Brief summary on the topic of ancient Russian literature. Features of Old Russian literature. Main genres and works
Introduction
Emergence ancient Russian literature
Genres of literature Ancient Rus'
Periodization of the history of ancient Russian literature
Features of Old Russian literature
Conclusion
Bibliography
Introduction
The centuries-old literature of Ancient Rus' has its own classics, there are works that we can rightfully call classics, which perfectly represent the literature of Ancient Rus' and are known throughout the world. Every educated Russian person should know them.
Ancient Rus', in the traditional sense of the word, embracing the country and its history from the 10th to the 17th centuries, had great culture. This culture, the immediate predecessor of the new Russian culture of the 18th-20th centuries, nevertheless had some of its own phenomena, characteristic only of it.
Ancient Rus' is famous all over the world for its painting and architecture. But it is remarkable not only for these “silent” arts, which allowed some Western scientists to call the culture of Ancient Rus' the culture of great silence. IN Lately the discovery of ancient Russian music begins anew and more slowly - much more difficult to understand art - the art of words, literature. That is why Hilarion’s “The Tale of Law and Grace,” “The Tale of Igor’s Host,” “The Walk across the Three Seas” by Afanasy Nikitin, the Works of Ivan the Terrible, “The Life of Archpriest Avvakum” and many others have now been translated into many foreign languages. Getting acquainted with the literary monuments of Ancient Rus', modern man without much difficulty will notice their differences from the works of literature of modern times: this is the lack of detailed characters, this is the meagerness of details in the description of the appearance of the heroes, their environment, landscape, this is the psychological lack of motivation for actions, and the “facelessness” of remarks that can be conveyed to any hero of the work, since they do not reflect the individuality of the speaker, this is the “insincerity” of monologues with an abundance of traditional “commonplaces” - abstract reasoning on theological or moral themes, with excessive pathos or expression.
It would be easiest to explain all these features by the student nature of ancient Russian literature, to see in them only the result of the fact that the writers of the Middle Ages had not yet mastered the “mechanism” of plot construction, which in common features ah is now known to every writer and every reader. All this is true only to some extent. Literature is constantly evolving. The arsenal of artistic techniques is expanding and enriching. Each writer in his work relies on the experience and achievements of his predecessors.
1. The emergence of Old Russian literature
Pagan legends in Ancient Rus' were not written down, but were transmitted orally. Christian teaching was presented in books, therefore, with the adoption of Christianity, books appeared in Rus'. Books were brought from Byzantium, Greece, and Bulgaria. The Old Bulgarian and Old Russian languages were similar, and Rus' could use the Slavic alphabet created by the brothers Cyril and Methodius.
The need for books in Rus' at the time of the adoption of Christianity was great, but there were few books. The process of copying books was long and difficult. The first books were written by statute, or rather, they were not written, but drawn. Each letter was drawn separately. Continuous writing appeared only in the 15th century. First books. The oldest Russian book that has reached us is the so-called Ostromir Gospel. It was translated in 1056-1057. by order of the Novgorod mayor Ostromir.
Original Russian literature arose around the middle of the 11th century.
Chronicle is a genre of ancient Russian literature. Consists of two words: “summer”, i.e. year, and “write”. “Description of years” - this is how you can translate the word “chronicle” into Russian
The chronicle as a genre of Old Russian literature (only Old Russian) arose in the middle of the 11th century, and chronicle writing ended in the 17th century. with ending Old Russian period literature.
Features of the genre. Events were arranged by year. The chronicle began with the words: In the summer, then the year from the creation of the world was named, for example, 6566, and the events of the present year were set out. I wonder why? The chronicler, as a rule, is a monk, and he could not live outside the Christian world, outside Christian tradition. And this means that the world for him is not interrupted, is not divided into past and present, the past connects with the present and continues to live in modern times.
Modernity is the result of past deeds, and the future of the country and the fate of an individual depend on today's events. Chronicler. Of course, the chronicler could not tell about the events of the past on his own, so he attracted older chronicles, earlier ones and supplemented them with stories about his time.
To prevent his work from becoming enormous, he had to sacrifice something: skip some events, rewrite others in his own words.
In the selection of events, in the retelling, the chronicler, willingly or unwillingly, offered his own view, his assessment of history, but it was always the view of a Christian, for whom history is a chain of events that have a direct relationship. The oldest chronicle is the “Tale of Bygone Years,” compiled by the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery Nestor at the beginning of the 12th century. The title is written like this (of course, translated from the Old Russian language): “Here are the stories of past years, where the Russian land came from, who became the first to reign in Kyiv and how the Russian land arose.”
And here is its beginning: “So let’s begin this story. After the flood, the three sons of Noah divided the land, Shem, Ham, Japheth. ... But Shem, Ham and Japheth divided the land, casting lots, and decided not to enter into the share of their brother and lived each in his own part. united people... After the destruction of the pillar and the division of the nations, the sons of Shem took eastern countries, and the sons of Ham took the southern countries, but the Japhethites took the west and the northern countries. From these same 70 and 2 language came the Slavic people, from the tribe of Japheth - the so-called Noriks, who are the Slavs." Connection with modern times. The chronicler connected this biblical event about the division of the earth with modern life. In 1097, the Russian princes gathered to establish peace and said to each other: Why are we destroying the Russian land, arranging strife among ourselves? Let us unite with one heart from now on and let us guard the Russian land, and let everyone own his homeland.
Russian chronicles have long been read and translated into modern language. The most accessible and fascinating information about the events of Russian history and the life of our ancestors is written in the book “Stories of Russian Chronicles” (author-compiler and translator T.N. Mikhelson).
. Genres of literature of Ancient Rus'
ancient Russian genre story literature
To understand the peculiarity and originality of original Russian literature, to appreciate the courage with which Russian scribes created works that “stand outside genre systems”, such as “The Tale of Igor’s Host”, “Teaching” by Vladimir Monomakh, “Prayer” by Daniil Zatochnik and the like , for all this it is necessary to get acquainted with at least some examples of individual genres of translated literature.
Chronicles.Interest in the past of the Universe, the history of other countries, and the destinies of great people of antiquity was satisfied by translations of Byzantine chronicles. These chronicles began with an account of events from the creation of the world, retold biblical history, cited individual episodes from the history of the countries of the East, talked about the campaigns of Alexander the Great, and then about the history of the countries of the Middle East. Bringing the story to last decades before the beginning of our era, chroniclers went back and set out ancient history Rome, starting from the legendary times of the city's founding. The rest and, as a rule, most of the chronicles were occupied by the narrative of the Roman and Byzantine emperors. The chronicles ended with a description of events contemporary to their composition. Thus, the chroniclers created the impression of continuity historical process, about a kind of “change of kingdoms.” Of the translations of Byzantine chronicles, the most famous in Rus' in the 11th century. received translations of the Chronicles of George Amartol and the Chronicles of John Malala. The first of them, together with the continuation made on Byzantine soil, brought the narrative to the middle of the 10th century, the second - until the time of Emperor Justinian (527-565). Perhaps one of the defining features of the composition of the chronicles was their desire for an exhaustive completeness of the dynastic series. This feature is characteristic of biblical books (which contain long lists of genealogies), medieval chronicles, and historical epics. "Alexandria".The novel about Alexander the Great, the so-called “Alexandria,” was extremely popular in Ancient Rus'. This was not a historically accurate description of the life and deeds of the famous commander, but a typical Hellenistic adventure novel 7. In "Alexandria" we also encounter action-packed (and also pseudo-historical) collisions. "Alexandria" is a must integral part all ancient Russian chronographs; from edition to edition, the adventure and fantasy theme is increasingly intensified in it, which once again indicates an interest precisely in the entertaining plot, and not in the actual historical side of this work. "The Life of Eustathius Placidas".In ancient Russian literature, imbued with the spirit of historicism and addressed to ideological problems, there was no place for open literary fiction (readers apparently trusted the miracles of “Alexandria” - after all, all this happened a long time ago and somewhere in unknown lands, at the end of the world!), everyday stories or novel about privacy private person. Strange as it may seem at first glance, to a certain extent the need for such subjects was fulfilled by such authoritative and closely related genres as the lives of saints, patericon or apocrypha. Researchers have long noticed that the lengthy lives of Byzantine saints in some cases were very reminiscent of an ancient novel: sudden changes in the fate of heroes, imaginary death, recognition and meeting after many years of separation, attacks by pirates or predatory animals - all these traditional plot motives adventure novel in a strange way coexisted in some lives with the idea of glorifying an ascetic or martyr for the Christian faith 8. A typical example of such a life is “The Life of Eustathius Placidas,” translated back in Kievan Rus. Apocrypha.The apocrypha - legends about biblical characters that were not included in the canonical (recognized by the church) biblical books, discussions on topics that worried medieval readers: about the struggle in the world of good and evil, about the ultimate fate of humanity, descriptions of heaven and hell or unknown lands "at the end of the world." Most apocrypha are entertaining plot stories, which amazed the imagination of readers either with unknown everyday details about the life of Christ, the apostles, prophets, or with miracles and fantastic visions. The Church tried to fight apocryphal literature. Special lists of prohibited books were compiled - indices. However, in judgments about which works are definitely “renounced books,” that is, unacceptable for reading by true Christians, and which are only apocryphal (literally apocryphal - secret, hidden, that is, designed for a reader experienced in theological matters), the medieval censors did not there was unity. The indices varied in composition; in collections, sometimes very authoritative, we also find apocryphal texts next to the canonical biblical books and lives. Sometimes, however, even here they were overtaken by the hand of zealots of piety: in some collections the sheets with the text of the apocrypha were torn out or their text was crossed out. Nevertheless, there were a lot of apocryphal works, and they continued to be rewritten throughout the centuries-old history of ancient Russian literature. Patristics. Great place in ancient Russian translated writing, patristics was occupied, that is, the writings of those Roman and Byzantine theologians of the 3rd-7th centuries who were used in Christendom special authority and were revered as “fathers of the church”: John Chrysostom, Basil the Great, Gregory of Nazianzus, Athanasius of Alexandria and others. Their works explained the dogmas Christian religion, the Holy Scriptures were interpreted, Christian virtues were affirmed and vices were exposed, and various ideological questions were raised. At the same time, works of both teaching and solemn eloquence had considerable aesthetic significance. The authors of the solemn words intended for utterance in the church during the service were excellent at creating an atmosphere of festive ecstasy or reverence, which should have gripped the believers when remembering the glorified event of church history, and were fluent in the art of rhetoric, which Byzantine writers inherited from antiquity: By chance, many of the Byzantine theologians studied with pagan rhetoricians. In Rus', John Chrysostom (died in 407) was especially famous; From words belonging to him or attributed to him, entire collections were compiled, bearing the names “Zlatoust” or “Zlatostruy”. The language of liturgical books is especially colorful and rich in tropes. Let's give a few examples. In the service menaions (a collection of services in honor of saints, arranged according to the days on which they are venerated) of the 11th century. we read: “The vines of thought appeared as ripening grapes, but you were cast into the winepress of torment; you poured out the wine of tenderness for us.” A literal translation of this phrase would destroy artistic image, therefore, we will only explain the essence of the metaphor. The saint is compared to a ripe bunch of grapevine, but it is emphasized that this is not a real, but a spiritual (“mental”) vine; the saint subjected to torment is likened to grapes that are pressed in a “press” (pit, vat) in order to “extract” the juice for making wine; the saint’s torment “exudes” the “wine of tenderness” - a feeling of reverence and compassion for him. A few more metaphorical images from the same service minions of the 11th century: “From the depths of evil, the last one ends the heights of virtue, like an eagle, flying high, gloriously in the east, the most praiseworthy of Matthew!”; “You have strained your prayer bows and arrows and the cruel and slithering serpent, you have slain, O blessed one, having delivered the holy flock from that harm”; “The towering sea of the charming polytheism, you gloriously passed through the storm of divine rule, a quiet refuge for all, being drowned.” “Prayer bows and arrows”, “the storm of polytheism”, which raises waves on the “lovely [treacherous, deceptive] sea” of vain life - all these are metaphors designed for a reader with a developed sense of words and a sophisticated imaginative thinking, excellently versed in traditional Christian symbolism. And as one can judge from the original works of Russian authors - chroniclers, hagiographers, creators of teachings and solemn words, this high art was fully accepted by them and implemented in their creativity. Speaking about the system of genres of ancient Russian literature, it is necessary to note one more important circumstance: this literature for a long time, right up to the 17th century, did not allow literary fiction. Old Russian authors wrote and read only about what actually happened: about the history of the world, countries, peoples, about the generals and kings of antiquity, about holy ascetics. Even when conveying outright miracles, they believed that it could be, that they existed fantastic creatures, inhabiting unknown lands, through which Alexander the Great passed with his troops, that in the darkness of caves and cells demons appeared to holy hermits, either tempting them in the form of harlots, or frightening them in the form of animals and monsters. When talking about historical events, ancient Russian authors could report different, sometimes mutually exclusive versions: some say this, the chronicler or chronicler will say, and others say differently. But in their eyes this was just the ignorance of the informants, so to speak, a delusion from ignorance, however, the idea that this or that version could simply be invented, composed, and even more so composed with pure literary purposes- such an idea apparently seemed implausible to older writers. This non-recognition of literary fiction also, in turn, determined the system of genres, the range of subjects and themes to which a work of literature could be devoted. The fictional hero will come to Russian literature relatively late - not earlier than the 15th century, although even at that time he will still masquerade as a hero of a distant country or an ancient time for a long time. Outright fiction was allowed only in one genre - the genre of the apologist, or parable. It was a miniature story, each of the characters and the entire plot existed only to clearly illustrate an idea. It was an allegory story, and that was its meaning. In ancient Russian literature, which knew no fiction, historical in large or small ways, the world itself was presented as something eternal, universal, where events and people’s actions are determined by the very system of the universe, where the forces of good and evil are forever fighting, a world whose history is well known ( after all, for each event mentioned in the chronicle, it was indicated exact date- the time that has passed since the “creation of the world”!) and even the future is destined: prophecies about the end of the world, the “second coming” of Christ and the Last Judgment awaiting all people on earth were widespread. This general ideological attitude could not but affect the desire to subordinate the very image of the world to certain principles and rules, to determine once and for all what should be depicted and how. Old Russian literature, like other Christian medieval literature, is subject to a special literary and aesthetic regulation - the so-called literary etiquette. 3. Periodization of the history of ancient Russian literature
The literature of Ancient Rus' is evidence of life. That is why history itself, to a certain extent, establishes the periodization of literature. Literary changes largely coincide with historical ones. How should the history of Russian literature of the 11th-17th centuries be periodized? The first period in the history of ancient Russian literature is a period of relative unity of literature. Literature mainly develops in two (interconnected by cultural relations) centers: Kyiv in the south and Novgorod in the north. It lasts a century - the 11th - and covers the beginning of the 12th century. This is the century of formation of the monumental-historical style of literature. The century of the first Russian lives - Boris and Gleb and the Kiev-Pechersk ascetics - and the first monument of Russian chronicle that has come down to us - “The Tale of Bygone Years”. This is the century of a single ancient Russian Kiev-Novgorod state. The second period, the middle of the XII - the first third of the XIII century, is the period of the emergence of new literary centers: Vladimir Zalessky and Suzdal, Rostov and Smolensk, Galich and Vladimir Volynsky; At this time, local features and local themes appeared in literature, genres diversified, and a strong stream of topicality and journalisticism was introduced into literature. This is the period of beginning feudal fragmentation. A number of common features of these two periods allow us to consider both periods in their unity (especially taking into account the difficulty of dating some translated and original works). Both first periods are characterized by the dominance of the monumental-historical style. Next comes a relatively short period of the Mongol-Tatar invasion, when the stories about the invasion of Mongol-Tatar troops in Rus', the Battle of Kalka, the capture of Vladimir Zalessky, “The Tale of the Destruction of the Russian Land” and “The Life of Alexander Nevsky” were created. Literature is compressed into one theme, but this theme manifests itself with extraordinary intensity, and the features of the monumental-historical style acquire a tragic imprint and the lyrical elation of a high patriotic feeling. This short but bright period should be considered separately. It stands out easily. The next period, the end of the 14th and the first half of the 15th century, is the century of the Pre-Renaissance, coinciding with the economic and cultural renaissance Russian land in the years immediately preceding and following the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380. This is a period of expressive-emotional style and patriotic upsurge in literature, a period of revival of chronicle writing, historical storytelling and panegyric hagiography. In the second half of the 15th century. new phenomena are being discovered in Russian literature: monuments of translated secular literature are becoming widespread narrative literature(fiction), the first original monuments of this type appear, such as “The Tale of Dracula”, “The Tale of Basarga”. These phenomena were associated with the development of reformation-humanistic movements at the end of the 15th century. However, the insufficient development of cities (which in Western Europe were centers of the Renaissance), the subordination of the Novgorod and Pskov republics, the suppression of heretical movements contributed to the fact that the movement towards the Renaissance slowed down. The conquest of Byzantium by the Turks (Constantinople fell in 1453), with which Rus' was closely connected culturally, closed Rus' within its own cultural borders. The organization of a single Russian centralized state absorbed the main spiritual forces of the people. Journalism is developing in literature; domestic politics States and transformations of society occupy more and more attention of writers and readers. From the middle of the 16th century. In literature, the official current is increasingly reflected. The time of “second monumentalism” is coming: traditional forms of literature dominate and suppress the individual principle in literature that arose in the era of the Russian Pre-Renaissance. Events of the second half of the 16th century. delayed the development of fiction, entertaining literature. century - the century of transition to the literature of modern times. This is the age of development of the individual principle in everything: in the very type of writer and in his work; a century of development of individual tastes and styles, literary professionalism and a sense of authorial ownership, individual, personal protest associated with tragic turns in the writer’s biography. The personal principle contributes to the emergence of syllabic poetry and regular theater. . Features of Old Russian literature
The literature of Ancient Rus' arose in the 11th century. and developed over seven centuries until the Petrine era. Old Russian literature is a single whole with all the diversity of genres, themes, and images. This literature is the focus of Russian spirituality and patriotism. On the pages of these works there are conversations about the most important philosophical, moral problems, about which heroes of all centuries think, speak, reflect. The works form a love for the Fatherland and one’s people, show the beauty of the Russian land, so these works touch the innermost strings of our hearts. The significance of Old Russian literature as the basis for the development of new Russian literature is very great. Thus, images, ideas, even the style of writings were inherited by A.S. Pushkin, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy. Old Russian literature did not arise out of nowhere. Its appearance was prepared by the development of language, oral folk art, cultural ties with Byzantium and Bulgaria and was due to the adoption of Christianity as a single religion. The first literary works to appear in Rus' were translated. Those books that were necessary for worship were translated. The first original works, that is, written by the Eastern Slavs themselves, date back to the end of the 11th and beginning of the 12th centuries. V. There was a formation of Russian national literature, its traditions and features developed that determined its specific features, a certain dissimilarity with the literature of our days. The purpose of this work is to show the features of Old Russian literature and its main genres. Features of Old Russian literature
