. The lute has a short body; the upper part is flat, and the lower one resembles a hemisphere. A fretboard is attached to the wide neck, and the head of the instrument is bent back almost at right angles. If you wish, you can see the resemblance to a bowl in the shape of a lute. Twelve strings are grouped in pairs, and the sound is produced both with fingers and with a special plate - a pick.

In the XV-XVI centuries, various types of keyboards arose. The main types of such instruments - the harpsichord, clavichord, harpsichord, harpsichord, virginel - were actively used in the music of the Renaissance, but their real heyday came later.