1. Historicism of content. Events and characters in literature, as a rule, are the fruit of the author's imagination. Authors of works of fiction, even if they describe the true events of real people, conjecture a lot. But in Ancient Rus' everything was completely different. The ancient Russian scribe only talked about what, in his opinion, really happened. Only in the 17th century. Everyday stories with fictional characters and plots appeared in Rus'. 2. Handwritten nature of existence. Another feature of Old Russian literature is the handwritten nature of its existence. Even the appearance of the printing press in Rus' changed the situation little until the middle of the 18th century. The existence of literary monuments in manuscripts led to a special veneration of the book. What even separate treatises and instructions were written about. But on the other hand, handwritten existence led to instability ancient Russian works literature. Those works that have come down to us are the result of the work of many, many people: the author, editor, copyist, and the work itself could last for several centuries. Therefore, in scientific terminology, there are such concepts as “manuscript” (handwritten text) and “list” (rewritten work). The manuscript may contain lists various works and can be written either by the author himself or by scribes. Another fundamental concept in textual criticism is the term “edition,” i.e., the purposeful reworking of a monument caused by socio-political events, changes in the function of the text, or differences in the language of the author and editor. Closely related to the existence of a work in manuscripts is the following: specific trait Old Russian literature as a problem of authorship. The author's principle in Old Russian literature is muted, implicit. Old Russian scribes were not thrifty with other people's texts. When rewriting, the texts were processed: some phrases or episodes were excluded from them or inserted into them, and stylistic “decorations” were added. Sometimes the author's ideas and assessments were even replaced by the opposite ones. The lists of one work differed significantly from each other. Old Russian scribes did not at all strive to reveal their involvement in literary composition. Many monuments have remained anonymous; the authorship of others has been established by researchers based on indirect evidence. So it is impossible to attribute to someone else the writings of Epiphanius the Wise, with his sophisticated “weaving of words.” The style of Ivan the Terrible’s messages is inimitable, boldly mixing eloquence and rude abuse, learned examples and the style of simple conversation. It happens that in a manuscript one or another text was signed with the name of an authoritative scribe, which may or may not correspond to reality. Thus, among the works attributed to the famous preacher Saint Cyril of Turov, many, apparently, do not belong to him: the name of Cyril of Turov gave these works additional authority. The anonymity of literary monuments is also due to the fact that the ancient Russian “writer” did not consciously try to be original, but tried to show himself as traditional as possible, that is, to comply with all the rules and regulations of the established canon. 4. Literary etiquette. Well-known literary critic, researcher of ancient Russian literature, Academician D.S. Likhachev proposed a special term to designate the canon in the monuments of medieval Russian literature - “literary etiquette”. Literary etiquette consists of: from the idea of how this or that course of events should have taken place; from ideas about how the actor should have behaved in accordance with his position; from ideas about what words the writer should have used to describe what was happening. We have before us the etiquette of the world order, the etiquette of behavior and the etiquette of words. The hero is supposed to behave this way, and the author is supposed to describe the hero only in appropriate terms. Main genres of ancient Russian literature
The literature of modern times is subject to the laws of the “poetics of the genre.” It was this category that began to dictate the ways of creating a new text. But in ancient Russian literature the genre did not play such an important role. A sufficient amount of research has been devoted to the genre uniqueness of Old Russian literature, but there is still no clear classification of genres. However, some genres immediately stood out in ancient Russian literature. 1. Hagiographic genre. Life - a description of the life of a saint. Russian hagiographic literature includes hundreds of works, the first of which were written already in the 11th century. The Life, which came to Rus' from Byzantium along with the adoption of Christianity, became the main genre of ancient Russian literature, that literary form, in which the spiritual ideals of Ancient Rus' were clothed. The compositional and verbal forms of life have been refined over the centuries. High topic- a story about life that embodies ideal service to the world and God - determines the image of the author and the style of the narrative. The author of the life tells the story excitedly; he does not hide his admiration for the holy ascetic and his admiration for his righteous life. The author's emotionality and excitement color the entire narrative in lyrical tones and contribute to the creation of a solemn mood. This atmosphere is also created by the style of narration - high solemn, full of quotations from the Holy Scriptures. When writing a life, the hagiographer (the author of the life) was obliged to follow a number of rules and canons. The composition of a correct life should be three-fold: introduction, story about the life and deeds of the saint from birth to death, praise. In the introduction, the author asks forgiveness from readers for their inability to write, for the rudeness of the narrative, etc. The introduction was followed by the life itself. It cannot be called a “biography” of a saint in the full sense of the word. The author of the life selects from his life only those facts that do not contradict the ideals of holiness. The story about the life of a saint is freed from everything everyday, concrete, and accidental. In a life compiled according to all the rules, there are few dates, exact geographical names, names historical figures. The action of the life takes place, as it were, outside of historical time and specific space; it unfolds against the backdrop of eternity. Abstraction is one of the features of the hagiographic style. At the end of the life there should be praise to the saint. This is one of the most important parts of life, which required great literary art and a good knowledge of rhetoric. The oldest Russian hagiographic monuments are two lives of princes Boris and Gleb and the Life of Theodosius of Pechora. 2. Eloquence. Eloquence is an area of creativity characteristic of ancient period development of our literature. Monuments of church and secular eloquence are divided into two types: teaching and solemn. Solemn eloquence required depth of concept and great literary skill. The speaker needed the ability to construct a speech effectively in order to capture the listener, set him in a high mood corresponding to the topic, and shock him with pathos. There was a special term for a solemn speech - “word”. (There was no terminological unity in ancient Russian literature. A military story could also be called “the Word.”) Speeches were not only pronounced, but written and distributed in numerous copies. Solemn eloquence did not pursue narrow practical goals; it required the formulation of problems of broad social, philosophical and theological scope. The main reasons for creating “words” are theological issues, issues of war and peace, defense of the borders of the Russian land, internal and foreign policy, the struggle for cultural and political independence. The most ancient monument of solemn eloquence is the “Sermon on Law and Grace” by Metropolitan Hilarion, written between 1037 and 1050. Teaching eloquence is teachings and conversations. They are usually small in volume, often devoid of rhetorical embellishments, and written in the Old Russian language, which was generally accessible to people of that time. Church leaders and princes could deliver teachings. Teachings and conversations have purely practical purposes and contain necessary for a person information. “Instruction to the Brethren” by Luke Zhidyata, Bishop of Novgorod from 1036 to 1059, contains a list of rules of behavior that a Christian should adhere to: do not take revenge, do not utter “shameful” words. Go to church and behave quietly in it, honor your elders, judge truthfully, honor your prince, do not curse, keep all the commandments of the Gospel. Theodosius of Pechora is the founder of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery. He owns eight teachings to the brethren, in which Theodosius reminds the monks of the rules of monastic behavior: not to be late for church, make three prostrations, maintain decorum and order when singing prayers and psalms, and bow to each other when meeting. In his teachings, Theodosius of Pechora demands complete renunciation from the world, abstinence, constant prayer and vigil. The abbot sternly denounces idleness, money-grubbing, and intemperance in food. 3. Chronicle. Chronicles were weather records (by “years” - by “years”). The annual entry began with the words: “Into the summer.” After this there was a story about events and incidents that, from the point of view of the chronicler, were worthy of the attention of posterity. These could be military campaigns, raids by steppe nomads, natural disasters: droughts, crop failures, etc., as well as simply unusual incidents. It was thanks to the work of chroniclers that modern historians There is an amazing opportunity to look into the distant past. Most often, the ancient Russian chronicler was a learned monk, who sometimes spent time compiling the chronicle long years. In those days, it was customary to start telling stories about history from ancient times and only then move on to events recent years. The chronicler had to first of all find, put in order, and often rewrite the work of his predecessors. If the compiler of the chronicle had at his disposal not one, but several chronicle texts at once, then he had to “reduce” them, that is, combine them, choosing from each what he considered necessary to include in his own work. When materials relating to the past were collected, the chronicler moved on to recounting the events of his time. The result of this great job the chronicle was forming. After some time, other chroniclers continued this collection. Apparently, the first major monument of ancient Russian chronicle writing was the chronicle code compiled in the 70s of the 11th century. The compiler of this code is believed to have been the abbot of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery Nikon the Great (? - 1088). Nikon's work formed the basis of another chronicle, which was compiled in the same monastery two decades later. IN scientific literature it received the code name "Initial vault". Its nameless compiler replenished Nikon's collection not only with news from recent years, but also with chronicle information from other Russian cities. "The Tale of Bygone Years" Based on the chronicles of the 11th century tradition. The greatest chronicle monument of the era of Kievan Rus was born - “The Tale of Bygone Years”. It was compiled in Kyiv in the 10s. 12th century According to some historians, its probable compiler was the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery Nestor, also known for his other works. When creating The Tale of Bygone Years, its compiler used numerous materials with which he supplemented the Primary Code. These materials included Byzantine chronicles, texts of treaties between Rus' and Byzantium, monuments of translated and ancient Russian literature, and oral traditions. The compiler of "The Tale of Bygone Years" set as his goal not only to tell about the past of Rus', but also to determine the place Eastern Slavs among European and Asian peoples. The chronicler talks in detail about the settlement Slavic peoples in ancient times, about the settlement of territories by the Eastern Slavs that would later become part of the Old Russian state, about the morals and customs of different tribes. The Tale of Bygone Years emphasizes not only the antiquity of the Slavic peoples, but also the unity of their culture, language and writing, created in the 9th century. brothers Cyril and Methodius. The chronicler considers the adoption of Christianity to be the most important event in the history of Rus'. The story of the first Russian Christians, the baptism of Rus', the spread of the new faith, the construction of churches, the emergence of monasticism, and the success of Christian enlightenment occupies a central place in the Tale. The wealth of historical and political ideas reflected in The Tale of Bygone Years suggests that its compiler was not just an editor, but also a talented historian, a deep thinker, and a brilliant publicist. Many chroniclers of subsequent centuries turned to the experience of the creator of the Tale, sought to imitate him and almost necessarily placed the text of the monument at the beginning of each new chronicle. Conclusion
So, the main range of works of ancient Russian literature are religious and edifying works, lives of saints, and liturgical chants. Old Russian literature arose in the 11th century. One of its first monuments, the “Sermon on Law and Grace” by Metropolitan Hilarion of Kyiv, was created in the 30s and 40s. XI century. XVII century - last century ancient Russian literature. During its course, traditional ancient Russian literary canons are gradually destroyed, new genres and new ideas about man and the world are born. Literature refers to the works of ancient Russian scribes, and texts by authors of the 18th century, and the works of Russian classics of the last century, and the works of modern writers. Of course, there are obvious differences between literature XVIII, XIX and XX centuries But all Russian literature of three last centuries is not at all similar to the monuments of ancient Russian verbal art. However, it is precisely in comparison with them that it reveals many similarities. The cultural horizon of the world is constantly expanding. Now, in the 20th century, we understand and appreciate the past not only of classical antiquity. It has firmly entered into the cultural baggage of humanity Western European Middle Ages, back in the 19th century. seemingly barbaric, “Gothic” (the original meaning of this word was precisely “barbaric”), Byzantine music and iconography, African sculpture, Hellenistic romance, Fayum portrait, Persian miniature, Inca art and much, much more. Humanity is freeing itself from “Eurocentrism” and egocentric focus on the present 10. Deep penetration into the cultures of the past and the cultures of other peoples brings times and countries closer together. The unity of the world is becoming more and more tangible. Distances between cultures are shrinking, and there is less and less room for national enmity and stupid chauvinism. This greatest merit humanities and the arts themselves - a merit that will be fully realized only in the future. One of the most urgent tasks is to introduce monuments of the literary art of Ancient Rus' into the circle of reading and understanding of the modern reader. The art of words is in an organic connection with the fine arts, with architecture, with music, and there cannot be a true understanding of one without an understanding of all other areas artistic creativity Ancient Rus'. In the great and unique culture of Ancient Rus', they are closely intertwined art and literature, humanistic and material culture, broad international connections and a pronounced national identity. Bibliography
Likhachev D.S. Great Heritage // Likhachev D.S. Selected works in three volumes. Volume 2. - L.: Artist. lit., 1987. Polyakov L.V. Book centers of Ancient Rus'. - L., 1991. The Tale of Bygone Years // Monuments of literature of Ancient Rus'. The beginning of Russian literature. X - beginning of the XII century. - M., 1978. Likhachev D.S. Textology. Based on Russian material literature X-XVII centuries - M.-L., 1962; Textology. Brief essay. M.-L., 1964.
At the end of the 10th century, the literature of Ancient Rus' arose, literature on the basis of which developed literature of three fraternal peoples - Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian. Old Russian literature arose along with the adoption of Christianity and was initially called upon to serve the needs of the church: to provide church ritual, disseminate information on the history of Christianity, and educate societies in the spirit of Christianity. These tasks determined both the genre system of literature and the features of its development.
The adoption of Christianity had significant consequences for the development of books and literature in Ancient Rus'.
Old Russian literature was formed on the basis of the unified literature of the southern and eastern Slavs, which arose under the influence of Byzantine and Old Bulgarian culture.
Bulgarian and Byzantine priests who came to Rus' and their Russian students needed to translate and rewrite books that were necessary for worship. And some books brought from Bulgaria were not translated, they were read in Rus' without translation, since there was a closeness between the Old Russian and Old Bulgarian languages. Liturgical books, lives of saints, monuments of eloquence, chronicles, collections of sayings, historical and historical stories were brought to Rus'. Christianization in Rus' required a restructuring of the worldview, books about the history of the human race, about the ancestors of the Slavs were rejected, and Russian scribes needed works that would set out Christian ideas about world history and natural phenomena.
Although the need for books in the Christian state was very great, the possibilities for satisfying this need were very limited: in Rus' there were few skilled scribes, and the writing process itself was very long, and the material on which the first books were written - parchment - was very expensive . Therefore, books were written only for rich people - princes, boyars and the church.
But before the adoption of Christianity in Rus' it was known Slavic writing. It was used in diplomatic (letters, contracts) and legal documents, and there was also a census between literate people.
Before the emergence of literature, there were speech genres of folklore: epic tales, mythological legends, fairy tales, ritual poetry, laments, lyrics. Folklore played a major role in the development of national Russian literature. Legends are known about fairy-tale heroes, about heroes, about the foundations of ancient capitals about Kiy, Shchek, Horeb. There was also oratory: princes spoke to soldiers and made speeches at feasts.
But literature did not begin with the recordings of folklore, although it continued to exist and develop with literature for a long time. For the emergence of literature, special reasons were needed.
The stimulus for the emergence of Old Russian literature was the adoption of Christianity, when it became necessary to acquaint Rus' with the Holy Scriptures, with the history of the church, with world history, with the lives of the saints. Without liturgical books, the churches being built could not exist. And also there was a need to translate from the Greek and Bulgarian originals and distribute a large number of texts. This is what was the impetus for the creation of literature. Literature was supposed to remain purely ecclesiastical, cultic, especially since secular genres existed in oral form. But in reality everything was different. First, the biblical accounts of the creation of the world contained many scientific information about the earth, the animal world, the structure human body, the history of the state, that is, had nothing to do with Christian ideology. Secondly, the chronicle, everyday stories, such masterpieces as “Tales of Igor’s Campaign”, “Teaching” by Vladimir Monomakh, “Prayer” by Daniil Zatochnik were left out of cult literature.
That is, the functions of literature at the time of its origin and throughout history differ.
The adoption of Christianity contributed to the rapid development of literature only for two centuries; in the future, the church did its best to hinder the development of literature.
And yet the literature of Rus' was devoted to ideological issues. Genre system reflected a worldview typical of Christian states. “Old Russian literature can be considered as literature of one theme and one plot. This story is world history, and this topic is the meaning human life“- this is how in his work D. Likhachev formulated the features of the literature of the most ancient period of Russian history.
There is no doubt that the Baptism of Rus' was an event of enormous historical importance, not only politically and socially, but also culturally. The history of ancient Russian culture began after Russia adopted Christianity, and the date of the Baptism of Rus' in 988 becomes the starting point for the national-historical development of Russia.
Since the Baptism of Rus', Russian culture has continually faced a difficult, dramatic, tragic choice of its path. From the point of view of cultural studies, it is important not only to date, but also to document this or that historical event.
1.2 Periods of the history of ancient literature.
The history of ancient Russian literature cannot but be considered in isolation from the history of the Russian people and the Russian state itself. Seven centuries (XI-XVIII centuries), during which ancient Russian literature developed, are full of significant events in historical life Russian people. The literature of Ancient Rus' is evidence of life. History itself has established several periods of literary history.
The first period is literature ancient Russian state, the period of literary unity. It lasts a century (XI and early XII centuries). This is the century of formation of the historical style of literature. Literature of this period developed in two centers: in the south of Kyiv and in the north of Novgorod. Characteristic feature literature of the first period is the leading role of Kyiv, as cultural center the entire Russian land. Kyiv is the most important economic link on the world trade route. The Tale of Bygone Years belongs to this period.
Second period, mid-12th century. - first third of the 13th century. This is the period of the emergence of new literary centers: Vladimir Zalessky and Suzdal, Rostov and Smolensk, Galich and Vladimir Volynsky. During this period, local themes arose in literature, different genres. This is the period of the beginning of feudal fragmentation.
Next comes a short period of the Mongol-Tatar invasion. During this period, the stories “Words about the destruction of the Russian land” and “The Life of Alexander Nevsky” were created. During this period, one topic was discussed in the literature, the topic of the invasion of Mongol-Tatar troops in Rus'. This period is considered the shortest, but also the brightest.
The next period, the end of the 14th century. and the first half of the 15th century, this is a period of patriotic upsurge in literature, a period of chronicle writing and historical storytelling. This century coincides with the economic and cultural revival of the Russian land before and after the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380. In the middle of the 15th century. New phenomena appear in literature: translated literature, “The Tale of Dracula”, “The Tale of Basarga” appear. All these periods, from the 13th century. to the 15th century can be combined into one period and defined as the period of feudal fragmentation and the unification of North-Eastern Rus'. Since the literature of the second period begins with the capture of Constantinople by the Crusaders (1204), and when the main role of Kyiv had already ended and from a single Old Russian people Three fraternal peoples are emerging: Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian.
The third period is the period of literature of the Russian centralized state of the XIV - XVII centuries. When the state plays an active role in the international relations of its time, and also reflects the further growth of the Russian centralized state. And since the 17th century. begins new period Russian history. .
Old Russian literature - what is it? Works from the 11th to 17th centuries include not only literary works, but also historical texts (chronicle stories and chronicles), descriptions of travel (which were called walks), lives (narratives of the lives of saints), teachings, messages, examples of the oratorical genre, as well as some texts of business content. The themes of ancient Russian literature, as you can see, are very rich. All works contain elements of emotional illumination of life and artistic creativity.
Authorship
At school, students study what ancient Russian literature is and take notes on basic concepts. They probably know that most works dating back to this period did not retain their author's names. The literature of Ancient Rus' is mostly anonymous and therefore similar to oral folk art. The texts were handwritten and distributed through correspondence - copying, as a result of which they were often revised to suit new literary tastes, political situation, as well as in connection with the literary abilities and personal preferences of the scribes. Therefore, the works have come to us in different editions and versions. Comparative analysis they help researchers restore the history of a particular monument and draw a conclusion about which option is closest to the original source, the author’s text, and also trace the history of its changes.
Sometimes, in very rare cases, we have the author’s version, and often in later lists we can find the monuments of ancient Russian literature closest to the original. Therefore, they should be studied on the basis of all available versions of the works. They are available in large city libraries, museums, and archives. Many texts have been preserved in large quantities lists, some are limited. The only option is presented, for example, “The Tale of Misfortune”, “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”.
"Etiquette" and repeatability
It is necessary to note such a feature of Old Russian literature as the repetition in different texts belonging to different eras of certain characteristics, situations, epithets, metaphors, comparisons. The works are characterized by so-called etiquette: the hero behaves or acts in one way or another, since he follows the concepts of his time about how to behave in various circumstances. And events (for example, battles) are described using constant forms and images.
10th century literature
We continue to talk about what it is. Take notes on the main points if you are afraid of forgetting something. majestic, solemn, traditional. Its origin dates back to the 10th century, or more precisely to its end, when, after the adoption of Christianity as the state religion in Rus', historical and official texts written in Church Slavonic began to appear. Through the mediation of Bulgaria (which was the source of these works), Ancient Rus' joined the developed literature of Byzantium and southern Slavs. To realize its interests, the feudal state led by Kiev needed to create its own texts and introduce new genres. With the help of literature, it was planned to instill patriotism, establish the political and historical unity of the people and ancient Russian princes, denouncing their strife.
Literature of the 11th - early 13th centuries.
The themes and objectives of the literature of this period (the fight against the Polovtsians and Pechenegs - external enemies, questions of the connection between Russian history and world history, the struggle for the Kiev throne of princes, the history of the emergence of the state) determined the nature of the style of this time, which D. S. Likhachev called monumental historicism. The emergence of chronicle writing in our country is associated with the beginning Russian literature.
11th century
The first lives of Theodosius of Pechersk, Boris and Gleb date back to this century. They are distinguished by their attention to contemporary problems, literary excellence, and vitality.
Patriotism, maturity of socio-political thought, journalisticism and high skill are marked by the monuments of oratory "The Sermon on Law and Grace", written by Hilarion in the first half of the 11th century, and "Words and Teachings" (1130-1182). The “teaching” of the Grand Duke of Kyiv Vladimir Monomakh, who lived from 1053 to 1125, is imbued with deep humanity and concern for the fate of the state.
"The Tale of Igor's Campaign"
It is impossible to avoid mentioning this work when the topic of the article is ancient Russian literature. What is "The Tale of Igor's Campaign"? This greatest work Ancient Rus', created by an unknown author in the 80s of the 12th century. The text is devoted to a specific topic - the unsuccessful campaign in the Polovtsian steppe in 1185 by Prince Igor Svyatoslavovich. The author is interested not only in the fate of the Russian land, he also recalls the events of the present and the distant past, therefore the true heroes of “The Lay” are not Igor or Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich, who also receives a lot of attention in the work, but the Russian land, the people are what it is based on Old Russian literature. “The Word” is connected in many ways with the narrative traditions of its time. But, as in any work of genius, it also contains original features, manifested in rhythmic sophistication, linguistic richness, the use of techniques characteristic of oral folk art, and their reinterpretation, civic pathos and lyricism.
National patriotic theme
It is raised during the period of the Horde yoke (from 1243 to the end of the 15th century) by ancient Russian literature. in the works of this time? Let's try to answer this question. The style of monumental historicism acquires a certain expressive connotation: the texts are lyrical and have tragic pathos. The idea of a strong centralized princely power acquired at this time great importance. IN individual stories and chronicles (for example, in “The Tale of the Ruin of Ryazan by Batu”) report the horrors of the enemy’s invasion and the brave struggle against the enslavers of the Russian people. This is where patriotism comes into play. The image of the defender of the land, the ideal prince, was reflected most clearly in the work “The Tale of the Life of Alexander Nevsky” written in the 70s of the 13th century.
The reader of “The Tale of the Destruction of the Russian Land” is presented with a picture of the greatness of nature and the power of princes. This work is only an excerpt from an incomplete text that has reached us. It is dedicated to the events of the first half of the 13th century - the difficult time of the Horde yoke.
New style: expressive-emotional
In the period 14-50s. In the 15th century, ancient Russian literature changed. What is the expressive-emotional style that emerged at this time? It reflects the ideology and events of the period of unification of northeastern Rus' around Moscow and the formation of a centralized Russian state. Then in literature interest in personality, human psychology, his inner spiritual world(although still only within the framework of religious consciousness). This led to an increase in the subjective nature of works.
And so it appeared a new style- expressive-emotional, in which verbal sophistication and “weaving of words” (that is, the use of ornamental prose) should be noted. These new techniques were intended to reflect the desire to depict the feelings of an individual person.
In the second half of the 15th - early 16th centuries. stories arise that go back in their plot to a novelistic character oral histories(“The Tale of the Merchant Basarga”, “The Tale of Dracula” and others). The number of translated works of a fictional nature is noticeably increasing; the legend genre was widespread at that time (for example, “The Tale of the Princes of Vladimir”).
"The Tale of Peter and Fevronia"
As mentioned above, works of ancient Russian literature also borrow some features of legends. In the mid-16th century, Ermolai-Erasmus, an ancient Russian publicist and writer, created the famous “The Tale of Peter and Fevronia,” which is one of the most significant texts in Russian literature. It is based on the legend of how, thanks to her intelligence, a peasant girl became a princess. Fairy-tale techniques are widely used in the work, and social motives are also heard.
Characteristics of 16th century literature
In the 16th century, the official nature of the texts intensified, distinctive feature literature becomes solemn and pompous. Such works are widely distributed, the purpose of which is to regulate political, spiritual, everyday and legal life. A striking example- "The Great Ones, which are a set of texts consisting of 12 volumes, which were intended for home reading for every month. At the same time, Domostroy was created, which sets out the rules of behavior in the family, gives advice on housekeeping, as well as on relationships between people. In historical works During that period, fiction was increasingly penetrating in order to make the narrative more interesting.
17th century
Works of ancient Russian literature of the 17th century are noticeably transformed. The art of the so-called new era begins to take shape. The process of democratization is underway, the themes of works are expanding. The role of the individual in history is changing due to the events of the Peasant War (late 16th - early 17th centuries), as well as the Time of Troubles. The actions of Boris Godunov, Ivan the Terrible, Vasily Shuisky and other historical characters are now explained not only by divine will, but also by the personality traits of each of them. A special genre appears - democratic satire, where church and government regulations, legal proceedings (for example, "The Tale of Shemyakin court"), office practice ("Kalyazin Petition").
"Life" of Avvakum, everyday stories
In the 17th century it was written autobiographical work who lived from 1620 to 1682. Archpriest Avvakum - "Life". It is presented in the textbook "Old Russian Literature" (grade 9). The peculiarity of the text is its rich, lively language, either colloquial and everyday, or lofty bookish.
During this period, everyday stories about Frol Skobeev, Savva Grudtsyn and others were also created, reflecting original character ancient Russian literature. Translated collections of short stories appear and poetry develops ( famous authors- Sylvester Medvedev, Simeon Polotskits, Karion Istomin).
The history of ancient Russian literature ends with the 17th century, and the next stage begins - the literature of modern times.
The history of ancient Russian literature of the 11th-13th centuries is often considered as the first chapter in the history of modern Russian literature. And indeed, images from chronicles or “The Lay of Igor’s Campaign” firmly take their place in the fund of national culture - just remember Pushkin’s “Song of prophetic Oleg"or the opera "Prince Igor" by Borodin. However, it is important to understand that these images come from a world that was significantly different from ours in its value systems. Awareness of this difference is the first step towards understanding all the cultural works of Ancient Rus'.
The main difference between ancient Russian literature and modern literature fiction is the purpose. The task of fiction is to lift the reader above ordinary world. Books that are “intelligent” and “challenging” do this through unexpected form and multifaceted content; in those that are “simpler,” we are treated to a wildly twisted plot with an unobvious outcome, and some masterpieces manage to combine both. Statements XIX critics centuries, as if art must certainly be “useful,” today seem deeply outdated. And even the obligatory “partisanship” of literature, which was until recently obligatory, seems to have finally been allowed to be forgotten.
It's a completely different matter - book culture Russian Middle Ages. Books and writing in general appeared in Rus' after Epiphany, so their composition and content were determined primarily by the needs of the Church. And in the eyes of the Church, art for art’s sake was a dangerous matter, because such art is capable of attracting attention - and therefore helping the devil, who will certainly take the opportunity to distract people from prayer and in some cunning way plunge human souls into temptation. To prevent this, some popular forms folk entertainment- for example, area comedies - were directly prohibited by church canons (at the same time, area comedy is one of the art forms from which modern theater originated). Of course, it was not easy to implement such severe prohibitions: “trumpets, buffoons, harps and mermaids” continued, as ancient Russian preachers admitted, to “lure” the people away from God. At the same time, mentions of buffoons in the sources of the pre-Mongol era are rare, and examples of their creativity dating back to such early times are completely unknown to us. The literature of Ancient Rus' with which the modern reader deals is a purely religious literature, and its main task is to bring spiritual benefit. It makes sense to take up a pen only insofar as the result of your creativity will contribute to the salvation of the soul.
This goal setting did not at all exclude the grace of style. On the contrary, divine truths are so complex and brilliant that it is impossible to express them in “simple” language, and even a skilled writer can be baffled by this task. The author of “The Tale of [the Holy Princes] Boris and Gleb,” addressing the heroes of his work, admits:
“I don’t know how to praise you, and what to say, I don’t understand and can’t come up with. I would call you angels who quickly come to the mourning, but you lived in the flesh on earth among people. I would call you people, but you surpass human reason with your miracles and help to the weak. I would have proclaimed you crowns or princes, but you have shown more humility than the simplest and most humble of people, and it is for this that you have been admitted to heaven into the heavenly dwellings...” Here and below, quotes are translated by Dmitry Dobrovolsky.
In other words, not a single definition by itself is capable of conveying the greatness of the sacrifice that the martyred princes made, which means that we need to find as many such definitions as possible - suddenly, as they will say much later, the number will change in quality and at the intersection of many semantic fields, will something remotely similar to the described object still appear?
Thoughts were expressed using complex multifaceted comparisons. For example, addressing his prince, the author of the turn of the 12th-13th centuries Daniil Zatochnik consistently compares himself with “the pale grass that grew between the walls,” a lamb, a baby and a “bird of heaven” - the common thing here the fact that they all depend on mercy from above, which Daniel himself seeks from his recipient. Humanity could be likened to the temple of the wisdom of God, which rests on seven pillars, one for each of the seven Ecumenical Councils. The books themselves were figuratively called the rivers that water the Universe. The most important skill of the ancient Russian scribe was the selection of synonyms - the more, the better. For example, speaking about the Baptism of Rus', one could say that Russian people “came closer to God”, “rejected the devil”, “condemned the service of Satan”, “spit on the demon”, “knew the true God”, etc. d. And it’s especially good if all the phrases found can be combined in one sentence. It is clear that this will make the sentence longer and it will become inconvenient to read it. But also the items about which we're talking about, do not have to be accessible. “Difficult books” is how Christian literature is defined in one of the oldest Russian manuscripts, Prince Svyatoslav’s “Izbornik” of 1073.
It is natural to ask: how is the desire to speak complex language about complex matters was combined with one of the key postulates of the Christian faith - with the conviction of the weakness and sinfulness of man? How can a weak and sinful person write about divine truths? The obvious contradiction was resolved by the fact that complex phrases and multifaceted images of ancient Russian literature were rarely the original invention of local writers.
By the time of Baptism, it was not uncommon to know foreign languages, especially Greek. As a result, ancient Russian literature could rely, at a minimum, on the achievements of Byzantine literature, and that, in turn, combined ancient rhetoric with the rich imagery of Holy Scripture. That is, by and large, the Kyiv, Novgorod or, say, Rostov scribe had at his disposal the entire thousand-year experience of Judeo-Christian civilization - it was only necessary to select samples suitable for the occasion. If it was necessary to talk about a noble prince-warrior (for example, about Alexander Nevsky), then techniques were used that were tested by predecessors when describing the great warriors of antiquity - Gideon or Alexander Make- Don If we were talking about a criminal, then here too the previous literature provided a very representative set of examples, from Cain to tyrant emperors. At the same time, many of the authors of “exemplary” works were revered by the Church as saints, which provided some additional guarantee of the appropriateness and accuracy of borrowings - and at the same time freed those who used the findings of their predecessors from worries about their own sinfulness. It is clear that such creative method limits the freedom of literary experimentation and diverges from the way it is customary to write now. But for a religious culture, permeated with the idea of human sinfulness, it was precisely the strict adherence to the patterns sanctified by tradition that turned out to be the most suitable. If you are subject to devilish temptations, then it is better not to invent anything.
These were, if you like, " theoretical basis"Old Russian literature. Let's turn to the most important works, created in Rus' in the XI-XIII centuries.
The first in this series should undoubtedly be called “The Tale of Law and Goodness,” written by Hilarion, Metropolitan of Kyiv in 1051-1055. Apparently, the “Lay” was written even before Hilarion’s appointment to the department: the author names among the living the wife of Prince Yaroslav the Wise Irina-Ingigerda, who died back in 1050. On the other hand, Hilarion mentions Kyiv church Annunciation on the Golden Gate, built around 1037, which means that the “Word” was written after 1037. It is impossible to say anything more precise about the circumstances of the creation of this monument. Hilarion's biography is also very poorly known. However, the content of the Lay is eloquent in itself.
The work consists of three parts. First, Hilarion tells the reader about how humanity learned about the path of salvation and finding eternal life: first this happened through the Old Testament, which Hilarion calls “Za-ko-n”, and then through the New - “Grace”. At the same time, the author pays special attention to the dual divine-human nature of Christ, explaining this complex dogma with the help of a long (almost two dozen elements!) series of paired contrasts:
“...how a man [Christ] fasted for 40 days and was hungry, but how God defeated the tempter, how a man came to a wedding in Cana of Galilee, but how God turned water into wine, how a man slept in a boat and how God stopped the wind and waves (and they listened to him)..."
Then it is reported that Rus', although it was a country of pagans, has now also joined the grace of Christianity. This gives rise to a new series of oppositions:
“Being barbarians, we called ourselves the people of God, and being enemies, we called ourselves sons, and we no longer condemn in a Jewish way, but in a Christian way we bless, and we do not think how to crucify [Christ], but to the Crucified we worship..."
Finally, Hilarion praises “the great Khagan of our land, Vladimir,” for the Baptism of Rus'. In this last part, it is strongly emphasized that Rus' is an independent and powerful state, which is “known and heard to all the ends of the earth,” and also that Vladimir came to Christ himself, without hearing the apostolic sermon and without seeing what he did. preachers of miracles. Byzantium (from where priests, church craftsmen, and books arrived in Rus') is mentioned only once. This kind of patriotism becomes especially noteworthy if we consider that it was at the time of compilation of the Lay - the 1040s - that the next military conflict between Rus' and Byzantium occurred. And Hilarion himself was appointed metropolitan by a council of bishops, without the blessing of the Patriarch of Constantinople, to whom the Russian Church was then subordinate. As a result, scholars often talk about the anti-Byzantine orientation of the “Tales of Law and Grace.” But even more remarkable is the author’s historical outlook: from the moment of the Baptism of Rus' to the compilation of the “Lay”, at most sixty years passed, and local scribes could already, as we see, build large-scale schemes of world history, covering times from Abraham to Yaroslav the Wise inclusive. In other words, although Hilarion emphasizes the independence of ancient Russian culture, the very text of the “Word” he composed clearly demonstrates how thoroughly Kievan Rus was included in the world cultural context.
Another famous scribe of the 11th century was Nestor. Nestor is usually known as the “chronicler” - according to the epithet that his grateful followers awarded him several centuries later. But there are a number of contradictions between the most ancient chronicles and the works signed with the name of Nestor, so modern science speaks with caution about Nestor’s participation in chronicle writing. However, there is no doubt about Nestor’s contribution to ancient Russian hagiography, that is, to the writing of the lives of saints.
Nestor’s first accomplishment in the field of hagiography was the writing of “Reading about the life and destruction of the blessed passion-bearers Boris and Gleb.” The history of princes Boris and Gleb goes back to the events of 1015, when the sons of the baptist of Rus' Vladimir Svyatoslavich, barely waiting for the death of their father, staged a bloody struggle for power. How exactly this civil strife developed is a complex question. However, relatively early on, the idea was formed that two of the heirs - Boris Rostovsky and Gleb Muromsky - did not participate in the battle and did not even resist the killers sent to them, just so as not to “raise a hand against their brother.” And in 1072, the veneration of the two princes was further strengthened thanks to the miraculous discovery of their fragrant relics. Apparently, around the same time, the oldest version of the legend about the death of Boris and Gleb appeared, notable for the lengthy and picturesque scene of the murder of Prince Boris: driven by rage, the murderers point spears at Boris, but then the action suddenly freezes, and the doomed prince says a long and pathetic prayer. Obviously, in reality everything was not like that, but Boris’s dying thoughts about death as deliverance from the temptations of this world make an indelible impression on the reader. Nestor freed the legend from some plot inconsistencies, combined the story of the death of the princes with the story of miracles from their remains, and in addition, provided the legend with a historical preface, starting it, no less, from the Fall of Adam. The result of such processing is less impressive than the original story, the action is no longer so dynamic, and the images are drier. At the same time, under the pen of Nestor, the death of Boris and Gleb turned from a private episode of local politics into a world-class event, and the Russian saints became the heavenly patrons of all Christians.
“Having been honored” to narrate the life and death of the martyred princes, Nestor, in his own words, “forced himself to turn to another story” and “attempted to write” about Saint Theodosius of Pechersk. Theodosius came from a wealthy family and could have become the heir to a large estate, but from childhood he was religious and eventually fled to Kyiv to join a monastery. In the 11th century there were few monasteries in Rus'; the one where Theodosius was taken was a simple cave dug into the steep bank of the Dnieper. However, over the course of several decades, this modest monastery turned into the center of monastic life in Rus', and Theodosius (by this time already abbot) became the recognized leader of the ascetic movement. The biography of Theodosius and the history of the formation of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery are full of dramatic episodes: the monks more than once came into open conflict with strongmen of the world this. However, Nestor managed to reconcile the traditional form of living with reliability and psychological accuracy in the presentation of conflict situations.
A similar combination of following literary traditions The ancient Russian chronicle also presents masterly descriptions of real everyday conflicts. The chronicle is not an ordinary “monument of literature.” She had a special task - to find the place of Rus' in general plan Providence regarding the history of mankind. Therefore, the chronicle story begins with a story about what kind of peoples there are on earth and where the Slavs came from, but cannot end by definition: the end of the chronicle work could only be the end of history as such, or, in other words, the Last Judgment. It is clear that one person cannot write such a work. But each subsequent scribe could edit what he inherited from his predecessors, and when the accumulated material ran out, he could supplement the chronicle text with a description of those events of which he himself was an eyewitness. When one chronicler retired, another took over the baton, and so gradually, generation after generation, the chronicles grew from a relatively small narrative about the “beginning of the Russian land” into extensive historical canvases covering events from Flood to the current reigning prince.
The first of these so-called chronicle collections was created in Kiev no later than the 30s of the 11th century, and at the beginning of the 12th century, another expansion and revision of the same text basically led to the emergence of a work that is now published under the title The Tale of Bygone Years. When exactly this name appeared - at the beginning of the 12th century or earlier - is difficult to say. But in essence it clearly indicates the religious meaning of the chronicle work: “at times” and “for years”, or “ temporary summers"in the Slavic translation of the book of the Acts of the Apostles, the term set by God is called Last Judgment. And since a “story” is already being written about these last years of the world’s existence, it means that the second coming will happen any day now and we must be prepared for it.
A specific vision of the task of their own work early led chroniclers to a very “anti-artistic” method of organizing material: with rare exceptions, events were recorded in strictly chronological order, according to separate “chapters” devoted to incidents of one year and beginning with the standard heading “In the summer of such and such” (in science it is customary to call these “chapters” annual articles). It is inconvenient to read such text: headings next articles interrupt the story itself interesting place, and even immediate cause and effect may be separated into different articles and broken up by reports of completely different events and processes. It’s also difficult for the narrator: his ability to develop the plot and reveal characters characters inevitably limited to one year. However, the logic of the divine plan still cannot be accessible to the average person, so for the medieval consciousness the grid of dates remained almost the only visual reference point in the element of events.
Some chronicle news is extremely laconic (“The saints were transferred to the Church of the Holy Mother of God” or “Prince Yaroslav went to war against Lithuania”). Others (for example, the story about the abduction and blinding of Prince Vasilko Rosti-slavich in 1097) are detailed narratives with bright characters and scenes full of drama. And the authors are not always loyal to the current government: the chronicle pages mention the miscalculations of princes, the abuses of boyars, and church “rebellions.” At the beginning of the 12th century, the critical tone of the chroniclers weakened somewhat, a comprehensive view of events gave way to praise ruling princes. However, in Rus' there were several chronicle traditions: in addition to Kiev (where chronicle writing originated), Novgorod, the Vladimir-Suzdal principality, as well as in Volyn and the Galician land had their own chroniclers. As a result, modern researchers are presented with a detailed and multifaceted picture of the political life of Russian lands.
The political rise of Rus', which marked the 11th century, quickly gave way to an era of fragmentation. However, from the point of view of literature, the new historical period was no less interesting than the previous one. The second half of the 12th century saw the work of the famous composer of church hymns and teachings, Cyril of Turov. His "Tale of the Blind and the Lame" is a sophisticated parable about the nature of sin. And at the turn of the 12th and 13th centuries, no less sophisticated praise of the power of the grand princely power appeared in the Vladimir land - “The Word” (in another version - “Prayer”) by Daniil Zatochnik, about which there was already an opportunity to speak above. However, the most famous and most in demand among modern readers remains another famous monument of this time - “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.”
“The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” is very original. Its plot is built not around the figure of some saint and not around a miracle revealed from above, and not even around a heroically won battle, but around the unsuccessful campaign of Prince of Novgorod-Seversk Igor Svyatoslavich against the steppe nomads in 1185. The text opens with a story about the advance of Russian troops into the steppe and that the beginning of the expedition was accompanied by an ominous sign - solar eclipse. Then follows a description of two battles: one unfolds successfully for the Russian troops, and the second ends in defeat, after which the prince-leaders, led by Igor, are captured. Then the action moves to Rus', and the reader finds himself first in Kyiv, at the council Prince of Kyiv Svyatoslav with the boyars, and then in Putivl, where on the city wall his wife, Yaroslavna, cries for the missing Igor. The Lay ends with a message about Igor’s escape from Polovtsian captivity: to the joy of Rus' and surrounding countries, the prince triumphantly returns to Kyiv.
Describing all these events, the author of “The Lay” actively uses very complex metaphors (“There was not enough bloody wine, here the brave Russians finished the feast: they gave the matchmakers drink, and they themselves died for the Russian land”); non-Christian gods are mentioned and mythological creatures: Div, winds - Stribozh’s grandchildren, “great Horse”, etc. Author's assessment and even more so, Christian morality is almost completely hidden behind this bizarre verbal pattern.
One might think that this is a military epic, similar to, say, the Old French “Song of Roland.” But the most important sign An epic is a poetic form with a clear meter, but it cannot be identified in “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.” In addition, along with the “pagan” or “folk”, the Christian, bookish component is also represented in the imagery of the “Word”. So, in order to show the devastation of the Russian land from princely civil strife, the author describes flocks of birds that eat corpses:
“Then on Russian soil the cry of a plowman was rarely heard, but crows often croaked, dividing corpses, and jackdaws spoke in their own language, gathering for prey.”
Biblical prophecies also mention corpses that will become food for birds when God turns away from Israel for their sins. It is also noteworthy that Prince Svyatoslav’s arguments to the boyars (defined by the author himself as the “golden word”) are devoted not so much to the need to fight the enemies of Rus', but to the pride of those who do it at the wrong time:
“Oh, my nephews, Igor and Vsevolod! Early on you began to cut down the Polovtsian land with swords and gain glory for yourself. You won dishonorably, you shed the blood of the filthy ones dishonorably. Your brave hearts are forged from cruel damask steel and tempered with audacity. What have you done to my silver gray hair!”
In other words, the theme of “The Lay” is not only military valor, but also the audacity of princely thoughts. And this is already a predominantly bookish, essentially Christian motif.
The unusual composition and imagery played a role in “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” cruel joke. The strange work was not popular among readers and copyists. Only one of his manuscripts has reached modern times, found by antiquities lovers in late XVIII century and published in 1800. And when this manuscript was destroyed during the famous Moscow fire of 1812, skeptical researchers were able to assert that the Lay was a late forgery, which unscrupulous publishers, for one reason or another, passed off as a monument of the 12th century. Modern science: the language of the “Lay” is very close to the language of authentic monuments of the 12th century; A falsifier from the time of Catherine II would not have been able to reproduce so well the grammar and vocabulary of the Old Russian language - especially those features that have become understandable only in our days. At the same time, the very emergence of a dispute about the origin of the “Word” clearly demonstrates the unusualness of this monument for the ancient Russian book literature of the pre-Mongol era.
Not all works of ancient Russian literature of the 11th-13th centuries have reached us. Books were composed, copied, read and stored primarily in cities, and cities were built mainly from wood, often burned, and libraries perished in the flames of these fires. Besides, big cities and rich monasteries were an attractive target for invaders - that is why the Horde invasion of the mid-13th century was a strong blow to literature. However, much has been preserved, not least thanks to the diligence of subsequent generations. From the point of view of the scribes of the 14th-17th centuries, the vocabulary of the pre-Mongol period, which followed Byzantine models, itself turned into a time-honored example to follow, and what was written by the great predecessors should have been preserved and disseminated. And although the originals of most works of the 11th-13th centuries have not reached us, thanks to copies made from them in subsequent centuries, modern researchers have a very detailed idea of how ancient Russian literature began.
1. Chronicle. “The Tale of Bygone Years”, its sources, history of creation and edition
“PVL” - reflected the formation of the ancient Russian state, began to be created in the 1st decade of the 12th century, and came to us as part of chronicles of a later time
Laurentian Chronicle - 1377, continued by the Suzdal Chronicle, brought to 1305.
Ipatiev Chronicle - dating back to 20. 15th century – contains the Kyiv and Galician-Volyn chronicles up to 1292.
1st Novgorod Chronicle 30. 14th century
PVL sources:
1. oral historical legends, legends, epic heroic songs
2. written sources: Greek, Bulgarian chronicles (the creators of the chronicle correlate the events that took place in the Russian land with Greek and Bulgarian events), hagiographical (lives - stories about the lives of holy people, about their exploits) literature
3. customs and customs of the tribes, from which the Polyan tribe stands out in terms of cultural development (tribes of the Dnieper, Volkhov and Lake Ilmen basins, the Volga-Oka interfluve, the Southern Bug and the Dniester)
Hypotheses for the formation of “PVL”
1 hypothesis - Academician Shakhmatov
He believed that the Ancient Kievan vault arose on the basis of Greek chronicles and local folklore.
In 1036, the Novgorod Chronicle was created, then these two sources - the Ancient Kievan Code and the Novgorod Chronicle were united and in 1050. The Ancient Novgorod arch appears.
In 1073 The 1st Kiev-Pechersk vault was compiled by the monk Nikon; based on the 1st Kiev-Pechersk vault and the Novgorod vault, it was created in 1095. 2nd Kiev-Pechersk arch (Initial arch) - it served as the basis of the “PVL”.
Hypothesis 2 – Istrina– he does not agree with Shakhmatov, he believed that there was a Greek chronicle that was translated
Hypothesis 3 – Likhacheva– rejects the existence of the ancient Kyiv arch of 1039. And connects the story of creation with the specific struggle that had to be
to lead the Kyiv state against Byzantium, against its religious and political claims.
In the 30-40s of the 11th century. By order of Ya. the Wise, a recording was made about an important historical event, “The Legend of the Beginning of the Spread of Christianity in Rus'.”
In 70g 11th century. The registration of the Russian chronicle is taking place in the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery. The compiler of the chronicle is the monk Nikon, who gives this narrative the form of weather records (by year).
2. Reflection of national interests in “PVL”. Inclusion of various genres in the chronicle. Folklore in the chronicle
At the center of “PVL” is the Russian land, the idea of its independence, independence from Byzantium, the idea of the power of the Russian land, the role of the people in protecting the Russian land in the fight against external enemies, in unification, in ending strife.
The theme of the Motherland is the leading, main theme of “PVL”.
Genres of the story:
1. weather record (by year) - this made it possible to introduce new legends and stories into the chronicle, exclude old ones, and supplement the chronicle with records about the events of recent years, of which its compiler was a contemporary. ( brief information about past events)
2. historical tales (about the first Russian princes, their campaigns against Constantinople), historical legends (associated with the heroic druzhina epic - about the death of Prince Oleg the Prophet from the bite of a snake that crawled out of the skull of his favorite horse)
3. historical legends
4. historical stories (dedicated to the most important historical events that preceded the event, the reasons - “The Tale of Vasilko of Terebovl” - his treacherous blinding by Prince Svyatopolk); historical narrative - “About the murder of Borisov” - historical facts Svyatopolk's murder of his brothers Boris and Gleb).
5. hagiography (lives) - stories about the life, death of holy people, about their exploits; each saint had his own type of life; princely lives - distinctive feature– historicism.
6. gravestones words of praise(obituary of Princess Olga)
7. military chronicle (exposition - scene of action, plot - getting ready for a campaign, the battle itself, the outcome of the battle)
Folklore in the chronicle:
An abundance of proverbs, sayings, riddles, traditions, legends, ritual poetry in the news of Slavic tribes, their customs, wedding and funeral rites. Oral techniques folk epic The first Russian princes are described in the chronicle: Oleg, Igor, Olga, Svyatoslav.
Oleg is a successful prince-warrior, popularly nicknamed “the prophetic”, i.e. wizard. (however, he does not escape his fate; he dies).
Igor is courageous, brave, but he is also greedy (the desire to collect as much tribute as possible from the Drevlyans becomes the reason for his death).
Olga is Igor’s wife, wise, true to memory husband, she cruelly takes revenge on the murderers of her husband, but is not condemned by the author, she asks riddles to the matchmakers.
The image of Svyatoslav is covered in the heroism of the druzhina epic - a stern, simple, strong, courageous warrior who died as a consequence of his disobedience to his mother, as a consequence of his refusal to accept baptism.
The spirit of the people heroic epic is imbued with the legend of the victory of the Russian youth Kozhemyaki over the Pechenezh giant. The legend emphasizes the superiority of a person of peaceful labor, a simple artisan over a professional warrior. At first glance, the Russian young man is an ordinary, unremarkable person, but he embodies the enormous, gigantic power that the Russian people possess. A simple Russian youth accomplishes a feat without arrogance or bragging. This plot is based on the opposition inner strength worker to the enemy's boasting.
3. “The Sermon on Law and Grace” by Metropolitan Hilarion. Reflection in the “Sermon on Law and Grace” of the cultural flourishing and political significance of the ancient Russian state
Priest Hilarion (future metropolitan) writes “The Sermon on Law and Grace” - a theological treatise in which, however, from dogmatic reasoning about the superiority of “grace” (New Testament) over “law” (Old Testament), a clearly expressed church-political and patriotic theme: Rus', which adopted Christianity, is a country no less authoritative and worthy of respect than Byzantium itself.
Hilarion's "Word" consists of 3 parts. A work of oratorical prose from the 11th century.
He proves the superiority of Christianity over Judaism, the New Testament - Grace, which brings salvation to the whole world and affirms the equality of peoples before God, over the Old Testament - the Law given to one people (the Jews). The triumph of the Christian faith in Rus' has global significance in the eyes of Hilarion.
“The word was pronounced in a solemn atmosphere in the presence of Yaroslav the Wise and his family. “The Lay” is an outstanding rhetorical, journalistic, patriotic work that affirms the idea of equality of Rus' and the Russian people with all other Christian states and peoples.
Part 1- Comparing Judaism (Law) with Christianity (Grace), Hilarion at the beginning of his “Word” proves the advantages of Grace over the Law. The law was distributed only among the Jewish people, God gave grace to all nations. Law - Old Testament, Judaism is only for Jews. Grace - New Testament, Christianity is a public property and has worldwide significance. The Law is only the forerunner of Grace, a step on the path to its comprehension. The Old Testament is slavery, and the New Testament is freedom. Hilarion compares law with shadow, moonlight, grace with light, sun and warmth.
Part 2- talks about the introduction of Christianity in Rus'. “Praise” to Vladimir is a list of the prince’s services to his homeland. He says that his activities contributed to the glory and power of Rus', that Christian faith was accepted by the Russians as a result of a free choice that the main merit in the baptism of Rus' belongs to Vladimir, and not to the Greeks. The comparison of Vladimir with Tsar Constantine the Great is offensive for the Greeks (Vladimir did more - he baptized the country of pagans, and Constantine made Christianity the state religion, where the majority of the population already professed this faith). Glorifies his son, Yaroslav. Appeals to the deceased Vladimir to stand up and look at the prosperity of the Russian land and the church.
- sets as its task the direct glorification of the ruler of Rus' contemporary to Hilarion and his activities (Yaroslav).
Part 3– a prayerful appeal to God on behalf of the Russian land – a solemn conclusion.
The main idea of "The Word"- the equality of all Christian peoples, regardless of the time of their baptism, is directed against the teaching of the Byzantine Church about the exclusive right to world domination. All 3 parts of the Lay develop a single patriotic theme of the independence of the Russian people. Hilarion glorifies the Russian land, a full-fledged power in the family of Christian states, and its princes - Vladimir and Yaroslav. Hilarion was an outstanding orator; he knew very well the techniques and rules of Byzantine preaching. “The Lay” is imbued with the patriotic pathos of glorifying Rus' as equal among all states of the world.
In connection with the adoption of Christianity, the genre of teachings is spreading in Rus'. It serves as an important means of promoting new religious teachings. Along with church teaching, solemn, emotional and figurative sermons are created. Sermon addressed to to a wide circle listeners, presented elementary basics Christian religion and used easily understandable, in simple language. But another thing is a solemn sermon, rhetorically decorated, giving examples of oratory. Hilarion is a wonderful representative of it. The oratory was called “The Word.”
4. Hagiography. “The Tale of Boris and Gleb” (martyr princes)
Hagiography- a type of church literature dedicated to the biographies of persons declared saints by the church (lives).
Boris and Gleb (baptized Roman and David) are depicted as martyrs not so much of a religious as of a political idea. Having preferred death in 1015 to the struggle against their elder brother Svyatopolk, who seized power in Kyiv after the death of their father, they affirm with all their behavior and death the triumph of brotherly love and the need for the subordination of the younger princes to the eldest in the clan in order to preserve the unity of the Russian land. The passion-bearing princes Boris and Gleb, the first canonized saints in Rus', became its heavenly patrons and protectors.
An anonymous legend about Boris and Gleb emerges from chronicle history. The life of Boris and Gleb is a life-martyrium, that is, a story about martyrdom saint The anonymous author expands and gives us a detailed description of how Boris and Gleb accepted death. There is no canonical introduction, their infancy and adolescence. Then a story about the sons of Vladimir, and then a story about the death of Boris and Gleb, who are killed by the “cursed” Svyatopolk, their brother (the son of Vladimir’s murdered brother). He was afraid of rivalry with his brothers as princes... the princely family was still perceived as one, the younger princes obeyed the eldest in the family... But Yaroslav then defeated Svyatopolk.
In this story, the focus is on the death event, which is described in great detail (telling how they feel). The brothers' monologues are very similar, they are not devoid of drama, lyricism, their individual characters are revealed (we see that Boris (the eldest) guesses what is happening: he is smart, and Gleb cannot believe in fratricide).
A feeling of melancholy is described (that the children did not bury their father. For Gleb, his father is still alive; his experiences intensify; well described psychological condition, his cry for his father and brother, his pleas to the murderers).
“The Legend” affirms the cult of Boris and Gleb as defenders of the Russian land from all enemies.
The main political tendency of the “Tale” is the condemnation of fratricidal feuds and the recognition of the need for younger princes to unquestioningly obey the elders in the clan.
But this is also not a canonical life (that’s why it is so intense and emotional). Since it is not canonical, Nestor undertook to make it canonical, i.e. in accordance with the requirements of the church canon (Reading about Boris and Gleb). He added an introduction, a story about his youth. Nestor removed all the specifics (the name of the boy who tried to save Boris (George)) and gave his story a generalized character: the martyrdom of the brothers is the triumph of Christian humility over devilish pride, which leads to enmity and internecine struggle. Specifics belittled their actions and grounded them. The “Reading” ends with a description of numerous miracles, praise and a prayerful appeal to the saints.
5. Literary activity Habakkuk. “The Life of Archpriest Avvakum, written by himself.” Innovation and realism of the work
Avvakum - writer of the second half of the 17th century. (ideologist of the Old Believers, anti-government movement - schism, or Old Believers).
The autobiographical genre came to Russian literature thanks to the “Life” of Archpriest Avvakum. Avvakum acted not only as a passionate publicist and denouncer of church and secular authorities, but also as a reformer literary language, boldly introducing vernacular speech into written speech. “Life” is the autobiography of the most influential and bright leader of the Old Believer opposition, Avvakum, written alive, almost spoken language, completely uncharacteristic of the official theological literature of that time. It was written during many years of imprisonment in an earthen prison in Pustozerka. The narration is told in the first person. He depicts his misadventures with extraordinary force: beatings, and exile to Siberia, and all kinds of oppression inflicted on him by the “powers of this world.” He furiously brands his enemies.
“Life” was created in 1672-1673. - his best creation.
Introduction, a little biography (he selects only the most important, the most important milestones in his biography - the birth into the family of a rural drunkard priest).
The central theme of the life is the theme of A.’s personal life, inseparable from the struggle for ancient piety against Nikon’s innovations (his reforms).
– On the pages of the Life there emerges the image of an extraordinary Russian man. Extraordinarily persistent and courageous. A. a champion of justice: he does not tolerate violence of the strong over the weak. He manifests himself both in relation to his wife Anastasia Markovna (she resignedly and selflessly goes with him through life, into his exile, supporting him), and in relation to the patriarch, the tsar, to the common people, to his like-minded people, his comrades in the struggle. He creates bright satirical images, using irony and grotesquery in describing Nikon’s hypocrisy and deceit - in his image he is from big-nosed, rogue, liar, male. He emphasizes his cruelty, talks about his dissolute life. He also denounces the clergy and their corruption.
Affectionate and responsive to his associates and his family. He is an exemplary family man, he is sad when separated from them.
His own life serves only as an example of proof of the truth of the provisions of the faith of which he acts as a fighter and propagandist (the old faith). He does not give in to persuasion, does not deviate from his faith. An example of fidelity to firmness, fidelity to the true path. This is hello to his burning.
Innovation and realism of the work :
The first autobiography-story in literature, combined with an angry satirical denunciation of the ruling elite, with journalistic preaching of the “new faith”
The appearance of laughter and humor. Even in the most tragic moments, laughing at yourself is innovative. He laughed at his enemies, calling them “grievers”, “poor”, and laughed at himself
Language of writing: colloquial, vernacular, “natural” language (Russian, not Greek).
The tone is confessional, the confession is addressed to the confessor-elder Epiphanius.
The style in everyday scenes gives way to a sublime bookish style in the theological parts
Everyday vernacular. Av. speaks differently depending on the subject, but behind every word is his personality
6. Church reform 17th century Split
Reasons for the reform:
1. Nikon replaced the custom of crossing himself with two fingers with three
2. Replacing prostrations with waist bows
3. Singing hallelujah three times instead of two
4. Instead of double movement, the movement of believers in the church past the altar is not with the sun, but against it.
5. The name of Christ began to be written differently - “Jesus” instead of “Iesus”
For believers, this was a serious departure from the traditional canon. There was a split in the church.
Nikon’s reform, which broke the centuries-honored Russian way of life, was rejected by the Old Believers and marked the beginning church schism. The Old Believers opposed orientation towards foreign church orders, defended the faith of their fathers and grandfathers, ancient Slavic-Byzantine rituals, defended national identity and were against the Europeanization of Russian life.
Nikon's opponents - the "Old Believers" - refused to recognize the reforms he carried out. (Among them were Boyarina Morozova and Princess Urusova). They were accused of schism, excommunicated and exiled. His reforms aroused protest from some churchmen and feudal lords. Habakkuk is one of the leaders and a fierce opponent of the reform.
7. “The Tale of Hawk Moth” (satire)
In “The Tale of Hawk Moth,” the drunkard argued that he had more rights to heavenly bliss than the saints, listing the sins of the heroes of the Holy Scriptures.
This story shows the moral superiority of the drunkard (hawk moth) over the “righteous man” (the story is built on a bold antithesis, that is, on opposition). Brazhnik convicts the saints of crimes (the Apostle Peter, who thrice renounced his God-Christ, the adulterer King David, the thrice murderer of the first martyr Stephen, the Apostle Paul, the sinner rescued by God from hell, King Solomon, the murderer Saint Nicholas, were awarded heavenly bliss) but he himself has no crimes did not commit: he did not kill anyone, did not commit adultery, did not renounce God, but, on the contrary, glorified Christ with every glass. And in the end he is admitted to heaven, and occupies the most the best place, which the “hierarchs” did not even dare to approach.
IN funny joke, a fairy-tale situation sounds like an angry satire on the church and church dogma of veneration of saints.
8. “The Tale of Frol Skobeev”
Frol, a petty official (he is a local clerk or sneaker who makes his living by correspondence and drafting legal papers and managing the affairs of his clients), persistently arranges his own destiny by any means necessary. He cunningly marries the daughter of the noble steward Nardin-Nashchokin, Annushka, and becomes the heir to the movable and immovable property of his father-in-law.
The Tale of Frol Skobeev", representing the third stage in the evolution of the everyday story in Russian literature XVII century, is usually characterized by researchers as an original Russian short story. Dedicated to the same topic of self-determination younger generation, it, unlike all previous stories, solves it in a fundamentally anti-traditional way. This is the Russian version of the European picaresque novel. In "The Tale of Frol Skobeev" there is no ancient Russian book and folklore tradition, so strong in more early stories. Frol Skobeev is a representative of the new generation, who achieves success precisely by refusing traditional morality: deception, trickery, cunning. The plot of the story is about his clever marriage to the daughter of the steward Nardin-Nashchokin, Annushka.
A new and very remarkable feature of the story is the rejection of traditional literary methods of storytelling, a complete change in the narrative style. The style of the author's narration is close to the style of business prose and administrative office work. The author testifies at trial to a greater extent than he writes. piece of art. Nowhere does he strive for literary sublimity. Before us is an unpretentious story about significant events.
The evolution of the genre of everyday stories in Russian literature of the second half of the 17th century. leads to a gradual abandonment traditional values and replacing them with new ones. First of all, it turns out that the young hero can choose his own path in life and succeed in it. The story is distinguished by its lively, colloquial speech.
9. Changes in the canons of the hagiographic genre in the literature of the 16th century. "The Tale of Uliani Osoryina"
Changes in canons occur through the invasion of everyday realities, folklore legends; the hagiography gradually turns into an everyday story, and then becomes an autobiography-confession. This is not so much like a life, but like a biographical note, compiled by one of her sons. Before us is the only actual biography of an ancient Russian woman, remarkable for its truthfulness, simplicity and richness of everyday content.
This story was written by the son of Juliania Lazarevskaya Druzhina Osorin in the 20-30s of the 17th century. This story is the first biography of a noblewoman in ancient Russian literature.
The story brings to the fore the qualities of an exemplary housewife. After getting married, Juliania’s shoulders fall on the management of a complex household, she needs to please her mother-in-law, reconciliation, sisters-in-law, monitor the work of slaves, and often have to settle social conflicts. The position of a married woman in a large noble family, her lack of rights and numerous responsibilities is truthfully depicted. The story affirms the holiness of the feat of highly moral worldly life and service to people. Creates the image of an energetic, intelligent Russian woman, an exemplary wife and housewife. The son depicts in the story not only the real features of his mother, but also draws the appearance of a Russian woman, as it seemed to a Russian nobleman of the first half of the 17th century.
The story still contains hagiographical traditions; the beginning of the story is connected with it at the origin of Juliania - she is from “God-loving” parents. The character features Christian meekness and generosity. He also uses motifs from religious fiction: demons want to kill Juliana, but the intervention of St. Nicholas saves her. She foresees her death and dies piously. The Tale closely intertwines elements of an everyday story with elements of the hagiographic genre. The story is devoid of the traditional introduction, lamentation and praise. Her style is simple.
The story testifies to the growing interest in society and literature in the private life of a person and his behavior in everyday life. These realistic elements destroy the hagiography genre. They contribute to its gradual transformation into the genre of secular biographical stories. Pious ascetic monk - central character life is replaced by a secular hero.
10. “Teaching of Vladimir Monomakh.” Reflection of the author's political and ethical views in the work
In the "Instruction" the image of an ideal prince was created, courageous in battle, caring towards his subjects, caring for the unity and well-being of Rus'.
Addressed to his sons, but at the same time to those Russian princes who would like to listen to his advice. “Instruction” is surprising both in that it completely falls out of the strict system of genres, having no analogue in ancient Russian literature, and in that Monomakh reveals in it not only a state outlook and a rich life experience, but also high literary education and unconditional writing talent. Both the “Instruction” and the surviving letter from Monomakh to Oleg Svyatoslavich not only literary monuments, but also important monuments social thought: one of the most authoritative Kyiv princes is trying to convince his contemporaries of the harmfulness of feudal strife - Rus', weakened by strife, will not be able to actively resist external enemies. This basic idea of Monomakh’s works echoes “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”
The teaching consists of three works at different times:
1. instructions, a call to children to comply with the requirements of the feudal legal order, to work hard, to be generous, caring, not to be lazy, not to indulge in debauchery. Encourages children to be merciful to everyone
2. autobiographies - chronicles of the military and hunting exploits of Monomakh
3. letter from 1096 to his political rival Prince Oleg Svyatoslavich of Chernigov (the murder of Monomakh’s son Izyaslav by Oleg was the reason for writing the letter) - The father was greatly saddened by the death of his son, but in the end decides to reconcile with Oleg for the good of Rus'.
In the “Instruction” the author summarized his life principles and the princely code of honor. The ideal of the “Instruction” is a wise, fair and merciful sovereign, sacredly maintaining fidelity to contracts and the kiss of the cross, a brave prince-warrior, sharing labor in everything with his squad, and a pious Christian.
In the “Instruction” there is a call to worry about your Russian land, about its workers.
Monomakh was widely educated person, Fine knowledgeable in literature of its time. An outstanding personality of the early Russian Middle Ages.
In his teaching, Monomakh appears as a wise, noble, humanely-minded person, always thinking about the good of his state. At the same time, he is an energetic, enterprising prince, endowed with military prowess.
11. “The Tale of Savva Grudtsyn.” The problem of educating the younger generation. Theme of duality
“The Tale of Savva Grudtsyn” is a work created by an unknown author in the 60s. XVII century The work reflected historical events of the first half of the century and many everyday features that time.
The combination in the "Tale" of a romantic theme with detailed descriptions life and morals Rus' XVII V. gave grounds to a number of researchers to see in this work the experience of creating the first Russian novel.
The Tale tells how the merchant son Savva from the real-life wealthy merchant family of the Grudtsyn-Usovs, finding himself on trade business in the city of Orel (on the Kama River, near Solikamsk), was seduced by the wife of the merchant Bazhen II. By refusing a sinful activity on the day of the Holy Ascension, Savva aroused the wrath of his mistress, and she, having drugged the young man with a love potion, persuaded her husband to refuse him the house. Suffering from unsatisfied passion, Savva thinks that he is ready to serve the devil in order to return his former love affair, and the demon immediately appears in the guise of a young man. Savva gives him his “handwriting”, in which he renounces Christ (however, due to illiteracy, he wrote under the dictation of the demon “without composing,” that is, without reading what was written as a coherent text). Subsequently, the demon plays a role similar to the “magic assistant” of a folk tale, helping the hero not only to achieve the love of Bazhen II’s wife, but also to perform military feats during the siege of Smolensk by Russian troops. Returning to Moscow, Savva became seriously ill and decided to confess. The demons who appeared try to prevent him from doing this and show Savva his “God-marking letter.” And after confession, the demons continue to torment the hero until the Mother of God appears to him along with John the Theologian and Metropolitan Peter, who indicate the path of salvation: like the hero of “The Tale of Misfortune,” who became dependent on a hostile force, Savva completes his path in the monastery.
The Tale has two main genre prototypes - a religious legend and fairy tale, on the basis of which the author created a fundamentally new work. The use of two genre prototypes allows the author, according to the observation of A. M. Panchenko, to move in the course of the narrative from one plot scheme to another, which creates the “effect of disappointed expectations”, which is not typical for ancient Russian literature.
In addition, the author fills traditional plot schemes with features of living life in the 1st floor. XVII century with a description of real trade routes, training a young merchant’s son, recruitment into soldier regiments, etc. The Tale reflected both real-life demonological ideas of the 17th century and real historical events (the Time of Troubles, the siege of Smolensk 1632-1634, etc. ). Among the historical figures, in addition to Tsar Alexei Fedorovich, the author mentions the boyars Shein and Streshnev, the steward Vorontsov-Velyaminov, and the Streltsy centurion Shilov.
In his views, the author of the Tale is a conservative; he opposes the new trends that the “rebellious age” brought with him; everything that violates traditional norms of behavior is for him “of the devil.” But the author himself involuntarily submits to the spirit of the time and turns out to be an innovator - both in mixing genre schemes and in using surprise as artistic technique, both in the depiction of a developed love affair, and in vivid everyday sketches.
12. “The Tale of Peter and the Maiden Fevronia” (Murom prince and beekeeper’s daughter). Connection with oral folk art
The plot of “The Tale” undoubtedly reflected folklore features: the motifs of the fairy tale about the hero-snake fighter and the fairy tale about the wise maiden. Fevronia's wisdom is manifested not only in the fact that she heals Peter and forces the prince to marry her. Like the wise maiden in a folk tale, her speeches are mysterious and incomprehensible to those around her. To Peter’s demand that he weave yarn from a bunch of flax and sew a shirt, pants and a towel from it while he is washing in the bathhouse, Fevronia responds with a similar demand: the prince must just as quickly make a weaving mill for her from a stump of a log.
The work depicts the love of a peasant girl from the Ryazan land, the daughter of a simple beekeeper, and the Murom prince - a love that conquers all obstacles and even death. The writer created a sublime image of an ideal Russian woman, wise and pious. The peasant princess stands immeasurably higher than the boyars and their wives, who did not want to come to terms with her low origins.
Connection with CNT:
Ermolai-Erasmus used folk poetic stories about the fight against a werewolf snake, used the image of a magic sword (Agrikov sword), with the help of which Peter defeats the snake
The image of a wise maiden who solves riddles, incorporating the motifs of a fairy tale
In 1073, the 2nd Kiev-Pechersk code was created (unknown author), and on the basis of the 2nd, the first edition of “PVL” was created by monk Nester in 1113, the 2nd edition was created in 1116 by monk Sylvester, the 3rd edition in 1118 by an unknown person by the author
Hypothesis 4 – Rybakova- he believed that brief weather records began to be kept in Kyiv with the advent of the Christian clergy in 867 under the reign of Askold. At the end of the 10th century, the 1st Kiev Chronicle was created under Tithe Church. Rybakov shares Shakhmatov’s point of view about the existence of the Novgorod arch of 1050; he believed that the chronicle was created with the active participation of the Novgorod mayor Ostromir and this “Ostromir Chronicle” should be dated 1054-160.
Editorial:
1st edition"PVL" was created in 1113. The monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery Nester (the historical events of the late 11th - early 12th centuries served as the events of “PVL” - this is the struggle against the nomadic Polovtsians, in the center is the figure of Svyatopolk Izyaslavovich)
2nd edition created in 1116 Abbot of the Vydubitsky Monastery Sylvester (in the foreground here is the figure of Vladimir Monomakh, his merits in the fight against the Polovtsians and establishing peace between the princes)
3rd edition- was created by an unknown author, confessor of Mstislav Vladimirovich.
The folklore basis is also felt in the church legend about the visit of the Russian land by the Apostle Andrew. The legend claimed that the Russian land received Christianity not from the Greeks, but allegedly from the disciple of Christ himself - Andrei. This is like a justification for the religious independence of Rus' from Byzantium.
13. “The Life of Theodosius of Pechersk” as an example of early Russian hagiography
Based on the memories of his contemporaries, Nestor created a detailed biography of Theodosius of Pechersk, a monk and then abbot of the Kiev Pechersk Monastery, which became a model in the genre of monastic life. The work contains precious information about monastic life and customs, about the attitude of ordinary laymen, boyars and the Grand Duke towards monks. Later, “The Life of Theodosius of Pechersk” was included in the “Kievo-Pechersk Patericon”. It is distinguished by great psychologism of characters, an abundance of living realistic details, plausibility and naturalness of remarks and dialogues. Miracles and fantastic visions are described so clearly and convincingly that the reader seems to see with his own eyes what is happening and cannot help but “believe” it.
"The Life of Theodosius of Pechersk" was written by the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery Nestor. Following the genre canon, the author filled the life with traditional images and motifs. In the introduction, he self-deprecates; in stories about his childhood, Theodosius talks about his spirituality, talks about posthumous miracles. But Nestor violates one of the main rules of the genre - to depict a saint outside the specific signs of time and peoples. The author strives to convey the flavor of the era, which turns the work into a source of valuable historical information. From it we learn what charter regulated life in the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra, how the monastery grew and became rich, intervened in the struggle of the princes for the Kiev table, and contributed to the development of book publishing in Rus'. The main part of the life sometimes resembles the “hagiographical chronicle” of the Kiev Pechersk Monastery, because includes stories about spiritual mentors, associates and students of Theodosius. Nestor likens him to the founder of Christian monasticism, Anthony the Great. The traits of Theodosius are complete dedication to one’s own will and confidence in divine help, renunciation of earthly worries, a feeling of closeness with Christ, humility, hard work, diligence, all-forgiving love for one’s neighbor, denunciation of untruth.
In addition to the monastic life of Theodosius, his participation in the political life of Rus' is shown, which also increases the value of the “Life” as a literary monument.
“Life” laid the foundation for the development of the genre of venerable life in Russian literature.
“The Life of Theodosius of Pechersk" - typical monastic life, a story about a pious, meek, hardworking righteous man, whose whole life is a continuous feat. It contains many everyday collisions: scenes of communication between the saint and monks, laymen, princes, sinners; Moreover, in lives of this type mandatory component are the miracles that the saint performs - and this introduces an element of plot entertainment into the life, requiring considerable skill from the author so that the miracle is described effectively and believably. Medieval hagiographers were well aware that the effect of a miracle is especially well achieved by combining purely realistic everyday details with a description of the action of otherworldly forces - the appearance of angels, dirty tricks perpetrated by demons, visions, etc.
He is meek, hardworking, adamant in the mortification of the flesh, full of mercy, but when there is a princely feud in Kyiv. But the most remarkable thing in the “Life” is the description of monastic life and especially the miracles performed by Theodosius.
14. Genre circulation in ancient Russian literature. "The Walk of Abbot Daniel to the Holy Land." Daniel's breadth of interests, patriotism
"Walking"- travel, descriptions of pilgrimages to “holy places”
Walking-genre, which tells about a real-life journey.
There are: pilgrimage, merchant, embassy and exploration walks. Signs of the walking genre:
The events are truly historical;
In terms of composition, it is a chain of travel sketches connected chronologically or topographically;
The narrator is not necessarily educated, but has the necessary personal qualities- courage, energy, diplomacy, religious tolerance, he does not seek to embellish or idealize events;
Language - simple, colloquial Old Russian, use foreign words For the nominative function, comparisons are most often used. The first example of this genre is “The Pilgrimage of Hegumen Daniel to Palestine.” “The Walk of Abbot Daniel” is valuable as a detailed guide for Russian pilgrims and a source of archaeological information about Jerusalem. In his work, the first in its genre, the basic canons of writing walks were formed, which later became distinctive features for this genre.
Features of “The Walking of Abbot Daniel”": descriptions of holy places; many real landscape sketches, he strives for extreme concreteness of what is depicted; retelling or mention of hagiographic, biblical or apocryphal legends; a narrative about the journey itself and discussions about the narrator. The versatility of the abbot's interests is also striking: in addition to holy places, he is interested in practical issues - the irrigation system of Jericho, the extraction of incense on the island of Cyprus, the special layout of Jerusalem, built in the shape of a 4-pointed cross. The style of the work is characterized by laconicism and stinginess. linguistic means. Daniel avoids abstract words, preferring simple vocabulary of a concrete everyday nature. Epithets are usually descriptive or evaluative. The simple language is explained by the fact that the abbot from the very beginning set himself to write simply and clearly for ordinary people. The Walk of Abbot Daniel" is valuable as a detailed guide for Russian pilgrims and a source of archaeological information about Jerusalem. In his work, the first in its genre, the basic canons of writing walks were formed, which later became distinctive features for this genre
"Walk" by Daniel- a sample of pilgrim notes, a valuable source of historical information about Palestine and Jerusalem. In form and content, it resembles numerous medieval descriptions of the journey of Western European pilgrims. He described in detail the route, the sights he saw, retold traditions and legends about the shrines of Palestine and Jerusalem, sometimes not distinguishing church canonical stories from apocryphal ones. Daniel is the largest representative of pilgrimage literature not only of Ancient Rus', but throughout medieval Europe. Daniil acts as a patriot native land, not forgetting about her interests in distant countries, caring about her prestige.
15. Apocrypha. "The Virgin Mary's Walk through Torment"
Apocrypha- legends about biblical characters that were not included in the canonical (recognized by the church) biblical books, discussions on topics that worried medieval readers: about the struggle in the world of good and evil, about the ultimate fate of humanity, descriptions of heaven and hell or unknown lands “at the end of the world” .
Apocrypha- these are works prohibited by the official church, which were considered “false”, “renounced”.
Most of the apocrypha are entertaining plot stories that captured the imagination of readers either with unknown everyday details about the life of Christ, the apostles, and prophets, or with miracles and fantastic visions.
Apocrypha- half-book, half-folk tales in religious themes, not included in church canon. The Apocrypha forms a kind of common people's Bible. The distributors of the apocrypha were, as a rule, Russian pilgrims called kaliki. The Apocrypha met the unsatisfied habitual demands for the mysterious: they detailed the history of the creation of the world with purely fabulous features, connected and continued the destinies of Biblical characters.
Apocrypha(from ancient Greek - “hidden, hidden”), renounced books are books that distort the idea of one or another generally recognized religious movement. Apocrypha treats subjects contained in Holy Scripture, but is not recognized as divinely inspired and is even prohibited by the Church. In a general sense, apocrypha refers to books of unknown or dubious origin, whose divine inspiration is not confirmed by anything. Such books were kept separately and not read publicly, so they were called “hidden”.
"The Virgin Mary's Walk through Torment" refers to eschatological apocrypha - about afterlife and the ultimate destinies of the world.
16. “The Tale of the Shemyakin Court”
In “certain places” lived two brothers - a rich one and a poor one. The rich man constantly lent money to the poor man, but he still lived meagerly. Once a poor man asked a horse to bring firewood from the forest. The rich man gave him a horse, but did not give him a collar, reproaching his brother: “You don’t even have your own collar.” The poor man tied the wood to the horse's tail. Entering the yard, he did not open the gateway, the horse got caught in wood and tore off its tail. The rich man, seeing the crippled horse, went to the city to complain about his brother to Judge Shemyaka.
The “poor guy” went with his brother. On the way, they spent the night in the priest's house. The poor man watched with envy from the bunk as his brother dined with the priest, became engrossed in his gaze and fell from the bunk onto the cradle in which the priest’s son was sleeping, and crushed the child to death. Now two plaintiffs have already gone to the judge - a rich brother and a priest. In the city they had to cross a bridge. The poor man, in despair, decided to give up his life, threw himself from the bridge into the ditch, but again accidentally fell on an old man, whom a certain townsman was taking to the bathhouse to wash, and “strangled” him. Three plaintiffs now appeared before the judge. The poor man, not knowing “how to escape his misfortunes and let the judge decide,” took the stone and, wrapping it in a “plate,” put it in his hat. During the analysis of each case, he secretly showed the judge a “bundle” with a stone.
Shemyaka, counting on the defendant promising him a “knot of gold,” decided the case in his favor in all three cases. But when his messenger asked the poor man: “Give me what you told the ship from your hat in bundles,” he replies that he had a stone wrapped in his bundle, with which he wanted to “hurt” the judge. Having learned about this, the judge, however, is not angry, but rejoices: “If only I had not judged by him, he would have hurt me.”
The poor man from the story considered is a peculiar type of hero of a picaresque short story. Strictly speaking, he is not a rogue at all, but a typical loser: the poor man almost committed suicide on the eve of the trial and showed the stone to the judge, not at all wanting to deceive and outwit him, but only hoping to scare him. It is incorrect to consider “The Tale of Shemyakin’s Court” as a satire on legal proceedings: although the motive of ridicule of the judge who acquits the guilty person in exchange for a bribe is present in the story, the plot is based on a funny story about the hero’s misadventures, and it is the unrighteousness of the trial that leads the conflict to a successful resolution.
17. “Walking across Three Seas” by Afanasy Nikitin. The identity of the traveler in the monument
An outstanding work of the late 15th century. is “Walking across Three Seas” by the Tver merchant Afanasy Nikitin, placed under 1475 in the Sofia Chronicle. Nikitin made his “walk” to India from 1466 to 1472.
He was one of the first Europeans to enter the land of the “Brahmans,” whose enormous wealth and fabulous wonders were told in “Alexandria” and “The Tale of Rich India.”
"Walking" is a precious historical document, the living word of a man of the 15th century, a wonderful monument of literature. For his work, Afanasy chooses the genre of travel notes and essays. Unlike the “travel-walking” of the 12-13th centuries, his “walking” is devoid of religious and didactic purposes. Nikitin goes to India, unknown to the Russian people, in order to see it with his own eyes, in order to “look at the goods on the Russian land.” This says that he is a patriot of his Motherland, paving the way to unknown countries for the benefit of the Motherland.
1) a secular, enterprising person, energetic. Practical intentions, curiosity.
2) was an educated, “bookish” person, he is sad that when he was robbed on the road, his books were also taken away
3) is distinguished by religious tolerance, even in prayers there are Mohammedan inserts. But he does not give up Orthodoxy ( Orthodox faith for him it is a symbol of his homeland), grieves that he cannot observe rituals. There were words that he recognizes the correctness of faith if it is in one God.
4) talks in detail about India, describes Buddhist shrines, religious ceremonies, describes the climate, cites local legends (about the gukuk bird, and the king of the monkeys)
He noticed and described the main thing. Writes in simple, colloquial language intertwined with Arabic, Persian and Turkish words.
Style.
1) intertwining reality and fantasy.
2) there is no harmonious composition, repetition.
18. “Weaving of Words” by Epiphanius the Wise. "The Life of Stefan of Perm"
Epiphanius the Wise (born in Rostov) entered the history of literature, first of all, as the author of two extensive lives - “The Life of Stephen of Perm” (the bishop of Perm, who baptized the Komi and created the alphabet for them in native language), written at the end of the 14th century, and “The Life of Sergius of Radonezh,” created in 1417-1418.
The expressive-emotional style appears in the Balkans, then in Rus' it receives the name “weaving words.” “Weaving words” made it possible to praise both church and public figures.
The basic principle from which Epiphanius the Wise proceeds in his work is that the hagiographer, describing the life of a saint, must by all means show the exclusivity of his hero, the greatness of his feat, the detachment of his actions from everything ordinary and earthly. Hence the desire for an emotional, bright, decorated language that differs from everyday speech. The Lives of Epiphanius are filled with quotations from Holy Scripture, for the feat of his heroes should find analogies in biblical history. They are characterized by the author's demonstrative desire to declare his creative impotence, the futility of his attempts to find the necessary verbal equivalent of the high phenomenon depicted. But it is precisely this imitation that allows Epiphany to demonstrate all his literary excellence, to stun the reader with an endless series of epithets or synonymous metaphors, or, by creating long chains of cognate words, to force him to think about the erased meaning of the concepts they denote. This technique is called “weaving words.”
« Life of Stefan of Perm"(the author knew Stefan). Stefan was a missionary - this is his feat, he led educational activities, created the Zyryan alphabet. (Pam the sorcerer, the sorcerer of the pagans - a competition between Pam and Stefan (fire and water), Pam gets scared, and Stefan passes and wins).
Life is a genre of ancient Russian literature that describes the life of a saint.
IN this genre There are different hagiographic types:
Life-martyrium (story of the martyrdom of a saint)
Monastic life (a story about the entire life path of a righteous man, his piety, asceticism, the miracles he performed, etc.)
The characteristic features of the hagiographic canon are cold rationality, conscious detachment from specific facts, names, realities, theatricality and artificial pathos of dramatic episodes, the presence of elements of the saint’s life about which the hagiographer did not have the slightest information.
The moment of miracle, revelation (the ability to teach - God's gift). It is a miracle that brings movement and development to the biography of a saint.
19. Epiphanius the Wise. "The Life of Sergius of Radonezh"
Written 20 years after St. Perm. More factual and documentary presentation, a more direct, lyrical style. More vernacular.
Epiphanius the Wise is less emotional and rhetorical in his biography of the spiritual educator of the Russian people, Sergius of Radonezh. Life shows in the person of Sergius of Radonezh the ideal of humility, love, meekness, love of poverty and non-covetousness.
20. “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.” History of discovery and publication. Idea, genre, author of “The Lay”
The “Tale” speaks of a historical event, an unsuccessful campaign against the Polovtsians by Prince Igor Svyatoslavovich of the Novgorod-Seversk land in 1185, in which he was defeated and lost his army.
History of discovery- By the 80-90s, 18 was discovered by Musin-Pushkin. I acquired a handwritten collection from Archimandrite Iolius, which was created in the 16th century.
Were working on manuscript M-P, Malinovsky, Bantysh-Kamensky, Karamzin. 1800 the text of “The Lay” was published with a translation into modern Russian, an introductory article, and notes. A copy was made for Catherine the Second, which was found only in the mid-19th century. In 1812 handwritten M-P meeting died in a Moscow fire.
Skeptics denied the authenticity of the word. Prof. Kachenovsky, writer Senkovsky: there is no correspondence in the language with ancient monuments.
Polemics with skeptics - Pushkin, cat. I wanted to make a poetic translation of the poem and was collecting materials for a critical article.
1813 Kalaidovich found a postscript on the Pskov apostle of 1307, which revealed traces of the influence of the “Word”.
In the 30s, Maksimovich established a connection between the “Word” and folk (Ukrainian) poetry. In 1852, “Zadonshchina” was found, which contains borrowings from the “Word”.
Dubensky, 1844. He defended the authenticity and provided the publication with historical and literary commentary.
Tikhonravov, 1866.68 edition with corrections,
In the 70s, Vyazemsky, Miller, Veselovsky rejected the independence of the Lay, seeing in it a reflection of the influences of ancient Greek literature, Yuzhno Slav. Refutation: Potebnya proved that the Lay was not composed according to a template.
3-volume book by Barsov “The Word as a Thin Monument”. Showed the connection of the word with the Russian chronicle, military stories. Lexicology of "Words".
By the end of the 19th century, certain “dark places”, rhythm, structure, compositional features, established connections with Western European medieval epic.
« The idea of "The Word" is that all of Rus' should be united, and not divided into many small principalities. Such fragmentation inevitably leads strong state to inevitable death. Using the example of Prince Igor Novgorod-Seversky, it is shown that one cannot defeat a major enemy alone. This can only be done by joint efforts. The exponent of this idea in the poem is the capital prince of Kiev Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich. In his “golden word,” “mixed with tears,” the writer openly calls for the unity of his native land and an end to strife.
Genre: The question of genre affiliation"Words". The author of the monument cannot help us: he himself calls his work either “word”, then “song”, then “story” (“Let us begin, brothers, this story...”). The Lay has no analogies among other monuments of ancient Russian literature. Therefore, this is either a work that is exceptional in its genre originality, or - a representative of a special genre, the monuments of which have not reached us, since this genre combines the features of the book “word” and epic work, was not traditional. Perhaps works of this genre, intended primarily for oral performance, were rarely recorded at all. The special genre nature of the “Lay” had a great influence on his poetics: the “Lay” combines the principles of the poetics of the style of monumental historicism (ceremonialism in the depiction of heroes, techniques characteristic of the genre of solemn words) and the poetics of folklore (in the depiction of nature, in the depiction of the feelings of the hero’s wife , in a combination of folklore genres - “glory” and “crying”). Folklore elements appear in the “Word” to be organically fused with bookish elements. A genre that stands on the border between literature and folklore (Likhachev).
Author– not known, There is no doubt that “The Lay...” was written by a patriot of his native land. A warm feeling of love for the homeland is manifested in the emotional excitement with which the author speaks about the defeat of Igor’s squad, and in the way he conveys the cry of Russian women for the killed soldiers
21. Images of princes, nature, the image of Yaroslavna in the “Word”. Connection with oral folk art
Igor and Vsevolod- knights for whom honor and glory are the main drivers in their behavior. It's better to be killed than captured.
Igor distinguished by knightly courage, bravery, military valor. For the author, Igor is an example of an erroneous princely policy, and he is praised only because he came to Svyatoslav, i.e. realized the need for unity.
About Roman, Prince of Vladimir-Volyn, it is said that he was brave.
The author of the Lay notes Vsevolod's courage. The Ipatiev Chronicle says that “Vsevolod showed a lot of courage.” He shoots arrows at his enemies, defends himself staunchly, and rattles his damask swords against their helmets.
Svyatoslav the author portrays him as an ideal hero. He is opposed to Igor and Vsevolod. His image is that of a powerful prince-military leader who defeated the Polovtsians thanks to unity. He is also characterized by his speech: wise, judicious statements, even prophetic. It is he who pronounces the famous “golden word” and sees a prophetic dream about the death of Igor’s army.
Vsevolod Svyatoslavich, Igor's brother. He is younger than Igor, but he also... has the brotherly trait of warrior heroism. This is the only person shown by the author in battle, and his actions are similar to those of a hero. It embodies best features warrior.
Prince Vseslav of Polotsk appears as a person endowed with supernatural abilities, “prophetic”.
The third image of the prince of the past - image of Rostislav Vsevolodovich. He dies from the Polovtsians at a very young age; in his image there are images of many young men. In the images of the princes of the past, the author reminded readers of the disastrous consequences of internecine wars and the fragmentation of Rus'.
Image of Yaroslavna created on the basis of a lyrical fragment-cry. Her image is a generalization; this is precisely why such a genre was chosen to characterize her - purely folk. Yaroslavna is depicted as a kind of symbol of peaceful Russian people, in contrast to the historically described princes. The power of her love, which helps Igor escape from captivity, is the power of all Russian women. In the person of Yaroslavna, the author depicts all of Rus', suffering from countless raids Polovtsians
Image of nature - with Following the poetically animistic ideas of the pagans, the author S. animates nature, completely drawing it into events. Not only animals and birds are endowed with the ability to feel, predict, and act, but also rivers, grasses, trees, which are sometimes hostile to humans, sometimes sympathize and help him. Nature in S. - emotional, music background works that influence our attitude to what is happening, making the narrative lyrical and exciting.
Very There are many elements of CNT: “glory”, “blasphemous songs”, laments, songs – in symbolism. The princes are suns, months, falcons, Yaroslavna is the cuckoo. The personification of nature.
22. The theme of national unity and heroism in “The Tale of the Battle of the Kalka River”
The first to be attacked by the Mongol-Tatars were the Cumans. The Polovtsian princes with rich gifts came to Galich to Prince Mstislav (he was married to the daughter of the Polovtsian prince Kotyan) and asked for help: “our land was taken away today, and yours will be taken in the morning.” The Russian princes, together with the Polovtsy, came out to meet Batu’s troops: “The whole land of Polovtsian and all their princes came, and from Kiev, Prince Mastislav with all his might, and Volodimer Rurikovich from Smolny, and all the princes of Chernigov, and Smolny, and other countries... . and the Galicians and Volynians came with their princes, and the Kurians and Trubchans and Putivtsy came with their princes.” The Galicians descended the Dniester on a thousand boats, reached the mouth of the Dnieper by sea, went up its current and joined the rest of the Russian and Polovtsian regiments at the rapids.
Initially, the development of events did not bode well: the Russians put the Mongol-Tatar vanguard to flight and pursued it east for eight or nine days. But at the Kalki River they met with the main enemy forces. During the battle, the inconsistency in the actions of the princes and their mutual unfriendliness (“envy,” as the chronicler admits) affected. Mstislav of Kiev did not take part in the battle at all, but stood with his regiments on a hill in a fortified camp. As a result, the united Russian-Polovtsian army was defeated, despite the heroism of individual princes and their squads, and those princes who surrendered, believing the promise that they would be allowed to be ransomed (this practice was widespread during Russian-Polovtsian military conflicts), were expected a terrible and shameful death: “they were crushed, put under the dishes, and [the enemies] themselves sat on top to dine, and so their belly ended.”
23. “The Tale of Karp Sutulov”
An Old Russian short story that appeared in Rus' at the turn of the 17th and 18th centuries. It attracted readers with an entertaining plot, close to folk tale. The rich merchant Karp Sutulov, going on trade business to the Lithuanian land, asked his friend the rich merchant Afanasy Berdov to provide his wife Tatyana with money if she did not have enough before her husband’s arrival. Three years later, Tatyana turned to Afanasy Berdov, but he broke his promise and agreed to give her 100 rubles only in exchange for her love. Tatyana goes to consult the priest, her confessor, and then the archbishop, but they promise her money on the same terms as the merchant. Tatyana makes an appointment for them at her home, one after another, and by cunning forces all three to climb into the chests, removing outerwear, and the archbishop, dressed in a woman’s shirt, which was completely unacceptable according to church rules. The voivode, to whom Tatyana delivered the chests, laughed at the unlucky lovers and imposed a fine on them, dividing the money with Tatyana.
The story contains characters well known to the Russian reader: Tatyana, an ordinary society woman, merchants, clerics, no different moral behavior. Tatyana shows ingenuity, cunning, and knows how to turn life’s difficulties to her advantage. The story belongs to the democratic laughter works of Ancient Rus'. Many of her situations are comedic - deception, changing clothes, hiding in chests, and finally, the scene of the appearance of unlucky lovers in the voivode's courtyard. The hidden laughter of the story is also in its “inversion”: it is not the priests who instruct the woman on the true path, but she teaches them with the help of sayings close to the texts of the Holy Scriptures. Perhaps humor lies in the meaning of names.
The skill of the author P. indicates a professional writer, although it is not possible to determine exactly what social strata he came from. He had a good command of book techniques and was familiar with the peculiarities of oral folk art.
24. " Time of Troubles" Development of various literary genres in this period
Early 17th century in the history of Rus' were marked by stormy historical events(“The Troubles”, the plight of the peasantry, the economic crisis) – the first Peasant War led by Ivan Bolotnikov and the struggle of the Russian people against the intervention of Polish and Swedish feudal lords. With the death of Tsar Fyodor Ioannovich, the dynasty of Ivan Kalita ceases to exist (the heir to the throne, Tsarevich Dmitry, was killed). Boris Godunov, who ascended the throne, continues Grozny’s policy towards the serving nobility and boyars. This caused sharp boyar opposition, which received the support of Polish magnates, who nominated their contender for the Moscow throne, False Dmitry. After the death of Godunov, False Dmitry managed to occupy Moscow, but was unable to retain power for a long time, he was overthrown by the people, and Vasily Shuisky was placed on the throne, who began to take decisive measures to suppress the popular uprising.
Literature acquires an exclusively topical journalistic character, responding to the demands of the time, reflecting the interests of various social groups participating in the fight. It is in the works telling about the events of the Time of Troubles that the discovery of human character occurs in all its complexity, inconsistency and variability.
TO traditional features literature of the Time of Troubles should include ideological orientation, themes, issues, genre characteristics and most of the stylistic features of the works of this time. Society, having inherited from the previous century an ardent belief in the power of words, in the power of conviction, strives to promote certain ideas in literary works, achieving specific effective goals.
Works about the Troubles can be divided into two groups. The first includes texts that arose before the election of Mikhail Romanov to the throne. They represent a direct response to events. Their main goal can be defined as propaganda, and therefore the works themselves can be included in the group of journalistic works. The second group includes texts written after the end of the Time of Troubles itself and representing an attempt at historical understanding of what happened
Tales of the Time of Troubles:
"The Tale of 1606"- dedicated to the interests of the ruling boyar elite. Actively supports the policies of the boyar tsar V. Shuisky, tries to present him as the people's chosen one, emphasizing Shuisky's unity with the people.
« A new story about the glorious Russian kingdom"(late 1610-early 1611) - written when Moscow was occupied Polish troops- a kind of journalistic manifesto designed to lift the spirit of the people, awaken patriotic feelings and inspire struggle. In difficult conditions, when many rich, noble and powerful people betrayed Rus' and support the Poles, the author appeals to “people of all ranks, called them to take active action against the invaders, calls on Muscovites to take an armed struggle against the invaders. Anti-boyar mood.
"Crying about the captivity and final ruin of the Moscow state"- in 1612 the Poles burned Moscow, the author says that the authorities are to blame for what happened, he is trying to find out the reasons that led to the fall of Russia. This work does not call for struggle, but only mourns, and urges us to seek consolation in prayer and hope in God’s help.
25. “Kievo-Pechersk Patericon”
1st quarter 13 at the beginning of formation .
The core is the correspondence of the Suzdal Bishop Simon with monk K-P monastery by Polycarp, as well as the letter of Polycarp to Abbot Akindinos.
Dissatisfied with the position of a simple monk, Polycarp dreamed of the rank of bishop; he tried to get it with the help of Princess Verkhuslava-Anastasia, daughter of Grand Duke Vsevolod Yuryevich (Big Nest). Concerned about the condition and actions of Polycarp, Simon wrote him an accusatory and instructive letter. In it, he calls Polycarp “a lover of dignity,” accuses him of “cowardice and arrogance,” calls on him to be ashamed, repent, love the quiet and serene monastic life, and even threatens him with damnation. Simon emphasizes cultural significance K-P monastery for the entire Russian land. He reinforces his thoughts with the “Tale of the Holy Monarchs of Pechersk” and the story of the construction and decoration of the Pechersk Church. Built in 1073, the 1st section is devoted to its construction and painting. The emergence of the church is associated with the Varangian Shimon, who came to serve the Kyiv prince Vsevolod Yaroslavovich. The image of the future church appears twice in a vision to Shimon: during a storm at sea and during the battle with the Polovtsians, the dimensions were indicated to him by the Mother of God.
A large place in the stories is occupied by the depiction of the relationship between the monks and the Grand Duke of Kyiv. When confronted with the authorities, as a rule, victory always remains with the monks. (for example, Elder Prokhor, who knew how to turn ashes into salt, puts Svyatopolk Izyaslavich to shame - the prince stole salt from him and it turned into ashes again). The monastery was a serious competitor to the grand duke and merchants in the salt trade, and won (reflecting real relations).
Descriptions of the inner life of monks. These stories characterize different kinds asceticism: laborious, prayer-ascetic and spiritual. They note both positive and negative sides monastic life, its ups and downs. The main theme in this case is the theme of the monks’ struggle with the devil, the theme of their overcoming various temptations, enticements, insurances, and through such a struggle achieving holiness and the ability to work miracles. Much attention is paid here to the description and characteristics of demons: they can appear, tempting a monk, either in the form of angels, then in the form of a man, or in the form of monsters. Demons personify base motives, passions and thoughts.
In conditions of feudal fragmentation, when Kyiv lost its significance as a political center, the patericon recalled the mother of Russian cities, the former glory, the greatness of Kyiv, spoke about the all-Russian K-P value monastery - a symbol of the unity of the Russian land, its independence, prosperity and power.
26. “The Tale of the Ruin of Ryazan by Batu” (this story dates back to 1237). Connection with oral folk art. Celebrating heroism and condemning princely discord
The story consists of 4 parts:
1) the appearance of Batu on the borders of Ryaz. land, the Ryazan embassy to Batu, headed by Prince. Fyodor, the death of Fyodor (for refusing to bring Batu his wife) and his wife Eupraxia (she jumped from a high tower with her son Ivanov and crashed) is her feat of fidelity, courage, and the strength of conjugal love of a Russian woman. The first part ends with the sorrowful crying of Yuri Ingorevich and all Ryazan residents.
2) heroic defense of Ryazan by Yuri Ingorevich (with brothers David and Gleb; Yuri Vsevolodovich, Grand Duke Vladimirsky refused to help), the death of the defenders and Batu’s devastation of Ryazan (Batu burst into the city, into the cathedral church, hacked to death Princess Agrippina, the prince’s mother, with her daughters-in-law and other princesses, and put the bishop and the “priestly rank” on fire, burned the church itself, many he cut people with swords, drowned others in the river, and destroyed the whole city).
3) feat of Evpatiy Kolovrat(This epic hero to match the heroes of Russian epics. He is endowed with hyperbolic strength. Courage and bravery. He is a living personification of the heroic feat of the entire Russian people, cat. He cannot put up with enslavers and seeks revenge for the land desecrated by the enemy. The main attention is paid to the depiction of Evpatiy’s behavior in battle; the feat of the entire squad is transferred to his feat. He fearlessly rides around the Horde regiments and beats them mercilessly - so that his sharp sword became dull. Batu himself is seized with fear, and he sends his hero Khostovrul against Evpatiy, Evpatiy wins the duel, the Mongols, overcome by fear, are forced to use battering weapons “vices” against the Russian hero and kill him when his body is brought, the enemy shows respect to his recent enemy and bows to his bravery and courage. In a fit of generosity, Batu gives Evpatiy’s body to his surviving, finally exhausted squad and lets her go without causing her any harm. The enemy, on whom so much effort was spent, who cost so many lives to the Tatar army, evokes in a professional warrior a feeling of amazement, delight and admiration for his military valor).
4) renovation of Ryazan by Ingvar Ingorevich. (the last part begins with the emotional crying of Prince Ingvar, he mournfully mourns the dead; the story ends with a story about the renewal and revival of Ryazan by the Russian people).
Connection with CNT:
It is based on legends and traditions that arose immediately after the events depicted, oral poetic works
This is a hyperbolic description of the battle (a Russian warrior alone fights a thousand, two thousand Tatars)
This is the feat of Evpatiy Kolovrat (in this story, for the first time in the history of other literature, parenthesis– the short story is a feat about him). This is an epic hero to match the heroes of Russian epics, like the heroes, he is endowed with hyperbolic strength, courage and bravery. He is the personification of the heroic feat of the entire Russian people.
The entire work is an example of a military story, which has absorbed significant elements of folklore.
Glorification of the feat of a Russian warrior standing in defense of his land, fidelity, courage, and the strength of conjugal love of a Russian woman.
27. "The Tale of Mamaev's massacre" (Written after “Zadonshchina”). Reflection of the idea of a centralized state
Created in the mid-15th century. Reached us in numerous lists(more than 100). The battle of D. Donskoy with the army of Mamai (victory of the Russians over the Tatars). Tells about the battle on the Don between the Russians and the Tatars, who were supported by traitors - the Ryazan prince Oleg Ivanovich and the Lithuanian prince Jagiello. 2 sons of Jagiello sided with Dmitry.
In “C” many new narrative details appeared: Zakharia Tyutchev’s sending to Mamai with gifts, Donskoy’s visit to the Trinity Monastery, where he was blessed by Sergius of Radonezh, who predicted victory for him, the duel of the heroic monk Peresvet Alexander with Chelubey (the death of both), the test of Dmitriev will accept before the battle (he listens to the ground, the cries of animals, birds), the exchange of clothes and a horse with the boyar Mikhail Brenok, his heroic death in place of the prince, after the battle they could not find the wounded prince for a long time. Of all the works in the cycle, S. is the most detailed, plot-captivating story about the battle on the Kulikovo field on September 8, 1380. S. reports a number of details about the Battle of Kulikovo, not recorded by other sources. For example, only in S. is it described in detail about the actions of the ambush regiment of the Serpukhov prince Vladimir Andreevich, which decided the outcome of the battle in favor of the Grand Duke of Moscow Dmitry Ivanovich Donskoy, only in S. is it reported about the pilgrimage of Dmitry Donskoy to the Trinity Monastery and the blessing of Dmitry by Sergius, etc. d.
“C” sequentially conveys all the events associated with the Battle of Kulikovo. For the first time in 150 years of foreign yoke, the Russian army had to go beyond the borders of Rus' for an open battle with the enslavers. Russian troops crossed the Don on the night of September 7–8. They settled on a relatively small Kulikovo field, indented by streams and ravines. The Nepryadva flowed in the rear of the Russians, the Don was in the broom bushes on the left, the forest was on the right, and behind it was the river. The “Tale of the Massacre of Mamaev” says that this place was chosen because there was nowhere to retreat. In such a battle “to die for each other” the Russian warriors, inspired by love for the fatherland, prepared themselves.
The thick fog over the Kulikovo Field began to dissipate only at 11 o’clock in the morning. The Russian army was opposed by a Tatar army of equal strength. According to the Legend, the battle was opened by a duel between Alexander Peresvet (monk) and Tatar Chelubey. Both heroes died, pierced by spears. The battle began with the Tatar cavalry, which managed to crush the Russian regiments. Dmitry Ivanovich also fought courageously. In the center the Great Regiment fought fiercely, the sun unbearably blinding its soldiers. And on the left flank, the Tatar cavalry had already cut off the road to the Don fords. The outcome of the battle was decided by the Ambush Regiment, located in the oak grove. It was commanded by Prince Vladimir Andreevich of Serpukhov (Dmitry's cousin). Mamai’s army did not expect the appearance of fresh forces and fled. IN panic fear people drowned in the Mecha, Don and even in Nepryadva. Having completed the pursuit, Vladimir Andreevich returned to the Kulikovo field. Grand Duke Dmitry Ivanovich, barely alive, in broken armor, was found with difficulty.
In "C" the religious element is strengthened. The prince's piety is emphasized by numerous monologues and prayers.
The story contains many speeches and dialogues between the characters. Detailed listing of names.
The Tatars were dealt a crushing blow by a coalition of Russian princes, led by Moscow Prince Dmitry Ivanovich.
The outcome of the battle is a very major political event in the history of Rus'. On the one hand, the Russian victory was the first serious attempt to liberate Rus' from Tatar yoke, which has lasted for more than 150 years.
28. “Zadonshchina.” Connection with “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”
On September 8, 1380, on the Kulikovo field, a battle took place between the coalition of Russian princes, led by the Grand Duke of Moscow Dmitry Ivanovich, and the Mongol-Tatar army, reinforced by mercenary troops, under the leadership of the Horde ruler Mamai. This was the first big battle of the Russians with the enslavers after the establishment of the Mongol-Tatar yoke (1237), which ended complete defeat Mongol-Tatars.
“Zadonshchina” tells the story of the Battle of Kulikovo (1380), the victory of Dmitry Donskoy and his cousin Vladimir Andreevich over the troops of Mamai. The author is the Ryazan priest Sophony, who wrote the story at the beginning of the 15th century. It has come down to us in five lists of the 15th, 16th and 17th centuries, three of which, including the oldest, have not been completely preserved.
The work is imbued with a feeling of deep admiration for the feat of Russian soldiers and patriotic pride. “Z” is an emotional, lyrical response to the events of the Battle of Kulikovo. The main idea is the greatness of the Battle of Kulikovo. The work is based on the real events of the Battle of Kulikovo, but this is not a consistent historical story about the preparation for the battle, about the battle itself, about the return of the victors from the battlefield, but an emotional refraction of all these events in the author’s perception. The present is intertwined with memories of the past. The author himself described his work as “pity and praise for Grand Duke Dmitry Ivanovich and his brother, Prince Vladimir Ondreevich.” “Pity” is a cry for the dead, for the difficult lot of the Russian land. “Praise” is glory to the courage and military valor of Russian soldiers and their leaders. Many of the events that are narrated in detail in “The Tale of the Massacre of Mamaev” are told in 3. in one or two phrases, half a hint.
The author of the poem is inspired by the images of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” and folk poetry, often uses the very text of "Words". Author 3. turned to the “Word” as a model with the goal of comparing and contrasting the political situation in Rus' at the time of the “Word” (80s of the 12th century) with the 80s of the 14th century. Main ideological meaning"Words" consisted of the author's call to the Russian princes to forget internecine strife and unite their forces to fight the external enemies of Rus'. Author 3. in the victory won over the Horde saw the real embodiment of the call of his brilliant predecessor: the combined forces of the Russian princes were able to defeat the Mongol-Tatars, who had previously been considered invincible.
1. The story of the gathering of Russian troops
2. Mention of Boyan and his songs
3. The performance of the Russian army on a campaign - an encouraging speech from the prince
4. Sinister natural phenomena(signs) - the author paints pictures of thunderstorms, wind, clouds, the cry of birds and animals, bloody dawns - unlike the Word, ominous signs of nature foreshadow the defeat of Mamai’s army.
5. Grief spreads not across Russian soil, but in the Tatar army.
3. The cry of wives: princesses and boyars. Their laments are built, like Yaroslavna’s lament, on an appeal to the wind, the Don, and the Moscow River.
4. In “C” there is first victory, then defeat, in “Z” there is first defeat, then victory.
The commonality of the idea “C” and “Z” - civic idea national freedom, patriotism, desire for unity.
29. “The Life of Prince Alexander Nevsky.” Portrait of a prince
Among the North Russian monuments associated with the invasion of the Tatars is “The Word of the Destruction of the Russian Lands.”
The “Slovo” lists the natural and material wealth with which, before the invasion, the “light-bright and ornately decorated Russian land” abounded: numerous lakes, rivers and wells, steep mountains, countless birds, great cities, wondrous villages, monastery gardens, church houses . At that time in Rus' there were formidable princes, honest boyars, and many nobles. Large spaces and peoples were conquered by the Grand Duke Vsevolod, his father Yuri, Monomakh, in whose name the Polovtsy frightened children in their cradles. Various neighboring tribes paid tribute to Vladimir in honey, and the Byzantine king Manuel sent him great gifts. This was the case before, but now illness has befallen Christians.
The monument is imbued with a feeling of deep patriotism, pride in the past of the Russian land and grief over its disasters. In this word, the author compares the past greatness of Rus' with the present time. Following it comes the life of Nevsky, not even separated from the text - this story preceded the life of Nevsky.
Combines the features of hagiography and military narrative. Written after the death of the prince. This work is remarkable in that it was written by a contemporary of the events, and, therefore, is of great importance for understanding how the personality of Alexander Nevsky was assessed in those distant times, and what was the significance of the events in which he was a participant. The author was most likely a resident of Galicia-Volyn Rus'.
“The Life of Alexander Nevsky” was most likely created at the end of the 13th century, and was written by a person who personally knew the prince and his campaigns. We see the praise of the courageous warrior, defender of the Russian land - Alexander Nevsky. Having chosen to describe two victorious battles of the Russian army under the command of Alexander - a picture of the battles of the Russians with the Swedes on the Neva River (1240) and with the German knights on the ice Lake Peipsi(1242), the author tried to present to the descendants of the Grand Duke and his army as mythical warriors - heroes, endowed with heroism, dedication and perseverance in the name of the interests of the Russian people. The narrative has a lyrical tone. The author first resorts to external description prince Unknown author, who was fluent in various literary devices, skillfully combined the traditions of military history and life. Bright face young hero Battle of Neva 1240 and Battle on the Ice 1242, the winner of the Swedish and German knights, the defender of Rus' from foreign invaders and Orthodoxy from Roman Catholic expansion, a pious Christian became a model for subsequent princely biographies and military stories.
Prince's portrait:
He was taller than other people, his voice was like a trumpet among the people, the beauty of his face was like the beauty of Joseph, his strength was part of the strength of Samson, in wisdom he was equal to Solomon, and in courage to the Roman king Vespasian. These brief general references exhaust the entire description of Alexander).
Nevsky is depicted in the life, first of all, as an ideal prince and warrior, endowed with all positive spiritual and physical qualities to the highest degree. The author glorifies the beauty, strength, wisdom and courage of Nevsky.
30. “Message to Vasily Gryazny.” Innovation in the language and style of the works of Ivan 4 (the Terrible)
Vasily Gryaznoy is a guardsman and a favorite of Grozny. Was sent in 1573 by the governor to the Donets to repel an attack Crimean Tatars, but was soon captured by them, from where he wrote a letter to the tsar asking for ransom. In the fall of 1574, Vasily received the sovereign’s response through the messenger Ivan Myasoedov with a decisive refusal to ransom him or exchange him for the Crimean commander Diveya-Murza, who was captured by the Russians. In 1577, Gryaznoy was ransomed for a moderate sum; his further fate is unknown.
The correspondence between Ivan the Terrible and Vasily Gryazny captures the general mood, the spirit of a poisonous joke common to both: on the one hand, from the Tsar - imperious and open, and on the other, from Gryazny - obsequious, turning into hints, evoking closeness, striving to find support for return previous relationships. This is correspondence between people who were once friendly, but have managed to cool off towards each other: Grozny is already disappointed in his favorite, but still retains affection for him; Vasily feels that Ivan the Terrible’s affection is leaving him and seeks to support him with an intimate, but already cautious joke, combined with the most shameless flattery. Both strive to catch each other at their word: one - to reproach with ridicule, the other - to beg for a ransom from captivity. As always, Grozny not only makes decisions, but also explains them. With exceptional integrity, Grozny raises the question of exchanging Vasily for Diveya-Murza. He does not want to consider this exchange as his personal service to Gryazny; most of all, he is concerned about the interests of the state.
Innovation of Grozny :
Violates canons and traditions.
He refused conventions, rituals.
The speech is specific and figurative. He supports his reasoning with examples, incidents from his life or visually clear pictures.
His speech is impatient.
Messages - the main genre literary creativity Ivan the Terrible. Everything written by Grozny is a relevant response to one or another urgent need of his contemporary political reality.
His style includes elements of oral thinking: he writes as he speaks. Features characteristic of colloquial speech, are verbosity, frequent repetitions of thoughts and expressions, digressions, unexpected transitions from one topic to another, questions and exclamations, constant appeals to the reader as a listener. His messages hypnotize the reader, and their verbosity is not so much simple talkativeness as a technique with which he captivates and bewitches the reader, affects him emotionally, depresses or relaxes him.
In his messages, Grozny constantly plays some role. Their style changes depending on the role they take on. Because of this, the style of his messages is very diverse. Most often, Ivan the Terrible was characterized by feigned self-abasement, sometimes associated with acting and dressing up. Grozny is not shy about abusive expressions: “dog”, “canine”, “dog”, “beat me in the neck”, etc.
He uses colloquial expressions and words: “stupidity,” “fools,” “a little,” “I didn’t give a damn.”
He uses sayings.
His speech is full of exclamations
31. “The Tale of Woe-Misfortune.” Generalized image of the hero. Connection with folklore
“The Tale of Misfortune” was created among merchants in the 2nd half of the 17th century. The story is written in folk verse, in everyday story, accompanied by lyrical moral teachings.
The hero of the story is a good fellow, he has no name, he did not listen to his parents, who said: “Don’t go, child, to feasts and brother’s parties, don’t sit on a larger place, don’t drink, child, two spells for one!” beggars He “wanted to live as he pleased” and did the opposite, so he fell “into immeasurable nakedness and barefootedness.” And the story draws a parallel between Adam and Eve, who succumbed to temptation, and Well done. The image of a serpent-tempter, a “called brother,” appears, who gets him drunk and then robs him. Further, the parallel runs through the motive of exile - Well done is “shameful...to appear to his father and mother” and he decides to leave “to a foreign country.” There he goes to a feast, where he tells people about everything and asks for help. They help him and give him advice. Thanks to them, Well done “from his great intelligence he gained more belly than Starov; I looked for a bride for myself according to custom.” Misfortune-Grief learned about this and appeared to the Well-Behaved in a dream, foreshadowing: “you will be taken away from your bride... of gold and silver, you will be killed.” But the Good Man did not believe the dream, then Mountain appeared to him in a dream in the form of the Archangel Gabriel, saying that bliss is to be poor and drunk. After this, the Good Man follows the instructions of Grief, but then realizes his mistake. But Grief does not let him go, saying that the Good Man will not go anywhere from him. Having struggled in vain with Grief, “the fine fellow went to the monastery to take monastic vows,” but he was forced to take monastic vows - this is not a spiritual rebirth to goodness, but a simple attempt to escape from Grief. Grief remains to guard him at the gates of the monastery. The author of the story humanely pities the Young Man, empathizes with his failures and misfortune. He does not condemn the Well done, he grieves for him, internally sympathizing with him.
Fundamentally new feature"The Tale of Misfortune" can be considered the image of the main character - the nameless Well done. Well done - a folk hero by origin, a generalized representative of the younger generation. To replace literature historical figure a fictional hero comes, a generalized collective image, whose character contains the features of an entire generation of the transitional era. The absence of a name is an essential characteristic, since it is this absence that is an indicator initial stage transition from the traditional ancient Russian hero to the hero of modern times. It is important for the author to emphasize the generality and fundamental non-specificity of this image, and for this he resorts to the traditional folklore view of the hero. We do not know many of the external circumstances of his life. Where he learned to drink and play, under what circumstances he left his home - all this remains unknown to the reader. We don’t know where the Good Man comes from or where he’s wandering, how he was finally accepted into the monastery, what kind of life he had there. further fate. The only characteristic of the Young Man in the Tale is his social characteristic- He comes from a merchant environment. The first work of Russian literature, which consciously set itself the goal of providing a generalizing, collective image, at the same time strives for the greatest breadth of artistic generalization. The homely life of the homely hero is realized in the story as the fate of all suffering humanity. The theme of the story is human life in general. That is why the story so carefully avoids any details.
The story comes off new topic- the theme of a new Young man who is trying to find his way in life, not like his parents and grandfathers. The hero is a representative of the new time, a fighter against family guardianship over the individual, against the old worldview. Accordingly, the theme of the story was depicted as the theme of the struggle between two worldviews, two generations - “fathers and sons.”
The basis of the plot - sad story the life of the Young Man, who rejected parental instructions and wished to live according to his own will, “as he pleases.”
Connection with folklore:
The story is very close to folk songs about the Mountain; certain passages have an epic character (for example, the arrival of the Well-Behaved to the feast and his boast). Folklore principles are strongly felt, and above all in the image of the Grief of Misfortune. Both in fairy tales and lyrical songs about Grief, he is assigned an active role, and a person only endures the troubles brought upon him by Grief. In the songs, only the grave saves the hero from the Grief that haunts him; in the story, the grave is replaced by a monastery. Only in some fairy tales does the hero manage to get rid of Grief by cunning (locks him in a chest, buries him in
32. Household and fictional stories of the late 17th century. New hero in stories
EVERYDAY NARRATIVE, as a new independent genre of ancient Russian literature, the everyday tale appears in the 2nd half. XVII century Its subject becomes the individual fate of a person, his choice of his life path, awareness of your personal place in life. The heroes of the stories are fictional characters and the circumstances in which they are fictional. The issue of author's attitude to the events described: the author’s voice clearly gives way to the plot as such, and the reader is left to draw his own conclusion from this plot.
Elements of this genre were already present in hagiographic works of the 15th - 16th centuries, such as the hagiographic “The Tale of Peter and Fevronia”. In the 1st half. XVII century the life begins to transform into an everyday story. This is, for example, “The Life of Uliani Osorina.”
The most significant everyday story is “The Tale of Misfortune.” Unlike a historical story, its hero is a fictional, generalized image.
No less interesting and important is the everyday “Tale of Savva Grudtsyn”, which is based on a Western European Faustian motif (as an analogy they cite a fragment from the Greek “Life of Basil the Great”. It tells how, having fallen in love with the master’s daughter, a servant boy sells his soul to the devil, for which the demons kindle a reciprocal passion in the girl. The young people get married. But the wife notices that her husband does not go to church, does not take communion, and, having questioned him, learns about the “deal" with the devil. The woman turns to St. Basil for intercession, and he, not without a struggle, snatches the apostate from the hands of demons: the “handwriting” given to him returns to his hands). In “The Tale of Savva Grudtsyn” there is a modification of this plot.
The entertaining plot of the everyday story and the depiction of the hero’s inner experiences place it on the threshold of the Russian novel.
If the struggle between the “old” and the “new” in the stories about Gore-Misfortune and Savva Grudtsyn ends externally with the victory of the “old” and the heroes suffer a fiasco in life, then in the picaresque short story “The Tale of Frol Skobeev” triumphs new hero- a poor, seedy nobleman, a petty clerk (Frol, a petty official (he is a local clerk or sneaker who makes a living by correspondence and drafting legal papers and managing the affairs of his clients), he persistently, by any means, arranges his destiny. He cunningly marries the daughter of the noble steward Nardin - Nashchokin to Annushka and becomes the heir to the movable and immovable property of his father-in-law).
Household stories met the needs of what appeared in the 17th century. a new reader from the townspeople's merchant environment, small employees. The authors of everyday stories abandoned etiquette, symbolic-allegorical imagery, inherent in literature medieval. They are clear evidence of the beginning of the transition period.
A new hero in stories is a theme young man a new generation, looking for its path in life, achieving goals by any means, going against the “old times”, against the way of life of their parents and grandfathers.
The hero, the poor seedy nobleman, triumphs.
Fiction is the right of art to fiction. In historical fiction of the 17th century. only external techniques remained, only the shell of medieval historicism. The authors looked for their characters on the pages of chronicles and chronographs, but no longer cared that their actions even approximately corresponded to what was said in these chronicles and chronographs. The source no longer constrained the writer’s imagination. Only the name remained historical; the bearer of this name became, in essence, fictional hero. His actions no longer depended either on the facts reported by the source or on medieval “behavior etiquette.”
33. Satire 17th century. Social orientation of the stories. Denunciation of legal proceedings (The Tale of Ersha Ershevich), the clergy (Kalyazin petition)
In the 17th century a whole layer of works independent of the official written language appeared, to which the term “democratic satire” is assigned in literary criticism (“The Tale of Ersha Ershovich”, “Kalyazin Petition”, etc.). These works are also written in prose, often rhythmic. They are closely related to folklore and in their own way artistic specificity, and according to the way of being. The monuments are mostly anonymous. Their texts are flexible and variable, i.e. they have many options. Their plots are known for the most part in both written and oral tradition
“The Tale of the Death of Prince Mikhail Vasilyevich Skopin-Shuisky" - 25 years old, became famous in the fight against False Dmitry. A story dedicated to tragic death brave commander. The prince died suddenly after a feast at Prince Vorotynsky's, and the cause of death was considered by the people to be the poison given to him by the wife of Prince Dmitry Ivanovich Shuisky, Maria. The people blamed the boyars, who were jealous of his fame, for the death of Skopin-Shuisky.
"The Legend of Abraham Palitsyn"- consists of 3 parts – one of the most popular works about the Troubles. P. presents himself as an impeccable patriot, but it is known that he was in relations with the Poles and sometimes acted in their interests due to personal selfish motives.
1 hour – death of I. Grozny and establishment of power of M. Shuisky
2 hours – description of the siege of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery (16 months. Depicts the life of the besieged monastery: crowded conditions, lack of firewood, description of the scurvy epidemic)
3 hours – story about last days M. Shuisky's stay in power
The ending is the rise of the Romanovs to power and the conclusion of an alliance with Poland.
34. “The Word of Daniel the Sharper.” Two editions of the monument. Daniel's attitude to contemporary reality. Proverbs and aphorisms in the work
Nothing is known about the Sharpener.
2 editions:
1. 12v “Word” written to Prince Yaroslav Vladimirovich of Novgorod - the text is a letter of petition, a petition. The author does his best to show himself in a favorable light. It opens with the author's introduction - he glorifies his mind, his mind. Daniel, who served the prince and somehow did not please him or his nobles, found himself imprisoned on the shores of Lake Lacha. Daniil is a boyar slave. Addressing his master, he talks about the disasters that befell him, about the slander and persecution to which he was subjected. Reproaching the prince, Daniel still dreams of his favor, speaks of his desire to serve him faithfully, and lists his merits. At the end he turns to God with a prayer for his master.
Theme of the work- a prince capable of protecting the weak, the poor, and those in trouble. (he was once rich, but is now poor). The description of the prince's feasts, the luxury of his palace - a contrast between the poverty in which Daniel lived. The thought of marriage terrifies him, he does not even admit that his wife may turn out to be good, in connection with this there is the theme of evil wives (marrying a rich but evil wife) - he rejects this path for himself, believing that an evil wife cannot remake, they are neither afraid of God nor ashamed of people..
2. First half of 13 in “Prayer”“(or message) to Prince Yaroslav Vsevolodovich Pereyaslavsky - in “Prayer” there appears a sharp condemnation of the boyars, the theme of denunciation of monasticism, their morals (he rejects the prince’s advice to become a monk), describes the picture of a game at the hippodrome, peculiar competitions in dexterity and strength.
The main motive of “Prayer” is passionate and convinced defense human personality and dignity, regardless of social and financial status.
Style Features: aphorisms, sayings, comparisons, quotes, common expressions, humorous remarks.
Like many writers of Ancient Rus', Daniil Zatochnik was worried civil problems, for example, the problems of strong princely power, inter-princely relations and the relationship between princes and boyars. He cared about the future of Rus' and saw strong princely power necessary condition, ensuring the successful struggle of Rus' against external enemies, as well as overcoming internal contradictions. Such sentiments were especially strong in the era of feudal fragmentation and the Mongol-Tatar invasion.
The author sarcastically depicted the life and customs of his time, the tragedy an extraordinary person, who is haunted by need and troubles. Daniil Zatochnik is a supporter of the strong and “formidable” princely power, to which he turns to ask for help and protection.
35. The theme of national unity and heroism in “The Tale of the Battle of the Kalka River”
The first clash of Russians with the Mongol-Tatars in 1223. Chronicle stories about this battle were preserved in 2 lists - the Novgorod Chronicle, the Laurentian Chronicle.
The story was most likely created in a druzhina environment and the author was from the Galicia-Volyn lands.
The story consistently and in detail tells about the appearance unknown people on the borders of Kievan Rus. When the Tatars appeared in Rus', they made a stunning impression.
The first to encounter the M-Tatars were the Polovtsians. The M-Tatars were returning from the Caucasus and going to Rus'. The Russian princes began to prepare for the campaign, but their inconsistency and selfishness led to defeat. Russian heroes died in the battle: Alexander Popovich, Dobrynya Ryazanich and 70 “brave” heroes. The author considers the Kyiv prince Mstislav to be one of the main culprits, who did not help other Russian princes when the hordes of Polovtsians who fled trampled Russian soldiers. The cruelty of the new enemy is emphasized in the episode where the tied Russian princes were strangled, placed under the boards over which the Tatars began to dine, in order to emphasize their complete indifference to the suffering of the enemy.
The author of the story claims that it was the princely strife that opened the gates to the Russian land for foreigners. During the battle, the inconsistency in the actions of the princes and their mutual unfriendliness (“envy,” as the chronicler admits) affected
The Polovtsians, pressed by the Mongols, turned to the Russians for help. The Russian princes decided to help the Polovtsians and meet an unknown enemy outside their land. They set out to meet the Mongols. With a false retreat, they lured the Russians and Polovtsians to the banks of the Kalka River. In June 1223, the Battle of Kalka took place. The troops of the Russian princes acted separately. They got carried away in pursuit of the retreating light cavalry of the Mongols and came under attack from their main forces. The troops of Mstislav the Udal, Daniil Galitsky and Mstislav Chernigovsky were defeated. The Kyiv regiments of Mstislav the Old did not take part in the battle, but were surrounded and forced to surrender. The Mongols laid planks on the captive princes and strangled them while feasting on them. However, the Mongols did not go to Rus' then, because they did not have enough strength.
On the other hand, the victory elevated and strengthened the power and authority of the Moscow prince, the main organizer of the victory.
In 1380, Moscow Prince Dmitry Ivanovich rallied almost all of North-Eastern Rus' under his banners and dealt a crushing blow to the Golden Horde. The victory showed that the Russian people have the strength to decisively fight the enemy, but these forces can only be united by the centralized power of the Grand Duke. The victory over Mamai significantly strengthened the authority of Moscow in the eyes of all the people.
The need to fight for one’s liberation leads to the unification of popular forces, and at the same time the political unification of Rus' takes place around a single center, which becomes Moscow. The formation of the Russian centralized state contributed to the development national culture. The main theme of the literature is the formation of a centralized state.
The “Tale” ends with the story that Dmitry Ivanovich on the Kulikovo field, on the Nepryadva River, together with his brother Vladimir Andreevich and his commanders, stands on the bones of fallen Russian soldiers and pronounces a word of praise to them.
36. Publicistic message of Ivan the Terrible to the Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery
The message is addressed to the abbot of the monastery Kozma “with the brethren.”
It begins humbly, pleadingly. Grozny imitates the tone of monastic epistles, begins with florid Church Slavonic language with quotes from the Bible, with rhetorical questions and exclamations. But when Ivan gets to the heart of the matter and begins to denounce the monastery for conniving with the disgraced boyars imprisoned there (Sheremetyev, Khabarov, Sobakin), who organized suspicious gatherings, he suddenly switches to the purest and emotional Russian language with colloquial turns and intonations.
The message is permeated with caustic irony, developing into sarcasm, in relation to the disgraced boyars who introduced their own rules in the monastery.
Ivan the Terrible’s letter to the Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery is full of quotes, links, examples, and then turns into a passionate accusatory speech - without a strict plan, sometimes contradictory in argumentation, but invariably sincere in mood and written with ardent conviction that he is right.
Grozny ironically contrasts the “saint” Kirill Belozersky (founder of the Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery) with the boyars Sheremetev and Vorotynsky. He says that Sheremetev entered the monastery with “his charter”, living according to the charter.
Remembering the former strong monastic morals, Grozny skillfully draws everyday pictures of the monastery.
Getting more and more irritated, the king finally demands that the monks leave him alone, not write to him, and deal with their problems themselves.
37. “The Tale of the Death and Burial of Prince Mikhail Skopin-Shuisky”, its closeness to the folk historical song
A story dedicated to the tragic death of a brave commander, who especially distinguished himself in the fight against False Dmitry 2.
The prince died suddenly after a feast at Prince Vorotynsky's, and the cause of death was considered by the people to be the poison given to him by the wife of Prince Dmitry Ivanovich Shuisky, Maria.
He was poisoned at a feast at Prince Vorotynsky's; The people blamed the boyars, who were jealous of his fame, for the death of Skopin-Shuisky. These rumors were reflected in folk songs and legends, literary treatment which is the story.
The traditional features of "The Tale..." include the author's close attention to the genealogy of his hero (he traces the Skopin-Shuisky family back to Alexander Nevsky and Augustus Caesar). The central episode of the story is a description of the christening feast at Prince Vorotynsky. Including a number of everyday details, the author talks in detail about how the hero was poisoned by the wife of his uncle Dmitry Shuisky, Maria. mention of the devil's instigation as a force prompting Mary to commit a crime. Characteristic elements of epic poetics appear in the depiction of the episode of poisoning, in the dialogue between a mother and her son, who returned prematurely from a feast.
The second part is devoted to a description of the death of the hero and the nationwide grief over the death of the prince. The author conveys the attitude towards death of various groups of society. The laments of the mother and wife go entirely back to the tradition of oral folk lament. The hero’s mourning is exaggerated: “And the same princesses, his mother and wife, came to their house, and fell prostrate on their table, crying to the highlander... flooding the floor with their tears, and tearful rapids, like a river stream, spilled onto the floor from the table.” .
The story has an anti-boyar orientation. The story glorifies Shuisky as a national hero, a defender of the homeland from adversary enemies.
38. Characteristics of journalism of the 16th century
Works devoted to topical topics were widely distributed in journalism public life. Areas of journalistic problems: problems related to the formation of an autocratic state (the appearance of the autocrat, the relationship of different classes, the problem of the relationship between royal and church power), church problems (the fight against heresy, the problem of intra-church land ownership, problems of moral character).
One of the most famous publicists was Maxim Grek. He owns a huge literary heritage. In one of his works, “The Word of Maximus the Greek,” the main literary device is allegory. This is also an allegory in genre. At the center of the narrative is the image of the Wife, this is power, Vasily (from the Greek, “kingdom”). The main narrative is based on the conversation between the Greek and the Wife. She talks about how she saw the exploitation of people, and that rulers must follow God's laws, otherwise wars and hardships await everyone. The originality of the Greek's journalism lies precisely in the fact that the main idea of his work is uttered not by himself, but by the allegory, the Wife. This had not been seen in his works before.
The most important issues are raised in the journalistic works of Ivan the Terrible, Andrei Kurbsky, and Ivan Peresvetov. government controlled, the relationship between the sovereign and his subjects, the church and the grand ducal or royal power. The flourishing of journalism in the 16th century. completely natural - it was time complex processes state building, intense ideological struggle. The main literary forces were involved in solving these most important social problems. This is one of the reasons why literature is again becoming predominantly business. But another and, perhaps, the main reason for the changes that have taken place in the development of literature is that influential churchmen not only mercilessly dealt with heretics, and at the same time with any kind of manifestation of free thought, but also declared a decisive struggle against the secular principle in literature - “useless stories” , “jeers and laughter,” “external scriptures.” The Church resolutely demands that Christians do not avoid “spiritually beneficial stories” and “divine scripture.” This idea of regulating the circle of spiritually beneficial reading was realized to the best extent by a gigantic code created on the initiative of the Novgorod Archbishop Macarius (later Metropolitan) - “Great Menaion-Chets” - a collection of all the “holy books” that are “found” in Rus'.
For literature of the 16th century. characterized by the desire to create monumental “generalizing enterprises” (the term of A. S. Orlov).
Works of journalism:
Extensive chronographic record - "Russian chronograph"(here there is an idea that the time has come for the “third Rome” - Moscow, as the last Rome, as a stronghold of Christianity, because Rome fell, collapsed Byzantine Empire under the pressure of the Turks; the chronograph sets out the entire world history from the creation of the world to 1453), the chronograph was the first chronological code in which a detailed presentation of Russian history was carried out on an equal footing with the history of Rome and Byzantium;
The largest of the Russian chronicles is Nikonovskaya,
Multi-volume, luxuriously illustrated Facial Vault,
- “Great Menaion-Cheti” - existed in two main types: service ones, which contained only services to saints revered in a given month and arranged according to the days of their memory, and cheti, intended for reading and containing texts of lives and legends about holidays. In the menaion-chet, materials were also arranged by month and day,
- “The Degree Book” is a collection of biographies of all outstanding figures of Russian history. The history of the Russian state is presented in the form of hagiobiographies of its rulers according to degrees of kinship. The reign of each prince constitutes a certain “facet” in history. At the center of the narrative of the Degree Book are the personalities of the princes - “autocrats. The compilers of the Degree Book try to emphasize the greatness of their deeds and the beauty of their virtues, introduce psychological characteristics heroes, trying to show them inner world and pious thoughts in monologues and prayers. in the Degree Book and in chronicles, historical material acquired a topical political and journalistic sound, subordinated to the tasks of the ideological struggle to strengthen the sovereign power of the sovereign of all Rus'. The task is to praise the rule of Ivan the Terrible, this ideal state.
- “Domostroy” (written by priest Sylvester) - a set of “teachings and punishments for everyone Orthodox Christian, husband and wife, and child, and male and female slaves,” the source was biblical texts and documentary records.
- "Kazan History". Literary trends of the 16th century. are well illustrated by an extensive historical narrative about the capture of Kazan by Ivan the Terrible - “Kazan History”. Written in the 60s. 16th century “Kazan History” has come down to us in numerous lists from a later time (17-18 centuries). The author of “Kazan History” created not a historical and documentary narrative, but literary work, in which the story about the capture of Kazan is preceded by a story about legendary history city and the Kazan kingdom. In it, battle scenes are accompanied by descriptions palace intrigues in the Kazan kingdom, the image of the “red sun”, but insidious and cruel Kazan queen Sumbeki is revealed
The 16th century was a time of triumph of expressive-emotional style, which, however, had lost the charm of novelty (especially in hagiography), becoming overly pompous and mannered. This is the age of the “second monumentalism”. This is the literature of a triumphant and confident royal power, triumphant in its unyielding orthodoxy of the church. Literature, according to the plans of the ideologists of the time of Vasily III and Ivan IV, was supposed to strictly serve only the great goals of the great state.
He often addresses readers and listeners
He interrupts his speech with questions, stops himself.
He mixes Church Slavonicisms and vernacular.
He makes bold comparisons of biblical persons and events with modern ones, all with the same ironic purpose.
The language of Grozny is distinguished by its extraordinary flexibility, and this liveliness, closeness to oral speech brings a bright national flavor to his works.
He has a commanding tone live game characteristic of Grozny's wit, style of rude, strong and expressive speech.
The main goal of all his works is always the same: he proves the rights of his sovereignty, his power; he justifies the fundamental principles of his
royal rights. He has emotional speech and brilliant improvisation. Breaking all the rules of medieval writing: all the boundaries between in writing and living, oral, so carefully erected in the Middle Ages, have been erased; Ivan the Terrible's speech is full of spontaneity.
Grozny is a born writer, but a writer who disdains all artificial methods of writing in the name of living truth. He writes as he speaks, mixing book quotes with vernacular, sometimes mocking, sometimes reproaching, sometimes complaining, but always sincerely in his mood. A brave innovator, an amazing master of language, sometimes angry, sometimes lyrically upbeat, a master of the “biting” style, always principled, always the “autocrat of all Rus'”, neglecting all literary conventions for the sake of a single goal - to convince his reader, to influence him - such is Ivan the Terrible in his works pit, etc.).
Folk songs about Mountain as female share widespread in Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian folklore.
The work is close to folklore, as can be seen in the comparisons: Well done - “rock dove”, Woe - “Gray hawk”, etc.
39. “The Tale of the Azov Siege” Don Cossacks" Patriotism and heroism of the Don Cossacks. Historicism of the story
Their 95-day siege of Azov in 1641 is a form of report (official business genre) - a request to the Russian Tsar to take the Azov fortress under his guardianship).
The poetic feature is that in the center of the story there is a collective, collective hero - the heroic Cossack garrison of the fortress as a single whole, and not 1 person (Cossacks are runaway slaves for the most part). It arose among the Cossacks.
In 1641, the fortress had to fight off the Sultan's army of Ibrahim I - a huge army equipped with powerful artillery. A large flotilla of ships blocked the city from the sea. Mines planted under the walls and siege cannons destroyed the fortress. Everything that could burn burned out. But a handful of Cossacks (at the beginning of the siege there were more than five thousand of them against the three hundred thousand strong Turkish army) withstood the 95-day siege and repelled 24 attacks. In September 1641, the battered Sultan's army had to retreat.
After a series of attacks that hit the city, the Cossacks, feeling that their strength was running out and the end was approaching, appealed to the heavenly patrons, the patron saints of the Russian land. Christian Cossacks do not surrender to the power of infidels. In response to this, the consoling and uplifting words of the Mother of God are heard from heaven, the icon of John the Baptist in the church sheds tears, and an army of heavenly angels descends on the Turks.
The story ends with the fact that, having fought off the last attack, the Cossacks rushed to the Turkish camp. The Turks wavered and fled. If before the Cossacks had “disgraced” the Sultan verbally, now they disgraced the Turks in deed.
A handful of brave and courageous brave Cossacks (5,000 Cossacks against the 300,000 army of the Turks of Sultan Ibrahim 1), who accomplished a heroic feat not for the sake of personal glory, not for self-interest, but in the name of their homeland - the Moscow State. A high sense of national identity, a sense of patriotism inspires them to heroism. They love their homeland and cannot change it, despite the fact that they are not revered there.
Historicism of the story:
It was obvious that Ibrahim I would not yield to Azov, that a new campaign was just a matter of time. In 1642 it was convened Zemsky Sobor, who had to decide what to do next: defend the fortress or return it to the Turks. It was decided to return Azov to the Turks. The surviving defenders of the fortress abandoned it. To smooth out the difficult impression that this verdict made on the Don Army, the tsar generously rewarded all the Cossacks present at the cathedral. An exception was made only in one case: Captain Fyodor Poroshin, a fugitive slave and writer, was detained, deprived of his salary and exiled to the Solovetsky Monastery.
40. “Kalyazin petition”
The characters inhabiting the laughter anti-world live according to special laws. If these are monks, then they “turn inside out” the strict monastic charter, which prescribed strict observance of fasts and visits to church services, labors and vigils. This is the “Kalyazin Petition,” which is a funny complaint from the monks of the Trinity Kalyazin Monastery (on the left bank of the Volga, opposite the city of Kalyazin), addressed to Archbishop Simeon of Tver and Kashin (1676-1681). They complain about their Archimandrite Gabriel (1681), who “annoys” them. The archimandrite, they complain, “ordered... our brothers to wake up, orders us to go to church often. And we, your pilgrims, are sitting around a bucket of beer without trousers in our cells.” Then a folklore picture of a “carefree monastery” is painted, in which the monks indulge in carousing and overeat, instead of strictly fulfilling their monastic duties. Here both complaining drunkards and the sanctimonious life of Russian monasteries are ridiculed.
41. The Tale of Ersha Ershovich"
Democratic satire is filled with the spirit of social protest. Many of the works of this circle directly denounce the feudal order and the church. “The Tale of Ersha Ershovich”, which arose in the first decades of the 17th century. talks about the litigation between Ruff and Bream and Golovl. Bream and Golovl, “residents of the Rostov Lake,” complain to the court about “Ruff against Ershov’s son, against a bristlecone, against a sneaker, against a thief against a robber, against a whistleblower against a deceiver... against a bad, unkind person.” Ruff asked them to “live and feed for a short time” in Lake Rostov. The simple-minded Bream and Golovl believed Ruff, let him into the lake, and he multiplied there and “took over the lake by force.” Further, in the form of a parody of the “court case,” the story is told about the tricks and indecencies of Ruff, the “century-old deceiver” and the “slave thief.” In the end, the judges admit that Bream “and his comrades” are right and hand Ruff over to them. But even here Ruff managed to avoid punishment: “he turned his tail to Bream, and he began to say: “If they gave me away to you with my head, then you, Bream and my friend, swallow me from the tail.” And Bream, seeing Ruff's cunning, thought to swallow Ruff's head, otherwise he was bony and had bristles on his tail, like fierce spears or arrows could not be swallowed. And then Ruff was released.”
Bream and Golovl call themselves “peasants,” and Ruff, as it turns out at the trial, is one of the “children of the boyars, small boyars nicknamed the Vandyshevs” (Vandysh is the collective name for small fish). From the second half of the 16th century, i.e., during the formation of the local system, violence by landowners against peasants became the norm. It is precisely this situation, when the “boyar’s son” takes away the land from the peasants by deception and violence, that is reflected in “The Tale of Ersha Ershovich.” This also reflects the impunity of rapists, who are not afraid of even a guilty verdict.
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